Chapter 5

With Question/Answer Animations

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Chapter Summary
 Mathematical Induction
 Strong Induction
 Well-Ordering
 Recursive Definitions
 Structural Induction
 Recursive Algorithms
Section 5.1
Section Summary
 Mathematical Induction
 Examples of Proof by Mathematical Induction
 Mistaken Proofs by Mathematical Induction
Climbing an
Infinite Ladder
Suppose we have an infinite ladder:
1. We can reach the first rung of the ladder.
2. If we can reach a particular rung of the ladder, then we can
reach the next rung.

From (1), we can reach the first rung. Then by

applying (2), we can reach the second rung.
Applying (2) again, the third rung. And so on.
We can apply (2) any number of times to reach
any particular rung, no matter how high up.

This example motivates proof by

mathematical induction.
Principle of Mathematical Induction
Principle of Mathematical Induction: To prove that P(n) is true for all
positive integers n, we complete these steps:
 Basis Step: Show that P(1) is true.
 Inductive Step: Show that P(k) → P(k + 1) is true for all positive integers
k.
To complete the inductive step, assuming the inductive hypothesis that
P(k) holds for an arbitrary integer k, show that must P(k + 1) be true.

Climbing an Infinite Ladder Example:

 BASIS STEP: By (1), we can reach rung 1.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume the inductive hypothesis that we can reach
rung k. Then by (2), we can reach rung k + 1.
Hence, P(k) → P(k + 1) is true for all positive integers k. We can reach
every rung on the ladder.
Important Points About Using
Mathematical Induction
 Mathematical induction can be expressed as the
rule of inference
(P(1) ∧ ∀k (P(k) → P(k + 1))) → ∀n P(n),
where the domain is the set of positive integers.
 In a proof by mathematical induction, we don’t
assume that P(k) is true for all positive integers! We
show that if we assume that P(k) is true, then
P(k + 1) must also be true.
 Proofs by mathematical induction do not always
start at the integer 1. In such a case, the basis step
begins at a starting point b where b is an integer. We
will see examples of this soon.
Proving a Summation Formula by
Mathematical Induction
Note: Once we have this
Example: Show that: conjecture, mathematical
induction can be used to
Solution: prove it correct.

 BASIS STEP: P(1) is true since 1(1 + 1)/2 = 1.

 INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume true for P(k).
The inductive hypothesis is
Under this assumption,
Proving Inequalities
Example: Use mathematical induction to prove that
n < 2n for all positive integers n.
Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition that n < 2n.
 BASIS STEP: P(1) is true since 1 < 21 = 2.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume P(k) holds, i.e., k < 2k, for an
arbitrary positive integer k.
 Must show that P(k + 1) holds. Since by the inductive
hypothesis, k < 2k, it follows that:
k + 1 < 2k + 1 ≤ 2k + 2k = 2 ∙ 2k = 2k+1
Therefore n < 2n holds for all positive integers n.
An Incorrect “Proof” by
Mathematical Induction
Example: Let P(n) be the statement that every set of n lines in
the plane, no two of which are parallel, meet in a common point.
Here is a “proof” that P(n) is true for all positive integers n ≥ 2.
 BASIS STEP: The statement P(2) is true because any two lines in the
plane that are not parallel meet in a common point.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: The inductive hypothesis is the statement that
P(k) is true for the positive integer k ≥ 2, i.e., every set of k lines in
the plane, no two of which are parallel, meet in a common point.
 We must show that if P(k) holds, then P(k + 1) holds, i.e., if every
set of k lines in the plane, no two of which are parallel, k ≥ 2, meet
in a common point, then every set of k + 1 lines in the plane, no two
of which are parallel, meet in a common point.

