5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Sanskrit
Sanskrit (/ˈsænskrɪt/; attributively संस्कृ त-, saṃskṛta-;[15][16]
Sanskrit
nominally संस्कृ तम्, saṃskṛtam, IPA: [ˈsɐ̃skr̩ tɐm][17][b]) is a
संस्कृ त-, Saṃskṛta-, संस्कृ तम्, Saṃskṛtam
classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the
Indo-European languages.[19][20][21] It arose in South Asia
after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the
northwest in the late Bronze Age.[22][23] Sanskrit is the sacred
language of Hinduism, the language of classical Hindu
philosophy, and of historical texts of Buddhism and Jainism. It
was a link language in ancient and medieval South Asia, and
upon transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast
Asia, East Asia and Central Asia in the early medieval era, it
became a language of religion and high culture, and of the
political elites in some of these regions.[24][25] As a result,
Sanskrit had a lasting effect on the languages of South Asia,
Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in their formal and
learned vocabularies.[26]

Sanskrit generally connotes several Old Indo-Aryan language

varieties.[27][28] The most archaic of these is the Vedic Sanskrit
found in the Rigveda, a collection of 1,028 hymns composed
between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE by Indo-Aryan tribes
migrating east from what is today Afghanistan across northern (top) A 19th-century illustrated Sanskrit
Pakistan and into northwestern India.[29][30] Vedic Sanskrit manuscript from the Bhagavad Gita,[1] composed
interacted with the preexisting ancient languages of the c. 400 – 200 BCE.[2][3] (bottom) The 175th-

subcontinent, absorbing names of newly encountered plants anniversary stamp of the third-oldest Sanskrit

and animals; in addition, the ancient Dravidian languages college, Sanskrit College, Calcutta. 1791.

influenced Sanskrit's phonology and syntax.[31] Sanskrit can Pronunciation [ˈsɐ̃skr̩ tɐm]
also more narrowly refer to Classical Sanskrit, a refined and Region South Asia (ancient
standardized grammatical form that emerged in the mid-1st and medieval), parts
millennium BCE and was codified in the most comprehensive of Southeast Asia
(medieval)
of ancient grammars,[c] the Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight chapters') of
Pāṇini.[32] The greatest dramatist in Sanskrit, Kālidāsa, wrote Era c. 1500–600 BCE
(Vedic Sanskrit);[4]
in classical Sanskrit, and the foundations of modern arithmetic
700 BCE – 1350 CE
were first described in classical Sanskrit.[d][33] The two major
(Classical Sanskrit)[5]
Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, however,
Revival There are no known
were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called native speakers of
Epic Sanskrit which was used in northern India between 400 Sanskrit.[6][7][8][9][10][11]
BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Language family Indo-European
Sanskrit.[34] In the following centuries, Sanskrit became
Indo-Iranian
tradition-bound, stopped being learned as a first language, and
ultimately stopped developing as a living language.[9] Indo-Aryan
Sanskrit
The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to the most
Early form Vedic Sanskrit
archaic poems of the Iranian and Greek language families, the
Gathas of old Avestan and Iliad of Homer.[35] As the Rigveda Writing system
Devanagari script
was orally transmitted by methods of memorisation of (present day).
exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity,[36][37] as a single Originally orally
text without variant readings,[38] its preserved archaic syntax transmitted.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 1/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction Brahmi script (from
of the common ancestor language Proto-Indo-European.[35] 1st century BCE)
Sanskrit does not have an attested native script: from around Brahmic
the turn of the 1st-millennium CE, it has been written in scripts[a][12][13]
various Brahmic scripts, and in the modern era most Official status
commonly in Devanagari.[a][12][13] Official language in
India
Sanskrit's status, function, and place in India's cultural Himachal
heritage are recognized by its inclusion in the Constitution of Pradesh
India's Eighth Schedule languages.[39][40] However, despite (additional
attempts at revival,[8][41] there are no first-language speakers official
of Sanskrit in India.[8][10][42] In each of India's recent language)
decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Uttarakhand
(additional
Sanskrit to be their mother tongue,[e] but the numbers are
official
thought to signify a wish to be aligned with the prestige of the
language)
language.[6][7][8][43] Sanskrit has been taught in traditional
gurukulas since ancient times; it is widely taught today at the Recognised minority South Africa
language in (protected
secondary school level. The oldest Sanskrit college is the
language)[14]
Benares Sanskrit College founded in 1791 during East India
Language codes
Company rule.[44] Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a
ceremonial and ritual language in Hindu and Buddhist hymns ISO 639-1 sa (https://www.lo
c.gov/standards/is
and chants.
o639-2/php/langcod
es_name.php?iso_63
Etymology and nomenclature 9_1=sa)

