Contents

1 SETS 2
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Notations and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Operations on sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.8 Venn diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.14 Laws of algebra of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter 1
SETS

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter we will review some concepts on set theory. After this
chapter, a student is expected to define a set correctly, perform different
set operations; intersection, union, complement and subsets, represent
sets on Venn diagrams, shading of sets as well as use the De Morgans
laws to simplify set operations.

Definition 1.1.1. A set is a collection of well defined objects. The objects

of a set are called elements or members of that set.

1.1.2 Notations and Definitions

1. A capital letter such as A, B, C and so on, will be used to represent

a set.

2. {} braces may be used to represent a set.

3. A small letter will be used to represent an element of a set. i.e.

a, b, c, d and so on. Numbers may also be used to represent the
elements of a set.

A set can either be represented by writing/ listing down the elements,

or by describing it. i.e. describing its members. Each element in a set
is separated from the other by a comma.
Consider the following examples:
 List Description
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} A = {x : x is a natural nunber less than 6
V = {a, e, i, o, u} V = {x : x is a vowel}.
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .} C = {x : x is a positive even number}.
E = {dog, plate, Earth, food} E = { impossible}.
Thus, we can list the elements of the set from the description given.
Example 1.1.3. 1. A = {k ∈ S : k = 3n + 1, n = 0, 1, 2, 3}.

A = {1, 4, 7, 10}.

If a set A consists of no elements we call it an empty set, denoted by

A = ∅ or equivalently A = {}. We write b ∈ A to mean that the element
b belong to the set A. Similarly, we write c ∈/ A to mean that the element
c does not belong to the set A.
Definition 1.1.4. Finite set
A set is said to be finite if its elements can be listed down. For instance,
V = {x : x is a vowel} is a finite set.
Definition 1.1.5. infinite set
A set is said to be infinite if its elements can not be listed down in a finite
period of time. For instance, C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .} is an infinite set.
Definition 1.1.6. Equivalent sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent (A ∼ B) if they are of the
same size.
Example 1.1.7. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3}, then A ∼ B.
Definition 1.1.8. Subset
A set A is a subset of another set B, if every element of A is also an
element of B.
In the previous definition, if B has elements that are not elements of
A, then we say that A is a proper subset of B. We write A ⊂ B to mean
that A is a proper subset of B.
Example 1.1.9. 1. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, c, b, d}, then A ⊂ B.
Moreover, A is a proper subset of B.

2. Let A = {x : x is a positive even number} and B = {x : x is a natural nu

Since all positive even numbers are natural numbers, it follows that
A ⊂ B.

Definition 1.1.10. Equal sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equal (A = B) if set A has the same
members as set B regardless of the order of listing. In other words, two
sets A and B are said to be equal if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.

Example 1.1.11. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, c, b}, then A = B.

Note

1. Equal sets consist of the same members and the same number of
members.

2. Equivalent sets have the same number of elements, but need not have
the same members.

If a set A is of size n, where n is a counting number, then the total

number of subsets of A is given by

2n .

The set consisting of all the subsets of the set A, denoted by P(A), is
called the power set of A.

Example 1.1.12. If A = {a, b, c}.

1. List down all the subsets of A.

2. List down all the subsets of A containing c.

Definition 1.1.13. Universal set

The universal set (U) is the entire collection of elements of a set under
consideration.
 If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then the universal set is

U = {x : x is a counting number }

1.2 Operations on sets

Definition 1.2.1. Complement of a set

The complement of a set A, denoted by Ac or A0, with respect to the
given universal set U is the set of all elements of U that do not belong
to A. That is

Ac = {x : x ∈ U, x ∈/ A}.

Example 1.2.2. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.

List down the elements of Ac .

Definition 1.2.3. Union of sets

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all
elements that belong to A or B or both. That is

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Note that the definition can be extended to more than two sets.

Example 1.2.4. Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}. Find A ∪ B.

Definition 1.2.5. Intersection of sets

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of
all elements that belong to both A and B. That is

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Note that the definition can be extended to more than two sets.
If for any two sets A and B, A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be
disjoint.

Example 1.2.6. Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}. Find A ∩ B.

 If A and B are sets, we write A − B, read as A minus B to mean the
set of all elements which belong to A but do not belong to B. That is;

A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈/ B}.

Thus, A − B = A ∩ Bc .

Example 1.2.7. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A = {2, 3, 4} and B =

{4, 5, 6}. List down the elements of A ∩ Bc .

1.2.8 Venn diagram

A venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets.

Union and intersection of sets may be described by using a Venn dia-
gram. All the elements of a set are enclosed in a circle. For any three
sets A, B and C, the union of the sets is the total area bounded by the
circles in the Venn diagram, while the intersection is the overlapping
cross-hatched area as shown below.

B A

Example 1.2.9. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, A = {a, c}, B = {b, c, f}, C =

{b, d, e, f}. Illustrate this information on a Venn diagram. Hence, find

1. B ∪ C

2. Ac

3. Ac ∩ (B ∪ C).

Example 1.2.10. In each of the following Venn diagrams, shade

1. B − C.

2. A ∩ (B ∩ C c ).

B A B C A

U U

Example 1.2.11. In each of the following Venn diagrams, use the set
operations, ∪ and ∩ to describe the shaded region/s.

B
Y

X
A C
Z

U
U

The following results will be very useful in performing certain set

operations.
Theorem 1.2.12. De Morgan’s Laws of intersection (∩) and union (∪)
Let A and B be any two sets. We have that

1.
(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ Bc .

2.
(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ Bc .

Example 1.2.13. Consider the universal set

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10},

and A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. One can easily confirm the above
laws.

1.2.14 Laws of algebra of sets

Let A, B and C be any subsets of the universal set.

1. The identity law:

(a) A ∪ A = A
(b) A ∩ A = A

2. Identity law:

(a) A ∩ ∅ = ∅
(b) A ∩ U = A

3. Identity law:

(a) A ∪ ∅ = A
(b) A ∪ U = U.

4. Commutative law:

(a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A.
 (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

5. Associative law:

(a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).
(b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).

6. Distributive law:

(a) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
(b) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

7. Complement law:

(a) A ∪ Ac = U
(b) A ∩ Ac = ∅.

8. Complement law:

(a) (Ac )c = A.
(b) U c = ∅.
(c) ∅c = U.

9. Complement law:

(a) A ∪ Ac = U
(b) A ∩ Ac = ∅.

10. Complement law:

(a) (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ Bc .
(b) (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ Bc .

Example 1.2.15. Simplify each of the following:

1.
[Ac ∪ (A ∩ Bc )]c
 2.
Bc ∩ (A ∪ B).

Example 1.2.16. By using the set rules, simplify the following:

1.
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

2.
(A ∩ Bc ) ∩ C c = (A ∩ C c ) ∩ (B ∩ C c )c .