continued →
An Incorrect “Proof” by
Mathematical Induction
Inductive Hypothesis: Every set of k lines in the plane, where
k ≥ 2, no two of which are parallel, meet in a common point.
 Consider a set of k + 1 distinct lines in the plane, no two parallel. By the
inductive hypothesis, the first k of these lines must meet in a common point
p1. By the inductive hypothesis, the last k of these lines meet in a common
point p2.
 If p1 and p2 are different points, all lines containing both of them must be the
same line since two points determine a line. This contradicts the assumption
that the lines are distinct. Hence, p1 = p2 lies on all k + 1 distinct lines, and
therefore P(k + 1) holds. Assuming that k ≥2, distinct lines meet in a common
point, then every k + 1 lines meet in a common point.
 There must be an error in this proof since the conclusion is absurd. But where is
the error?
 Answer: P(k)→ P(k + 1) only holds for k ≥3. It is not the case that P(2) implies P(3).
The first two lines must meet in a common point p1 and the second two must meet in
a common point p2. They do not have to be the same point since only the second line
is common to both sets of lines.
Section 5.2
Section Summary
 Strong Induction
 Example Proofs using Strong Induction
 Well-Ordering Property
Strong Induction
 Strong Induction: To prove that P(n) is true for all
positive integers n, where P(n) is a propositional
function, complete two steps:
 Basis Step: Verify that the proposition P(1) is true.
 Inductive Step: Show the conditional statement
[P(1) ∧ P(2) ∧∙∙∙ ∧ P(k)] → P(k + 1) holds for all positive
integers k.

Strong Induction is sometimes called

the second principle of mathematical
induction or complete induction.
Strong Induction and
the Infinite Ladder
Strong induction tells us that we can reach all rungs if:
1. We can reach the first rung of the ladder.
2. For every integer k, if we can reach the first k rungs, then
we can reach the (k + 1)st rung.

To conclude that we can reach every rung by strong

induction:
• BASIS STEP: P(1) holds
• INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume P(1) ∧ P(2) ∧∙∙∙ ∧ P(k)
holds for an arbitrary integer k, and show that
P(k + 1) must also hold.
We will have then shown by strong induction that for
every positive integer n, P(n) holds, i.e., we can
reach the nth rung of the ladder.
Proof using Strong Induction
Example: Suppose we can reach the first and second rungs
of an infinite ladder, and we know that if we can reach a
rung, then we can reach two rungs higher. Prove that we
can reach every rung.
(Try this with mathematical induction.)
Solution: Prove the result using strong induction.
 BASIS STEP: We can reach the first step.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: The inductive hypothesis is that we can
reach the first k rungs, for any k ≥ 2. We can reach the
(k + 1)st rung since we can reach the (k − 1)st rung by the
inductive hypothesis.
 Hence, we can reach all rungs of the ladder.
Which Form of Induction Should Be
Used?
 We can always use strong induction instead of
mathematical induction. But there is no reason to use
it if it is simpler to use mathematical induction. (See
page 335 of text.)
 In fact, the principles of mathematical induction,
strong induction, and the well-ordering property are
all equivalent. (Exercises 41-43)
 Sometimes it is clear how to proceed using one of the
three methods, but not the other two.
Proof using Strong Induction
Example: Prove that every amount of postage of 12 cents or more can
be formed using just 4-cent and 5-cent stamps.
Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition that postage of n cents can be
formed using 4-cent and 5-cent stamps.
 BASIS STEP: P(12), P(13), P(14), and P(15) hold.
 P(12) uses three 4-cent stamps.
 P(13) uses two 4-cent stamps and one 5-cent stamp.
 P(14) uses one 4-cent stamp and two 5-cent stamps.
 P(15) uses three 5-cent stamps.
 INDUCTIVE STEP: The inductive hypothesis states that P(j) holds for
12 ≤ j ≤ k, where k ≥ 15. Assuming the inductive hypothesis, it can be
shown that P(k + 1) holds.
 Using the inductive hypothesis, P(k − 3) holds since k − 3 ≥ 12. To
form postage of k + 1 cents, add a 4-cent stamp to the postage for k −
3 cents.
Hence, P(n) holds for all n ≥ 12.
Well-Ordering Property
 Well-ordering property: Every nonempty set of nonnegative
integers has a least element.
 The well-ordering property is one of the axioms of the
positive integers listed in Appendix 1.
 The well-ordering property can be used directly in proofs,
as the next example illustrates.
 The well-ordering property can be generalized.
 Definition: A set is well ordered if every subset has a least
element.
 N is well ordered under ≤.
 The set of finite strings over an alphabet using lexicographic
ordering is well ordered.
 We will see a generalization of induction to sets other than
the integers in the next section.
Well-Ordering Property
Example: Use the well-ordering property to prove the
division algorithm, which states that if a is an integer and d
is a positive integer, then there are unique integers q and r
with 0 ≤ r < d, such that a = dq + r.
Solution: Let S be the set of nonnegative integers of the
form a − dq, where q is an integer. The set is nonempty
since −dq can be made as large as needed.
 By the well-ordering property, S has a least element
r = a − dq0. The integer r is nonnegative. It also must be the
case that r < d. If it were not, then there would be a smaller
nonnegative element in S, namely,
a − d(q0 + 1) = a − dq0 − d = r − d > 0.
 Therefore, there are integers q and r with 0 ≤ r < d.