In Sanskrit, the verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- is a compound word ISO 639-2 san (https://www.l
oc.gov/standards/i
consisting of sáṃ ('together, good, well, perfected') and kṛta-
so639-2/php/langco
('made, formed, work').[45][46] It connotes a work that has been des_name.php?code_
"well prepared, pure and perfect, polished, sacred".[47][48][49] ID=386)
According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being
ISO 639-3 san – inclusive code
referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal— Individual codes:
rather than semantic—qualities. Sound and oral transmission cls – Classical
were highly valued qualities in ancient India, and its sages Sanskrit
refined the alphabet, the structure of words, and its exacting vsn – Vedic Sanskrit
grammar into a "collection of sounds, a kind of sublime Glottolog sans1269 (https://
musical mold" as an integral language they called Sanskrit. [46] glottolog.org/reso
From the late Vedic period onwards, state Annette Wilke and urce/languoid/id/s
Oliver Moebus, resonating sound and its musical foundations ans1269)
attracted an "exceptionally large amount of
linguistic, philosophical and religious
literature" in India. Sound was visualized as
"pervading all creation", another
representation of the world itself; the
"mysterious magnum" of Hindu thought.
The search for perfection in thought and the
goal of liberation were among the
dimensions of sacred sound, and the
common thread that wove all ideas and
inspirations together became the quest for
what the ancient Indians believed to be a
perfect language, the "phonocentric
episteme" of Sanskrit.[50][51] Historic Sanskrit manuscripts: a religious text (top), and a medical text

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 2/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Sanskrit as a language competed with numerous, less exact vernacular Indian languages called Prakritic
languages (prākṛta-). The term prakrta literally means "original, natural, normal, artless", states Franklin
Southworth.[52] The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in Indian texts dated to the 1st
millennium CE. Patañjali acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every
child with all its imperfections and later leads to the problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The
purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. The early Sanskrit grammarian
Daṇḍin states, for example, that much in the Prakrit languages is etymologically rooted in Sanskrit, but
involves "loss of sounds" and corruptions that result from a "disregard of the grammar". Daṇḍin
acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit.
This view is found in the writing of Bharata Muni, the author of the ancient Natya Shastra text. The early
Jain scholar Namisādhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that the Prakrit language was a
corruption of Sanskrit. Namisādhu stated that the Prakrit language was the pūrvam ('came before, origin')
and that it came naturally to children, while Sanskrit was a refinement of Prakrit through "purification by
grammar".[53]

History

Origin and development

Left: The Kurgan hypothesis on Indo-European migrations between 4000 and 1000 BCE; right: The geographical spread of
the Indo-European languages at 500 CE, with Sanskrit in South Asia

Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. It is one of the three earliest ancient
documented languages that arose from a common root language now referred to as Proto-Indo-
European:[19][20][21]

Vedic Sanskrit (c. 1500–500 BCE).

Mycenaean Greek (c. 1450 BCE)[54] and Ancient Greek (c. 750–400 BCE).
Hittite (c. 1750–1200 BCE).
Other Indo-European languages distantly related to Sanskrit include archaic and Classical Latin (c.
600 BCE–100 CE, Italic languages), Gothic (archaic Germanic language, c. 350 CE), Old Norse (c. 200 CE
and after), Old Avestan (c. late 2nd millennium BCE[55]) and Younger Avestan (c. 900 BCE).[20][21] The
closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in the Indo-European languages are the Nuristani languages found
in the remote Hindu Kush region of northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas,[21][56][57] as
well as the extinct Avestan and Old Persian – both are Iranian languages.[58][59][60] Sanskrit belongs to the
satem group of the Indo-European languages.

Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of the Sanskrit language,
both in its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe. In The Oxford Introduction to
Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World, Mallory and Adams illustrate the resemblance
with the following examples of cognate forms[61] (with the addition of Old English for further comparison):

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 3/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

PIE English Old English Latin Greek Sanskrit Glossary

*méh₂tēr mother mōdor māter mētēr mātár- mother

*ph₂tḗr father fæder pater patēr pitár- father

*bʰréh₂tēr brother brōþor frāter phreter bhrā́ tar- brother

*swésōr sister sweoster soror eor svásar- sister

*suHnús son sunu - hyiós sūnú- son

*dʰugh₂tḗr daughter dohtor - thugátēr duhitár- daughter

*gʷṓws cow cū bōs bous gáu- cow

*demh₂- tame, timber tam, timber domus dom- dām- house, tame, build

The correspondences suggest some common root, and historical links between some of the distant major
ancient languages of the world.[f]

The Indo-Aryan migrations theory explains the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-
European languages by proposing that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in South Asia
from a region of common origin, somewhere north-west of the Indus region, during the early 2nd
millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship between the Indo-Iranian
tongues and the Baltic and Slavic languages, vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic
languages, and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna.[63]

The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses
place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on the relationship between various
Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or
Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia.[64] The Iranian and Indo-
Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and then
south into South Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India, the Indo-Aryan
language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language.[65]

Vedic Sanskrit
The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic
Sanskrit. The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the Rigveda, a
Hindu scripture from the mid- to late-second
millennium BCE. No written records from such an early
period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally
confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable:
they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic
expression and its preservation were a part of the historic
tradition.[66][67][68]

However some scholars have suggested that the original Ṛg-

veda differed in some fundamental ways in phonology
compared to the sole surviving version available to us. In
particular that retroflex consonants did not exist as a natural
part of the earliest Vedic language,[69] and that these Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari,
developed in the centuries after the composition had been early 19th century. The red horizontal and vertical
completed, and as a gradual unconscious process during the lines mark low and high pitch changes for
oral transmission by generations of reciters. chanting.

