WHAT IS VALUE?

Value is a concept that permeates every aspect of human existence and

influences decisions, perceptions, and behaviours. While often associated
with economic worth, value extends far beyond monetary considerations,
encompassing emotional, social, cultural, and moral dimensions.
At its core, value represents the significance or worth attributed to something
by individuals, groups, or societies. This significance can stem from a myriad
of factors, including utility, scarcity, desirability, or inherent qualities. In
economic terms, value is often equated with utility, which reflects the
satisfaction derived from consuming or possessing a good or service. The
law of supply and demand dictates that items in high demand relative to their
availability command greater value in the marketplace.

However, value is not solely determined by market forces. Emotional

attachment, personal preferences, and cultural norms also play pivotal roles in
shaping perceptions of value. A family heirloom, for instance, may hold
immense sentimental value despite having minimal economic worth.
Similarly, cultural artifacts, traditions, and experiences may carry profound
value within specific communities, transcending monetary measurements.

Furthermore, value is inherently subjective, varying from person to person and

context to context. What one individual values highly may hold little
significance for another. This subjectivity underscores the intricate interplay
between perception, experience, and personal interpretation in the
assessment of value. Moreover, value judgements are often influenced by
biases, past experiences, and socio-cultural conditioning, further complicating
the evaluation process.

In addition to individual perspectives, value is also shaped by societal norms,

ethical principles, and collective aspirations. Moral values, for instance, guide
ethical decision-making and shape societal norms and expectations.
Concepts such as justice, fairness, and compassion underpin collective
assessments of value, influencing social institutions, policies, and cultural
practices.

Moreover, value is dynamic and evolving, subject to change over time and in
response to shifting circumstances. Technological advancements, social
movements, and environmental concerns can redefine what is valued and
alter the criteria used for evaluation. For example, the growing emphasis on
sustainability has led to a reevaluation of products and practices, with greater
value placed on environmentally friendly alternatives.

Furthermore, the pursuit of value is intrinsic to human endeavors, driving

innovation, creativity, and progress. Individuals and organisations seek to
create value by addressing needs, solving problems, and enhancing quality of
life. In business, value creation lies at the heart of entrepreneurial ventures,
with successful enterprises delivering products or services that resonate with
customers and stakeholders.

However, the relentless pursuit of value can also lead to ethical dilemmas,
conflicts of interest, and unintended consequences. Short-term gains may
come at the expense of long-term sustainability or social well-being,
highlighting the importance of ethical considerations in value creation efforts.

Value, as a philosophical concept, has been explored by numerous thinkers

throughout history, each offering unique perspectives on its nature,
significance, and implications for human existence. From ancient
philosophers to contemporary thinkers, the discourse on value encompasses
a diverse range of philosophical traditions and schools of thought.

One of the earliest discussions of value can be traced back to ancient Greek
philosophy, particularly in the works of Plato and Aristotle. Plato, in his
dialogues such as "The Republic," explored the concept of intrinsic value,
arguing that certain virtues and ideals, such as justice, wisdom, and truth, are
inherently valuable and should be pursued for their own sake, independent of
external rewards or consequences. Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics,
distinguished between different types of value, including moral, intellectual,
and practical virtues, and emphasised the importance of eudaimonia, or
flourishing, as the ultimate aim of human life.

In the Enlightenment era, philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Jeremy

Bentham further developed theories of value that have had a lasting influence
on ethical and political thought. Kant proposed a deontological approach to
ethics, wherein moral value is derived from the rational nature of human
beings and the categorical imperative, which dictates that individuals should
act in accordance with universalisable principles. Bentham, on the other hand,
advocated for utilitarianism, a consequentialist theory that posits that the
value of an action is determined by its ability to produce the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, existentialist philosophers such as Friedrich

Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre offered existential perspectives on value,
emphasizing the individual's freedom and responsibility in creating meaning
and value in a seemingly indifferent universe. Nietzsche famously proclaimed
the "death of God" and argued that traditional moral values are arbitrary
constructs that inhibit human potential, advocating instead for the "will to
power" and the creation of new, life-affirming values. Sartre, in his
existentialist works like "Being and Nothingness," posited that existence
precedes essence and that individuals are condemned to be free, thereby
responsible for creating their own values through authentic choices and
actions.