−
2

.
(uniqueness of q and r is Exercise 37)
Section 5.3
Section Summary
 Recursively Defined Functions
 Recursively Defined Sets and Structures
 Structural Induction
Recursively Defined Functions
Definition: A recursive or inductive definition of a
function consists of two steps.
 BASIS STEP: Specify the value of the function at zero.
 RECURSIVE STEP: Give a rule for finding its value at an
integer from its values at smaller integers.
 A function f(n) is the same as a sequence a0, a1, … ,
where ai, where f(i) = ai. This was done using
recurrence relations in Section 2.4.
Recursively Defined Functions
Example: Suppose f is defined by:
f(0) = 3,
f(n + 1) = 2f(n) + 3
Find f(1), f(2), f(3), f(4)
Solution:
 f(1) = 2f(0) + 3 = 2∙3 + 3 = 9
 f(2) = 2f(1)+ 3 = 2∙9 + 3 = 21
 f(3) = 2f(2) + 3 = 2∙21 + 3 = 45
 f(4) = 2f(3) + 3 = 2∙45 + 3 = 93

Example: Give a recursive definition of the factorial function n!:

Solution:
f(0) = 1
f(n + 1) = (n + 1)∙ f(n)
 Fibonacci
(1170- 1250)

Fibonacci Numbers
Example : The Fibonacci numbers are defined as
follows:
f0 = 0
In Chapter 8, we will use the
f1 = 1 Fibonacci numbers to model
population growth of rabbits.
fn = fn−1 + fn−2 This was an application
Find f2, f3 , f4 , f5 . described by Fibonacci himself.