The primary source for this argument is internal evidence of

the text which betrays an instability of the phenomenon of retroflexion, with the same phrases having
sandhi-induced retroflexion in some parts but not other.[70] This is taken along with evidence of

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 4/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

controversy, for example, in passages of the Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 BCE), which features a discussion on
whether retroflexion is valid in particular cases.[71]

The Ṛg-veda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors from distant parts of ancient India. These
authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and
10 are relatively the youngest.[72][73] Yet, the Vedic Sanskrit in these books of the Ṛg-veda "hardly presents
any dialectical diversity", states Louis Renou – an Indologist known for his scholarship of the Sanskrit
literature and the Ṛg-veda in particular. According to Renou, this implies that the Vedic Sanskrit language
had a "set linguistic pattern" by the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE.[74] Beyond the Ṛg-veda, the
ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into the modern age include the Samaveda, Yajurveda,
Atharvaveda, along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and the
early Upanishads.[66] These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the
northwestern, northern, and eastern Indian subcontinent.[75][76]

Vedic Sanskrit was both a spoken and literary language of ancient India. According to Michael Witzel, Vedic
Sanskrit was a spoken language of the semi-nomadic Aryans who temporarily settled in one place,
maintained cattle herds, practiced limited agriculture, and after some time moved by wagon trains they
called grama.[77][78] The Vedic Sanskrit language or a closely related Indo-European variant was recognized
beyond ancient India as evidenced by the "Mitanni Treaty" between the ancient Hittite and Mitanni people,
carved into a rock, in a region that now includes parts of Syria and Turkey.[79][g] Parts of this treaty, such as
the names of the Mitanni princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood,
are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes the gods Varuna, Mitra, Indra, and Nasatya
found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature.[79][81]

The Vedic Sanskrit found in the Ṛg-veda is distinctly

O Bṛhaspati, when in giving names more archaic than other Vedic texts, and in many
they first set forth the beginning of respects, the Rigvedic language is notably more similar
Language, to those found in the archaic texts of Old Avestan
Their most excellent and spotless secret Zoroastrian Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.[83]
was laid bare through love, According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P.
When the wise ones formed Language with Brereton – Indologists known for their translation of
their mind, the Ṛg-veda – the Vedic Sanskrit literature "clearly
purifying it like grain with a winnowing inherited" from Indo-Iranian and Indo-European times
fan, the social structures such as the role of the poet and the
Then friends knew friendships – priests, the patronage economy, the phrasal equations,
an auspicious mark placed on their and some of the poetic metres.[84][h] While there are
language. similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also
differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan,
— Rigveda 10.71.1–4 and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example,
Translated by Roger Woodard [82] unlike the Sanskrit similes in the Ṛg-veda, the Old
Avestan Gathas lack simile entirely, and it is rare in the
later version of the language. The Homerian Greek, like
Ṛg-vedic Sanskrit, deploys simile extensively, but they are structurally very different.[86]

Classical Sanskrit
The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous compared to the Classical Sanskrit as
defined by grammarians by about the mid-1st millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich—an
Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli and Buddhist Studies—the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in the
Rigveda had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. Gombrich posits
that the language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical
Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the Buddha's time become unintelligible to all except
ancient Indian sages.[87]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 5/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

The formalization of the Sanskrit language is credited to Pāṇini,

along with Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya and Katyayana's commentary
that preceded Patañjali's work.[88] Panini composed Aṣṭādhyāyī
('Eight-Chapter Grammar'). The century in which he lived is
unclear and debated, but his work is generally accepted to be from
sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.[89][90][91]

The Aṣṭādhyāyī was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar,

but it is the earliest that has survived in full, and the culmination of
a long grammatical tradition that Fortson says, is "one of the A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of
Pāṇini's grammar treatise from Kashmir
intellectual wonders of the ancient world".[92] Pāṇini cites ten
scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the
Sanskrit language before him, as well as the variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India.[93]
The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Āpiśali, Kaśyapa, Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, Bhāradvāja,
Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka and Sphoṭāyana.[94][95] The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Panini became the foundation of
Vyākaraṇa, a Vedānga.[93]

In the Aṣṭādhyāyī, language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin
grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, is a classic that defines the linguistic
expression and sets the standard for the Sanskrit language.[96] Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage
consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of
meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced.[97] Despite differences in the
analysis from that of modern linguistics, Pāṇini's work has been found valuable and the most advanced
analysis of linguistics until the twentieth century.[92]

Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of
Classical Sanskrit.[98] His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of
learning and literature for two millennia.[99] It is unclear whether Pāṇini himself wrote his treatise or he
orally created the detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. Modern
scholarship generally accepts that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as Lipi
('script') and lipikara ('scribe') in section 3.2 of the Aṣṭādhyāyī.[100][101][102][i]