In contemporary philosophy, thinkers like Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen

have expanded the discourse on value to include capabilities and human
flourishing. Nussbaum, in her capabilities approach, argues that the value of a
society should be judged based on its ability to enable individuals to achieve a
set of fundamental capabilities necessary for human flourishing, such as life,
bodily health, and education. Sen, in his capabilities framework, similarly
emphasises the importance of expanding individuals' capabilities and
freedoms as a measure of societal progress and development.

TYPES OF VALUE: INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC

In understanding values, it is essential to delineate between intrinsic and
extrinsic values, two distinct but interconnected concepts that shape human
behaviour, beliefs and motivations.

Intrinsic values refer to those qualities or attributes inherent to an object,

action or phenomenon that confer worth or significance independently of
external factors. These values are inherently meaningful and fulfill an innate
need or desire, often associated with personal fulfillment, authenticity, or
integrity. Intrinsic values are deeply rooted in individual identity and reflect
core beliefs, principles and aspirations.

Examples of intrinsic values include qualities such as honesty, compassion,

creativity and personal growth. These values are prized for their inherent
virtues, embodying ideals that resonate with individuals on a profound level.
Pursuing intrinsic values typically involves engaging in activities or behaviors
that align with one's sense of purpose, authenticity, or moral integrity.

Extrinsic values, on the other hand, are contingent upon external factors such
as social norms, cultural expectations, or material rewards. These values
derive their significance from outside sources and often serve as means to an
end rather than ends in themselves. Extrinsic values are shaped by societal
influences, economic incentives, and interpersonal dynamics, reflecting the
desire for recognition, status or tangible rewards.

Examples of extrinsic values include wealth, fame, power and social approval.
While these values may provide temporary satisfaction or external validation,
they often fail to fulfill deeper psychological or existential needs. Pursuing
extrinsic values exclusively can lead to feelings of emptiness, insecurity, or
disillusionment, as individuals may find themselves chasing elusive standards
or conforming to external pressures at the expense of their authentic selves.

The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic values has profound

implications for individual well-being, motivation, and decision-making.
Research in psychology and behavioural economics suggests that prioritizing
intrinsic values over extrinsic ones is associated with greater life satisfaction,
psychological flourishing, and long-term fulfillment. Activities aligned with
intrinsic values tend to foster a sense of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness, enhancing overall psychological functioning and subjective
well-being.

Conversely, excessive emphasis on extrinsic values can undermine

psychological health and erode intrinsic motivation, leading to feelings of
stress, anxiety, or disengagement. The pursuit of extrinsic rewards may foster
a transactional mindset, wherein actions are driven primarily by external
incentives rather than genuine interest or personal values. This can diminish
intrinsic motivation and diminish the intrinsic joy derived from activities
pursued for their own sake.

Moreover, societal emphasis on extrinsic values can contribute to broader

social and environmental challenges, such as consumerism, inequality, and
environmental degradation. The relentless pursuit of material wealth or social
status may fuel unsustainable consumption patterns, exacerbate social
disparities, and undermine collective well-being.

Daniel Kahneman, a Nobel Prize-winning psychologist, has explored the

interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic values in decision-making and
subjective well-being. Kahneman's research on prospect theory and hedonic
psychology has shown that individuals often weigh intrinsic and extrinsic
factors differently when making choices and evaluating outcomes. He
highlights the distinction between "experiencing self" and "remembering self,"
suggesting that while extrinsic rewards may influence immediate satisfaction,
intrinsic values contribute more significantly to long-term happiness and life
satisfaction (Kahneman & Riis, 2005).

Timothy Kasser, a leading researcher on materialism and well-being, has

examined the psychological consequences of prioritising extrinsic values
such as wealth, status, and image. Kasser's work emphasizes the detrimental
effects of excessive materialism on mental health, interpersonal relationships,
and environmental sustainability. He argues that societal emphasis on
extrinsic values undermines intrinsic motivation, erodes subjective well-being,
and contributes to a host of social and environmental problems (Kasser,
2017).