 f2 = f 1 + f0 = 1 + 0 = 1 Next, we use strong induction

 f3 = f 2 + f1 = 1 + 1 = 2 to prove a result about the
Fibonacci numbers.
 f4 = f 3 + f2 = 2 + 1 = 3
 f5 = f 4 + f3 = 3 + 2 = 5
Recursively Defined Sets and Structures
Recursive definitions of sets have two parts:
 The basis step specifies an initial collection of elements.
 The recursive step gives the rules for forming new elements in
the set from those already known to be in the set.
 Sometimes the recursive definition has an exclusion rule,
which specifies that the set contains nothing other than
those elements specified in the basis step and generated by
applications of the rules in the recursive step.
 We will always assume that the exclusion rule holds, even if
it is not explicitly mentioned.
 We will later develop a form of induction, called structural
induction, to prove results about recursively defined sets.
Recursively Defined Sets and Structures
Example : Subset of Integers S:
BASIS STEP: 3 ∊ S.
RECURSIVE STEP: If x ∊ S and y ∊ S, then x + y is in S.
 Initially 3 is in S, then 3 + 3 = 6, then 3 + 6 = 9, etc.
Example: The natural numbers N.
BASIS STEP: 0 ∊ N.
RECURSIVE STEP: If n is in N, then n + 1 is in N.
 Initially 0 is in S, then 0 + 1 = 1, then 1 + 1 = 2, etc.
Strings
Definition: The set Σ* of strings over the alphabet Σ:
BASIS STEP: λ ∊ Σ* (λ is the empty string)
RECURSIVE STEP: If w is in Σ* and x is in Σ,
then wx  Σ*.
Example: If Σ = {0,1}, the strings in in Σ* are the set
of all bit strings, λ,0,1, 00,01,10, 11, etc.
Example: If Σ = {a,b}, show that aab is in Σ*.
 Since λ ∊ Σ* and a ∊ Σ, a ∊ Σ*.
 Since a ∊ Σ* and a ∊ Σ, aa ∊ Σ*.
 Since aa ∊ Σ* and b ∊ Σ, aab ∊ Σ*.
String Concatenation
Definition: Two strings can be combined via the
operation of concatenation. Let Σ be a set of symbols
and Σ* be the set of strings formed from the symbols
in Σ. We can define the concatenation of two strings,
denoted by ∙, recursively as follows.
BASIS STEP: If w  Σ*, then w ∙ λ= w.
RECURSIVE STEP: If w1  Σ* and w2  Σ* and x  Σ, then
w1 ∙ (w2 x)= (w1 ∙ w2)x.
 Often w1 ∙ w2 is written as w1 w2.
 If w1 = abra and w2 = cadabra, the concatenation
w1 w2 = abracadabra.
Length of a String
Example: Give a recursive definition of l(w), the
length of the string w.
Solution: The length of a string can be recursively
defined by:
l(λ) = 0;
l(wx) = l(w) + 1 if w ∊ Σ* and x ∊ Σ.
Balanced Parentheses
Example: Give a recursive definition of the set of
balanced parentheses P.
Solution:
BASIS STEP: () ∊ P
RECURSIVE STEP: If w ∊ P, then () w ∊ P, (w) ∊ P and
w () ∊ P.
 Show that (() ()) is in P.
 Why is ))(() not in P?
Well-Formed Formulae in Propositional
Logic
Definition: The set of well-formed formulae in
propositional logic involving T, F, propositional
variables, and operators from the set {¬,∧,∨,→, }.
BASIS STEP: T,F, and s, where s is a propositional
variable, are well-formed formulae.
RECURSIVE STEP: If E and F are well formed formulae,
then (¬ E), (E ∧ F), (E ∨ F), (E → F), (E F), are well-
formed formulae.
Examples: ((p ∨q) → (q ∧ F)) is a well-formed
formula.
pq ∧ is not a well formed formula.
Induction and Recursively Defined Sets
Example: Show that the set S defined by specifying that 3 ∊ S and that if x ∊ S
and y ∊ S, then x + y is in S, is the set of all positive integers that are
multiples of 3.
Solution: Let A be the set of all positive integers divisible by 3. To prove that
A = S, show that A is a subset of S and S is a subset of A.
 A⊂ S: Let P(n) be the statement that 3n belongs to S.
BASIS STEP: 3∙1 = 3 ∊ S, by the first part of recursive definition.
INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume P(k) is true. By the second part of the recursive definition,
if 3k ∊ S, then since 3 ∊ S, 3k + 3 = 3(k + 1) ∊ S. Hence, P(k + 1) is true.
 S ⊂ A:
BASIS STEP: 3 ∊ S by the first part of recursive definition, and 3 = 3∙1.
INDUCTIVE STEP: The second part of the recursive definition adds x +y to S, if both
x and y are in S. If x and y are both in A, then both x and y are divisible by 3. By part
(i) of Theorem 1 of Section 4.1, it follows that x + y is divisible by 3.
 We used mathematical induction to prove a result about a recursively defined
set. Next we study a more direct form induction for proving results about
recursively defined sets.
Section 5.4
Section Summary
 Recursive Algorithms
Recursive Algorithms
Definition: An algorithm is called recursive if it solves
a problem by reducing it to an instance of the same
problem with smaller input.
 For the algorithm to terminate, the instance of the
problem must eventually be reduced to some initial
case for which the solution is known.
Recursive Factorial Algorithm
Example: Give a recursive algorithm for computing
n!, where n is a nonnegative integer.
 Solution: Use the recursive definition of the factorial
function.
procedure factorial(n: nonnegative integer)
if n = 0 then return 1
else return n∙factorial (n − 1)
{output is n!}
Recursive Exponentiation Algorithm
Example: Give a recursive algorithm for computing an,
where a is a nonzero real number and n is a
nonnegative integer.
Solution: Use the recursive definition of an.
procedure power(a: nonzero real number, n: nonnegative
integer)
if n = 0 then return 1
else return a∙ power (a, n − 1)
{output is an}