The Classical Sanskrit language formalized by Pāṇini, states Renou, is "not an impoverished language",
rather it is "a controlled and a restrained language from which archaisms and unnecessary formal
alternatives were excluded".[109] The Classical form of the language simplified the sandhi rules but retained
various aspects of the Vedic language, while adding rigor and flexibilities, so that it had sufficient means to
express thoughts as well as being "capable of responding to the future increasing demands of an infinitely
diversified literature", according to Renou. Pāṇini included numerous "optional rules" beyond the Vedic
Sanskrit's bahulam framework, to respect liberty and creativity so that individual writers separated by
geography or time would have the choice to express facts and their views in their own way, where tradition
followed competitive forms of the Sanskrit language.[110]

The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, as discerned from the current state
of the surviving literature,[71] are negligible when compared to the intense change that must have occurred
in the pre-Vedic period between the Proto-Indo-Aryan language and Vedic Sanskrit.[111] The noticeable
differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and
grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax.[112] There are
also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as the sandhi rules, both
internal and external.[112] Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in
late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in
Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature.[112]

Arthur Macdonell was among the early colonial era scholars who summarized some of the differences
between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit.[112][113] Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more
extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 6/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been
translated by Jagbans Balbir.[114]

Sanskrit and Prakrit languages

The earliest known use of the word Saṃskṛta (Sanskrit), in the context of
a speech or language, is found in verses 5.28.17–19 of the Ramayana.[16]
Outside the learned sphere of written Classical Sanskrit, vernacular
colloquial dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. Sanskrit co-existed
with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Prakrit
languages of India also have ancient roots and some Sanskrit scholars
have called these Apabhramsa, literally 'spoiled'.[116][117] The Vedic
literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in
other Indo-European languages but which are found in the regional An early use of the word for
Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing "Sanskrit" in Late Brahmi script (also
of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian called Gupta script):
thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, Saṃ-skṛ-ta
particularly in the form of Buddhism and Jainism, the Prakrit languages
such as Pali in Theravada Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism Mandsaur stone inscription of
competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times.[118][119][120] However, Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana,
states Paul Dundas, a scholar of Jainism, these ancient Prakrit languages 532 CE.[115]
had "roughly the same relationship to Sanskrit as medieval Italian does
to Latin".[120] The Indian tradition states that the Buddha and the
Mahavira preferred the Prakrit language so that everyone could understand it. However, scholars such as
Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence
is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had the
capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as Ardhamagadhi.[120][j]

Colonial era scholars questioned whether Sanskrit was ever a spoken language, or just a literary
language.[122] Scholars disagree in their answers. A section of Western scholars state that Sanskrit was never
a spoken language, while others and particularly most Indian scholars state the opposite.[123] Those who
affirm Sanskrit to have been a vernacular language point to the necessity of Sanskrit being a spoken
language for the oral tradition that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India.
Secondly, they state that the textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini and Patanajali affirms that the
Classical Sanskrit in their era was a language that is spoken (bhasha) by the cultured and educated. Some
sutras expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit.[123] The 7th-century
Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India
were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region.[123]

According to Sanskrit linguist professor Madhav Deshpande, Sanskrit was a spoken language in a colloquial
form by the mid-1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatically correct form of
literary Sanskrit.[124] This, states Deshpande, is true for modern languages where colloquial incorrect
approximations and dialects of a language are spoken and understood, along with more "refined,
sophisticated and grammatically accurate" forms of the same language being found in the literary works.[124]
The Indian tradition, states Winternitz (1996), has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages
from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a
language that must have been understood in a wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics
and stories such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, the Panchatantra and many
other texts are all in the Sanskrit language.[125] The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus
the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate
or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages.[124] Sanskrit, as the learned
language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the vernacular Prakrits.[124] Many Sanskrit dramas

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 7/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular

Prakrits. The cities of Varanasi, Paithan, Pune and
Kanchipuram were centers of classical Sanskrit
learning and public debates until the arrival of the
colonial era.[126]

According to Lamotte (1976), an Indologist and

Buddhism scholar, Sanskrit became the dominant
literary and inscriptional language because of its
precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an
ideal instrument for presenting ideas, and as knowledge
in Sanskrit multiplied, so did its spread and
influence.[127] Sanskrit was adopted voluntarily as a
vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas.
Pollock disagrees with Lamotte, but concurs that
Sanskrit's influence grew into what he terms a "Sanskrit
Cosmopolis" over a region that included all of South
Asia and much of southeast Asia. The Sanskrit language
cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and
1300 CE.[128]

Today, it is believed that Kashmiri is the closest

language to Sanskrit.[129][130][131]