Barry Schwartz, a psychologist and author, has explored the paradox of

choice and its implications for intrinsic and extrinsic values. Schwartz
contends that while freedom and autonomy are essential for human
flourishing, an abundance of choices can lead to decision paralysis,
dissatisfaction, and regret. He suggests that individuals may derive greater
satisfaction from intrinsic pursuits that align with their core values rather than
from endless pursuit of external rewards or status symbols (Schwartz, 2004).

Richard Layard, an economist and advocate for well-being policy, has called
attention to the limitations of GDP as a measure of societal progress and
advocated for prioritizing intrinsic values in public policy. Layard argues that
policies aimed at promoting economic growth often prioritise extrinsic values
at the expense of social cohesion, mental health, and environmental
sustainability. He proposes shifting societal priorities toward fostering
intrinsic goals such as meaningful work, strong social relationships, and
personal development to enhance overall well-being and quality of life (Layard,
2011).

ETHICAL THEORIES
Ethical theories provide frameworks for understanding and evaluating moral
principles and actions. Several prominent ethical theories, developed by
influential philosophers, offer different perspectives on what constitutes
morally right or wrong behaviour.

Utilitarianism, associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, posits
that the moral worth of an action is determined by its consequences.
According to utilitarianism, the right action is the one that maximizes overall
happiness or utility, often referred to as the greatest good for the greatest
number. Bentham emphasized the quantitative measurement of pleasure and
pain, while Mill introduced qualitative distinctions between higher and lower
pleasures.

Deontology, championed by Immanuel Kant, focuses on duty and moral rules

rather than consequences. Kant's deontological ethics is grounded in the
categorical imperative, which dictates that individuals should act in
accordance with universalisable maxims. According to Kant, moral worth
derives from the intention behind an action and the adherence to moral
principles, regardless of the outcomes.

Virtue ethics, rooted in the works of Aristotle, emphasises the development of

virtuous character traits as the foundation of ethical behavior. Virtue ethics
focuses on cultivating virtues such as courage, honesty, compassion, and
wisdom, with the goal of achieving eudaimonia, or human flourishing.
Aristotle argued that virtuous actions flow naturally from virtuous character,
and that moral judgements should take into account the context and
individual circumstances.

Ethical egoism, advocated by philosophers like Ayn Rand, posits that

individuals ought to prioritise their own self-interest above all else. According
to ethical egoism, each person has a moral duty to maximise their own
happiness or well-being, without necessarily considering the interests of
others. Rand argued that self-interest is a rational and ethical pursuit, leading
to personal fulfillment and prosperity.

These ethical theories offer different approaches to moral decision-making,

each emphasising distinct criteria for evaluating actions and principles. While
utilitarianism focuses on consequences, deontology prioritises duty, virtue
ethics emphasizes character, and ethical egoism promotes self-interest.
Philosophers continue to debate the merits and limitations of these theories,
seeking to develop comprehensive frameworks for addressing moral
dilemmas and guiding ethical behaviour in various contexts.

VALUE THEORIES
MORAL VALUE
Moral value, a cornerstone of ethical philosophy, refers to the intrinsic worth
or significance attributed to actions, behaviours, or principles based on their
moral or ethical implications. Philosophers throughout history have grappled
with the nature of moral value, seeking to understand its foundations,
principles, and implications for human conduct and society.

One of the earliest discussions of moral value can be found in the works of
ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Plato, in his
dialogues, explored the concept of intrinsic moral virtues, such as justice,
wisdom, and courage, which he argued are essential for individual and
societal well-being. Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, further developed a
virtue ethics framework that emphasises the cultivation of moral character
and the pursuit of eudaimonia, or flourishing, as the ultimate aim of human
life.

In the Christian tradition, moral value has been a central theme in theological
and philosophical discourse. St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, for
example, integrated Aristotelian ethics with Christian theology, emphasizing
the importance of divine law and natural law in guiding moral conduct.
Augustine, in his "City of God," articulated a vision of the ideal society based
on love of God and neighbor, while Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica,
elaborated on the concept of natural law as grounded in human reason and
divine providence.