Dravidian influence on Sanskrit

Reinöhl mentions that not only have the Dravidian
languages borrowed from Sanskrit vocabulary, but they
have also affected Sanskrit on deeper levels of Sanskrit's link to the Prakrit languages and other Indo-
structure, "for instance in the domain of phonology European languages
where Indo-Aryan retroflexes have been attributed to
Dravidian influence".[132] Similarly, Ferenc Ruzca
states that all the major shifts in Indo-Aryan phonetics over two millennia can be attributed to the constant
influence of a Dravidian language with a similar phonetic structure to Tamil.[133] Hock et al. quoting George
Hart state that there was influence of Old Tamil on Sanskrit.[134] Hart compared Old Tamil and Classical
Sanskrit to arrive at a conclusion that there was a common language from which these features both derived
– "that both Tamil and Sanskrit derived their shared conventions, metres, and techniques from a common
source, for it is clear that neither borrowed directly from the other."[135]

Reinöhl further states that there is a symmetric relationship between Dravidian languages like Kannada or
Tamil, with Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali or Hindi, whereas the same relationship is not found for non-
Indo-Aryan languages, for example, Persian or English:

A sentence in a Dravidian language like Tamil or Kannada becomes ordinarily good Bengali or
Hindi by substituting Bengali or Hindi equivalents for the Dravidian words and forms, without
modifying the word order; but the same thing is not possible in rendering a Persian or English
sentence into a non-Indo-Aryan language.

— Reinöhl[132]

Shulman mentions that "Dravidian nonfinite verbal forms (called vinaiyeccam in Tamil) shaped the usage of
the Sanskrit nonfinite verbs (originally derived from inflected forms of action nouns in Vedic). This
particularly salient case of the possible influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is only one of many items of

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 8/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

syntactic assimilation, not least among them the large repertoire of morphological modality and aspect that,
once one knows to look for it, can be found everywhere in classical and postclassical Sanskrit".[136]

The main influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is found to have been concentrated in the timespan between the
late Vedic period and the crystallization of Classical Sanskrit. As in this period the Indo-Aryan tribes had not
yet made contact with the inhabitants of the South of the subcontinent, this suggests a significant presence
of Dravidian speakers in North India (the central Gangetic plain and the classical Madhyadeśa) who were
instrumental in this substratal influence on Sanskrit.[137]

Influence
Sanskrit has been the predominant language of Hindu texts encompassing
a rich tradition of philosophical and religious texts, as well as poetry, Extant manuscripts in
music, drama, scientific, technical and others.[141][142] It is the Sanskrit number over
predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic 30 million, one hundred
manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the times those in Greek and
1st century BCE, such as the Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana and Ghosundi- Latin combined,
Hathibada (Chittorgarh).[143] constituting the largest
cultural heritage that any
Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of civilization has produced
Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary prior to the invention of
works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as the printing press.
Buddhism and Jainism.[144][145] The structure and capabilities of the
Classical Sanskrit language launched ancient Indian speculations about — Foreword of Sanskrit
"the nature and function of language", what is the relationship between Computational Linguistics
words and their meanings in the context of a community of speakers, (2009), Gérard Huet,
whether this relationship is objective or subjective, discovered or is created, Amba Kulkarni and Peter
how individuals learn and relate to the world around them through Scharf[138][139][k]
language, and about the limits of language? [144][146] They speculated on the
role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through
sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by
geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other.[146][l] These speculations
became particularly important to the Mīmāṃsā and the Nyaya schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to
Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states Frits Staal—a scholar of Linguistics with a focus on Indian
philosophies and Sanskrit.[144] Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of
Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana
Buddhism scholarship;[149] for example, one of the early and influential Buddhist philosophers, Nagarjuna
(~200 CE), used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts.[150] According to Renou, Sanskrit had a
limited role in the Theravada tradition (formerly known as the Hinayana) but the Prakrit works that have
survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions,
discovered in the 20th century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions used an imperfect and reasonably good
Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The Mahāsāṃghika and Mahavastu, in their late
Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature.[151] Sanskrit was also the language of some of the
oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the Tattvartha
Sutra by Umaswati.[m][153]

The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in
Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist
pilgrim Faxian who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE.[157] Xuanzang, another Chinese Buddhist
pilgrim, learnt Sanskrit in India and carried 657 Sanskrit texts to China in the 7th century where he
established a major center of learning and language translation under the patronage of Emperor
Taizong.[158][159] By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to
Southeast Asia,[160] parts of the East Asia[161] and the Central Asia.[162] It was accepted as a language of high
culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions.[163] According to the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 9/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Dalai Lama, the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at

the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one
that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. In
Tibetan Buddhism, states the Dalai Lama, Sanskrit language has
been a revered one and called legjar lhai-ka or "elegant
language of the gods". It has been the means of transmitting the
"profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy" to Tibet.[164]

The Spitzer Manuscript is dated to about the

2nd century CE (above: folio 383 fragment).
Discovered in the Kizil Caves, near the
northern branch of the Central Asian Silk
Route in northwest China,[154] it is the oldest
Sanskrit philosophical manuscript known so
far.[155][156]

The Sanskrit language created a pan-Indo-Aryan

accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient
and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages
which were understood just regionally.[126][167] It created a
A 5th-century Sanskrit inscription discovered in
cultural bond across the subcontinent.[167] As local
Java, Indonesia—one of the earliest in southeast
languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit Asia after the Mulavarman inscription discovered in
served as the common language.[167] It connected scholars Kutai, eastern Borneo. The Ciaruteun inscription
from distant parts of South Asia such as Tamil Nadu and combines two writing scripts and compares the king
Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different to the Hindu god Vishnu. It provides a terminus ad
fields of studies, though there must have been differences in quem to the presence of Hinduism in the
Indonesian islands. The oldest southeast Asian
its pronunciation given the first language of the respective
Sanskrit inscription—called the Vo Canh inscription
speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indo-Aryan
—so far discovered is near Nha Trang, Vietnam,
speaking people together, particularly its elite scholars.[126] and it is dated to the late 4th century to early 5th
Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally century CE.[165][166]
produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences,
as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and
Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of
Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to the more advanced Classical Sanskrit.
Rituals and the rites-of-passage ceremonies have been and continue to be the other occasions where a wide
spectrum of people hear Sanskrit, and occasionally join in to speak some Sanskrit words such as namah.[126]

Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth
century BCE.[168] Its position in the cultures of Greater India is akin to that of Latin and Ancient Greek in
Europe. Sanskrit has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent,
particularly the languages of the northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent.[169][170][171]

Decline
Sanskrit declined starting about and after the 13th century.[128][172] This coincides with the beginning of
Islamic invasions of South Asia to create, and thereafter expand the Muslim rule in the form of Sultanates,
and later the Mughal Empire.[173] Sheldon Pollock characterises the decline of Sanskrit as a long-term
"cultural, social, and political change". He dismisses the idea that Sanskrit declined due to "struggle with
barbarous invaders", and emphasises factors such as the increasing attractiveness of vernacular language for
literary expression.[174]

With the fall of Kashmir around the 13th century, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit
literature there disappeared,[175] perhaps in the "fires that periodically engulfed the capital of Kashmir" or
the "Mongol invasion of 1320" states Pollock.[176] The Sanskrit literature which was once widely

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 10/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

disseminated out of the northwest regions of the subcontinent, stopped after the 12th century.[177] As Hindu
kingdoms fell in the eastern and the South India, such as the great Vijayanagara Empire, so did Sanskrit.[175]
There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the
reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor Akbar.[178] Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and
scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain
employment with the Muslim rulers.[179] Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire, reversed the
process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity.[179][180][181] After Islamic
rule disintegrated in South Asia and the colonial rule era began, Sanskrit re-emerged but in the form of a
"ghostly existence" in regions such as Bengal. This decline was the result of "political institutions and civic
ethos" that did not support the historic Sanskrit literary culture[175] and the failure of new Sanskrit literature
to assimilate into the changing cultural and political environment.[174]

Sheldon Pollock states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is dead".[182] After the 12th century, the Sanskrit
literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity
was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with the previous 1,500 years when "great experiments
in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states
Pollock.[177]

Scholars maintain that the Sanskrit language did not die, but rather only declined. Jurgen Hanneder
disagrees with Pollock, finding his arguments elegant but "often arbitrary". According to Hanneder, a
decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes a negative evidence to Pollock's
hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th
century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder,[183]

On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is
quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read
will probably convince most people that it cannot be a dead language in the most common usage of
the term. Pollock's notion of the "death of Sanskrit" remains in this unclear realm between
academia and public opinion when he says that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial
way, Sanskrit is dead."[175]

The Sanskrit language scholar Moriz Winternitz states, Sanskrit was never a dead language and it is still
alive though its prevalence is lesser than ancient and medieval times. Sanskrit remains an integral part of
Hindu journals, festivals, Ramlila plays, drama, rituals and the rites-of-passage.[184] Similarly, Brian
Hatcher states that the "metaphors of historical rupture" by Pollock are not valid, that there is ample proof
that Sanskrit was very much alive in the narrow confines of surviving Hindu kingdoms between the 13th and
18th centuries, and its reverence and tradition continues.[185]

Hanneder states that modern works in Sanskrit are either ignored or their "modernity" contested.[186]

According to Robert P. Goldman and Sally Sutherland, Sanskrit is neither "dead" nor "living" in the
conventional sense. It is a special, timeless language that lives in the numerous manuscripts, daily chants,
and ceremonial recitations, a heritage language that Indians contextually prize, and which some
practice.[187]

When the British introduced English to India in the 19th century, knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient
literature continued to flourish as the study of Sanskrit changed from a more traditional style into a form of
analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of Europe.[188]

Modern Indo-Aryan languages

The relationship of Sanskrit to the Prakrit languages, particularly the modern form of Indian languages, is
complex and spans about 3,500 years, states Colin Masica—a linguist specializing in South Asian languages.
A part of the difficulty is the lack of sufficient textual, archaeological and epigraphical evidence for the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 11/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Sanskrit language manuscripts exist in many scripts. Above from top: Isha Upanishad (Devanagari), Samaveda (Tamil
Grantha), Bhagavad Gita (Gurmukhi), Vedanta Sara (Telugu), Jatakamala (early Sharada). All are Hindu texts except the
last Buddhist text.