During the Enlightenment era, philosophers like Immanuel Kant and David
Hume offered competing theories of moral value that have had a lasting
impact on ethical thought. Kant proposed a deontological approach to ethics,
wherein moral value is derived from the rational nature of human beings and
the categorical imperative, which dictates that individuals should act in
accordance with universalisable principles. Hume, on the other hand,
advocated for a sentimentalist view of ethics, arguing that moral value arises
from subjective sentiments such as sympathy and benevolence.

In the 19th century, utilitarian philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and

John Stuart Mill developed consequentialist theories of moral value, wherein
the value of an action is determined by its consequences, particularly its
ability to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Bentham, in his "Principles of Morals and Legislation," introduced the principle
of utility as the foundation of morality, while Mill, in his work "Utilitarianism,"
refined the theory and defended the importance of individual rights and
liberties within a utilitarian framework.

In contemporary philosophy, scholars like Philippa Foot, Elizabeth Anscombe,

and Alasdair MacIntyre have contributed to the revival of virtue ethics and the
exploration of moral value in the context of modern ethical dilemmas. Foot, in
her work "Natural Goodness," argued for a return to Aristotelian virtue ethics
as a viable alternative to deontological and consequentialist approaches.
Anscombe, in her essay "Modern Moral Philosophy," critiqued the
inadequacies of modern moral theories and advocated for a renewed focus
on virtue and character. MacIntyre, in his influential book "After Virtue,"
proposed a narrative approach to ethics, where he highlighted the importance
of communal practices and traditions in shaping moral value and identity.

AESTHETIC VALUE
Aesthetic value, a fundamental concept in philosophy and art, refers to the
intrinsic worth or significance attributed to objects, experiences, or
expressions based on their beauty, harmony, or emotional impact.
Philosophers throughout history have explored the nature of aesthetic value,
offering diverse perspectives on its foundations, criteria, and implications for
human perception and cultural expression.

One of the earliest discussions of aesthetic value can be found in ancient

Greek philosophy, particularly in the works of Plato and Aristotle. Plato, in his
dialogues such as "Symposium" and "Phaedrus," posited that beauty is an
ideal form that transcends the physical world, accessible through
contemplation and intellectual pursuit. Aristotle, in his "Poetics," articulated a
theory of art and literature, emphasizing the importance of mimesis, or
imitation, in creating aesthetic pleasure and catharsis.

During the Enlightenment era, philosophers like Immanuel Kant and David
Hume offered influential theories of aesthetic value that continue to shape
aesthetic discourse today. Kant, in his "Critique of Judgement," proposed a
transcendental approach to aesthetics, arguing that aesthetic judgments are
based on subjective feelings of pleasure or displeasure, yet are grounded in
universal principles of beauty and harmony. Hume, in his "Of the Standard of
Taste," stressed the role of sentiment and cultural context in shaping
aesthetic judgements, suggesting that taste is a product of individual
temperament and exposure to cultural norms.

In the 19th century, German philosophers such as Friedrich Schelling and

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel further developed theories of aesthetic value
within the broader context of idealism and romanticism. Schelling, in his
"System of Transcendental Idealism," explored the role of art in mediating
between the subjective and objective realms, suggesting that aesthetic
experience provides glimpses into the unity of nature and spirit. Hegel, in his
"Lectures on Aesthetics," proposed a dialectical approach to art and beauty,
viewing the history of art as a progressive unfolding of spiritual
consciousness through symbolic, classical, and romantic forms.

In the modern era, philosophers like Arthur Danto and George Dickie have
challenged traditional conceptions of aesthetic value, proposing alternative
frameworks for understanding art and aesthetic experience. Danto, in his
essay "The End of Art," argued that art has reached a point of "post-historical"
pluralism, wherein anything can be considered art and aesthetic value is
contingent upon cultural context and institutional validation. Dickie, in his
institutional theory of art, defined art as whatever the artworld regards as
such, shifting the focus from intrinsic qualities of artworks to the social and
institutional practices that confer aesthetic value.