ancient Prakrit languages with rare exceptions such as Pali, leading to a tendency toward anachronistic
errors.[189] Sanskrit and Prakrit languages may be divided into Old Indo-Aryan (1500 BCE – 600 BCE),
Middle Indo-Aryan (600 BCE – 1000 CE) and New Indo-Aryan (1000 CE – present), each can further be
subdivided into early, middle or second, and late evolutionary substages.[189]

Vedic Sanskrit belongs to the early Old Indo-Aryan stage, while Classical Sanskrit to the later Old Indo-
Aryan stage. The evidence for Prakrits such as Pali (Theravada Buddhism) and Ardhamagadhi (Jainism),
along with Magadhi, Maharashtri, Sinhala, Sauraseni and Niya (Gandhari), emerge in the Middle Indo-
Aryan stage in two versions—archaic and more formalized—that may be placed in early and middle
substages of the 600 BCE – 1000 CE period.[189] Two literary Indo-Aryan languages can be traced to the late
Middle Indo-Aryan stage and these are Apabhramsa and Elu (a literary form of Sinhalese). Numerous
North, Central, Eastern and Western Indian languages, such as Hindi, Gujarati, Sindhi, Punjabi, Kashmiri,
Nepali, Braj, Awadhi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi, and others belong to the New Indo-Aryan
stage.[189]

There is an extensive overlap in the vocabulary, phonetics and other aspects of these New Indo-Aryan
languages with Sanskrit, but it is neither universal nor identical across the languages. They likely emerged
from a synthesis of the ancient Sanskrit language traditions and an admixture of various regional dialects.
Each language has some unique and regionally creative aspects, with unclear origins. Prakrit languages do
have a grammatical structure, but like Vedic Sanskrit, it is far less rigorous than Classical Sanskrit. While the
roots of all Prakrit languages may be in Vedic Sanskrit and ultimately the Proto-Indo-Aryan language, their

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 12/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

structural details vary from Classical Sanskrit.[28][189]It is generally accepted by scholars and widely
believed in India that the modern Indo-Aryan languages – such as Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi –
are descendants of the Sanskrit language.[190][191][192] Sanskrit, states Burjor Avari, can be described as "the
mother language of almost all the languages of north India".[193]

Geographic distribution
The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested
across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions
and literary evidence suggests that Sanskrit language was
already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia
in the 1st millennium CE, through monks, religious
pilgrims and merchants.[194][195][196]

South Asia has been the geographic range of the largest

collection of the ancient and pre-18th-century Sanskrit
manuscripts and inscriptions.[140] Beyond ancient India, Sanskrit language's historical presence has been
attested in many countries. The evidence includes
significant collections of Sanskrit manuscripts and
manuscript pages and inscriptions discovered in South
inscriptions have been found in China (particularly the
Asia, Southeast Asia and Central Asia. These have
Tibetan monasteries),[197][198] Myanmar,[199] been dated between 300 and 1800 CE.
Indonesia,[200] Cambodia,[201] Laos,[202] Vietnam,[203]
Thailand,[204] and Malaysia.[202] Sanskrit inscriptions,
manuscripts or its remnants, including some of the oldest known Sanskrit written texts, have been
discovered in dry high deserts and mountainous terrains such as in Nepal,[205][206][n] Tibet,[198][207]
Afghanistan,[208][209] Mongolia,[210] Uzbekistan,[211] Turkmenistan, Tajikistan,[211] and Kazakhstan.[212]
Some Sanskrit texts and inscriptions have also been discovered in Korea and Japan.[213][214][215]

Official status
In India, Sanskrit is among the 22 official languages of India in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution.[216]
In 2010, Uttarakhand became the first state in India to make Sanskrit its second official language.[217] In
2019, Himachal Pradesh made Sanskrit its second official language, becoming the second state in India to do
so.[218]

Phonology
Sanskrit shares many Proto-Indo-European phonological features, although it features a larger inventory of
distinct phonemes. The consonantal system is the same, though it systematically enlarged the inventory of
distinct sounds. For example, Sanskrit added a voiceless aspirated "tʰ", to the voiceless "t", voiced "d" and
voiced aspirated "dʰ" found in PIE languages.[219]

The most significant and distinctive phonological development in Sanskrit is vowel merger.[219] The short *e,
*o and *a, all merge as a (अ) in Sanskrit, while long *ē, *ō and *ā, all merge as long ā (आ). Compare Sanskrit
nāman to Latin nōmen. These mergers occurred very early and significantly affected Sanskrit's
morphological system.[219] Some phonological developments in it mirror those in other PIE languages. For
example, the labiovelars merged with the plain velars as in other satem languages. The secondary
palatalization of the resulting segments is more thorough and systematic within Sanskrit.[219] A series of
retroflex and dental stops were innovated in Sanskrit to more thoroughly articulate sounds for clarity. For
example, unlike the loss of the morphological clarity from vowel contraction that is found in early Greek and
related southeast European languages, Sanskrit deployed *y, *w, and *s intervocalically to provide
morphological clarity.[219]