Contemporary aesthetic philosophers continue to engage with questions of

aesthetic value and its implications for contemporary art and culture.
Scholars like Susan Sontag, Roland Barthes, and Elaine Scarry have explored
the role of aesthetic experience in shaping perceptions, emotions, and social
relations. Sontag, in her essays on photography and film, examined the ways
in which images evoke aesthetic responses and provoke moral and political
reflection. Barthes, in his work "The Pleasure of the Text," analyzed the
sensual and intellectual pleasures of literary reading and interpretation.
Scarry, in her book "On Beauty and Being Just," argued for the ethical
significance of beauty in promoting empathy, justice, and social harmony.

ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE
Environmental value refers to the intrinsic worth or significance attributed to
the natural world based on its ecological, aesthetic, and ethical dimensions.
Philosophers throughout history have engaged with the concept of
environmental value, offering diverse perspectives on humanity's relationship
with the environment and the moral imperative to preserve and protect it.

One of the earliest discussions of environmental value can be traced back to

ancient philosophical traditions, particularly in indigenous cultures and
Eastern philosophies such as Taoism and Buddhism. These traditions often
emphasise the interconnectedness of humans and nature, viewing the natural
world as sacred and worthy of reverence. For example, Taoist philosophy
emphasizes harmony with nature and the Tao, while Buddhist teachings
advocate for compassion and non-harm toward all sentient beings, including
animals and plants.

In Western philosophy, the notion of environmental value gained prominence

during the Romantic era, with thinkers like Henry David Thoreau and Ralph
Waldo Emerson celebrating the beauty and spiritual significance of the natural
world. Thoreau, in his work "Walden," reflected on his experience living in
close communion with nature, advocating for a simpler, more harmonious
way of life that embraces environmental stewardship and ethical integrity.
Emerson, in his essays on nature and self-reliance, extolled the transformative
power of nature in awakening human consciousness and inspiring creativity
and moral virtue.

In the 20th century, environmental philosophers such as Aldo Leopold and

Rachel Carson played pivotal roles in shaping modern environmental thought
and advocacy. Leopold, in his seminal work "A Sand County Almanac,"
introduced the concept of a land ethic, which posits that humans are
members of a biotic community and have a moral responsibility to treat the
land and its inhabitants with respect and care. Carson, in her book "Silent
Spring," raised awareness about the ecological harms of pesticides and
industrial pollution, sparking the modern environmental movement and calling
for greater environmental awareness and protection.

In contemporary environmental philosophy, scholars like Arne Naess and

Holmes Rolston III have further developed theories of environmental value,
emphasising the intrinsic worth of nature and the importance of preserving
biodiversity and ecological integrity. Naess, in his concept of deep ecology,
advocates for a radical shift in human consciousness toward recognising the
intrinsic value of all living beings and ecosystems, irrespective of their
instrumental utility to humans. Rolston, in his work on environmental ethics,
explores the moral dimensions of biodiversity conservation and argues for the
preservation of wilderness areas as repositories of ecological and cultural
value.

Moreover, environmental philosophers like J. Baird Callicott and Bryan Norton

have engaged with questions of environmental policy and sustainability,
seeking to reconcile human needs with ecological imperatives through
frameworks like environmental pragmatism and environmental virtue ethics.
Callicott, in his book "In Defense of the Land Ethic," defends Leopold's land
ethic as a viable approach to addressing contemporary environmental
challenges and promoting ecological integrity. Norton, in his work on
environmental pragmatism, proposes a pragmatic approach to environmental
policy that integrates ecological, economic, and social considerations in
decision-making.

VALUE JUDGEMENT
Value judgements are assessments or opinions about the worth, merit, or
significance of something, whether it be an action, belief, object, or situation.
These judgements are inherently subjective and influenced by individual
perspectives, cultural norms, personal experiences, and moral frameworks.
Throughout history, philosophers have grappled with the complexities of value
judgements, examining their nature, justification, and implications for human
thought and behaviour.

POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Political philosophy, as an aspect of value inquiry, explores the nature,
justification, and implications of political values such as justice, liberty,
equality, and authority. It delves into questions about the nature of the state,
the legitimacy of political authority, and the moral foundations of political
systems. At its core, political philosophy seeks to understand and evaluate
the principles and values that underpin political life and institutions.

One of the central concerns of political philosophy is the concept of justice.

Philosophers grapple with questions such as: What is justice? How should
resources be distributed in society? What constitutes a just political system?
Different theories of justice offer competing perspectives on these questions.
For example, utilitarianism emphasizes maximising overall happiness or
welfare as the basis for justice, while theories of distributive justice focus on
the fair allocation of resources and opportunities among members of society.

Another key aspect of political philosophy is the relationship between the

individual and the state. Philosophers explore questions of political authority,
legitimacy, and the rights and responsibilities of citizens. For example,
classical liberal philosophers like John Locke and John Stuart Mill argued for
the importance of individual rights, limited government, and the principle of
consent as the basis for political legitimacy. In contrast, proponents of
authoritarianism or totalitarianism may prioritise state authority and control
over individual liberties.

Political philosophy also addresses issues of equality and social justice.

Philosophers examine the nature of social inequalities, their causes, and
potential remedies. Debates within political philosophy often center on
questions of economic inequality, social mobility, and the role of government
in addressing disparities. Some theorists advocate for redistributive policies
and social welfare programs to promote greater equality, while others argue
for a more laissez-faire approach to economic and social policy.

Moreover, political philosophy engages with questions of power and

governance. Philosophers analyse different forms of government, such as
democracy, monarchy, and oligarchy, and assess their strengths and
weaknesses. They explore the mechanisms of political power, including
elections, constitutions, and checks and balances, and consider how power
should be distributed and exercised within society.

Additionally, political philosophy considers the moral dimensions of

international relations and global governance. Philosophers examine
questions of sovereignty, human rights, and just war theory, seeking to
understand the ethical principles that should guide interactions between
states and peoples.

Some political philosophes are:

1. Plato (427-347 BCE): Plato, a key figure in ancient Greek philosophy,
explored political theory in works such as The Republic and The Laws. In "The
Republic," he discusses the ideal city-state and the role of justice within it,
proposing the concept of philosopher-kings as rulers.

2. Aristotle (384-322 BCE): Aristotle, a student of Plato, contributed

significantly to political philosophy in his works like Politics and Nicomachean
Ethics. He analyzed different forms of government, including democracy,
aristocracy, and tyranny, and explored the concept of the best regime.

3. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): In his seminal work Leviathan, Hobbes laid

the foundation for modern political philosophy. He argued for the necessity of
a strong central authority to maintain social order and prevent the "state of
nature," characterised by a war of all against all.
4. John Locke (1632-1704): Locke's political philosophy, outlined in works
such as Two Treatises of Government, emphasized individual rights and the
social contract theory. He argued that governments derive their legitimacy
from the consent of the governed and advocated for the protection of natural
rights, including life, liberty, and property.

5. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Rousseau's ideas, particularly in The

Social Contract, influenced democratic theory and the concept of popular
sovereignty. He proposed that individuals enter into a social contract with one
another to form a collective body politic, governed by the general will.

6. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): Kant's political philosophy is grounded in his

moral philosophy, particularly in works like Perpetual Peace and The
Metaphysics of Morals. He advocated for the principles of universal human
rights, republican government, and the rule of law as essential for achieving
perpetual peace.

7. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): Mill's liberal political philosophy, articulated in

works like On Liberty and Utilitarianism, emphasised individual liberty and the
importance of freedom of thought and expression. He argued for the "harm
principle," which holds that the only justification for restricting individual
liberty is to prevent harm to others.

8. Karl Marx (1818-1883): Marx's political philosophy, outlined in works such

as The Communist Manifesto in conjunction with Friedrich Engels, and Das
Kapital, laid the groundwork for Marxist theory and communism. He critiqued
capitalism, arguing for the emancipation of the working class and the
establishment of a classless society based on common ownership of the
means of production.

9. John Rawls (1921-2002): Rawls' influential work A Theory of Justice

revitalised liberal political philosophy in the 20th century. He proposed the
concept of the original position and the veil of ignorance as a method for
determining principles of justice, advocating for principles that prioritise the
least advantaged members of society.

10. Michel Foucault (1926-1984): Foucault's political philosophy, explored in

works like Discipline and Punish and The History of Sexuality, challenged
traditional notions of power and knowledge. He analysed the ways in which
power operates through institutions and discourses, shaping social norms
and individual subjectivity.