Vowels

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 13/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

The cardinal vowels (svaras) i (इ), u (उ), a (अ)

distinguish length in Sanskrit.[220][221] The short a
(अ) in Sanskrit is a closer vowel than ā, equivalent to
schwa. The mid vowels ē (ए) and ō (ओ) in Sanskrit are
monophthongizations of the Indo-Iranian diphthongs
*ai and *au. The Old Iranian language preserved *ai
and *au.[220] The Sanskrit vowels are inherently long,
though often transcribed e and o without the diacritic. This is one of the oldest surviving and dated palm-leaf
The vocalic liquid r̥ in Sanskrit is a merger of PIE *r̥ manuscripts in Sanskrit (828 CE). Discovered in Nepal,
and *l̥ . The long r̥ is an innovation and it is used in a the bottom leaf shows all the vowels and consonants of
few analogically generated morphological Sanskrit (the first five consonants are highlighted in blue
categories.[220][222][223] and yellow).

Sanskrit vowels in the Devanagari script[224][o]

Independent IAST/ Independent IAST/
IPA IPA
form ISO form ISO

अ आ
kaṇṭhya
a /ɐ/ ā /ɑː/
(Guttural)

इ ई
tālavya
i /i/ ī /iː/
(Palatal)

उ ऊ
oṣṭhya
u /u/ ū /uː/
(Labial)

ऋ ॠ
mūrdhanya
ṛ/r̥ /r̩ / ṝ/r̥̄ /r̩ ː/
(Retroflex)

ऌ
dantya
(Dental)
ḷ/l̥ /l̩ / (ॡ) (ḹ/l̥̄)[p] /l̩ ː/

ए ऐ
kaṇṭhatālavya
e/ē /eː/ ai /ɑj/
(Palatoguttural)

ओ औ
kaṇṭhoṣṭhya
o/ō /oː/ au /ɑw/
(Labioguttural)

ṃ/
ं ः
(consonantal
/◌̃/ ḥ[227] /h/
allophones) ṁ[226]

According to Masica, Sanskrit has four traditional semivowels, with which were classed, "for
morphophonemic reasons, the liquids: y, r, l, and v; that is, as y and v were the non-syllabics corresponding
to i, u, so were r, l in relation to r̥ and l̥ ".[228] The northwestern, the central and the eastern Sanskrit dialects
have had a historic confusion between "r" and "l". The Paninian system that followed the central dialect
preserved the distinction, likely out of reverence for the Vedic Sanskrit that distinguished the "r" and "l".
However, the northwestern dialect only had "r", while the eastern dialect probably only had "l", states
Masica. Thus literary works from different parts of ancient India appear inconsistent in their use of "r" and
"l", resulting in doublets that are occasionally semantically differentiated.[228]

Consonants
Sanskrit possesses a symmetric consonantal phoneme structure based on how the sound is articulated,
though the actual usage of these sounds conceals the lack of parallelism in the apparent symmetry possibly
from historical changes within the language.[229]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 14/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Sanskrit consonants in the Devanagari script[224][o]

sparśa anunāsika antastha ūṣman/saṃgharṣhī
(Plosive) (Nasal) (Approximant) (Fricative)
Voicing → aghoṣa ghoṣa aghoṣa

Aspiration
alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa alpaprāṇa mahāprāṇa
→

क ख ग घ ङ ह
kaṇṭhya ka kha ga gha ṅa ha
(Guttural) [k] [kʰ] [ɡ] [ɡʱ] [ŋ] [ɦ]

च छ ज झ ञ य श
tālavya ca cha ja jha ña ya śa
(Palatal) [t͜ɕ] [t͜ɕʰ] [d͜ ʑ] [d͜ ʑʱ] [ɲ] [j] [ɕ]

ट ठ ड ढ ण र ष
mūrdhanya ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa ra ṣa
(Retroflex) [ʈ] [ʈʰ] [ɖ] [ɖʱ] [ɳ] [ɾ] [ʂ]

त थ द ध न ल स
dantya ta tha da dha na la sa
(Dental) [t] [tʰ] [d] [dʱ] [n] [l] [s]

प फ ब भ म व
oṣṭhya pa pha ba bha ma va
(Labial) [p] [pʰ] [b] [bʱ] [m] [ʋ]

Sanskrit had a series of retroflex stops originating as conditioned alternants of dentals, albeit by Sanskrit
they had become phonemic.[229]

Regarding the palatal plosives, the pronunciation is a matter of debate. In contemporary attestation, the
palatal plosives are a regular series of palatal stops, supported by most Sanskrit sandhi rules. However, the
reflexes in descendant languages, as well as a few of the sandhi rules regarding ch, could suggest an affricate
pronunciation.

jh was a marginal phoneme in Sanskrit, hence its phonology is more difficult to reconstruct; it was more
commonly employed in the Middle Indo-Aryan languages as a result of phonological processes resulting in
the phoneme.

The palatal nasal is a conditioned variant of n occurring next to palatal obstruents.[229] The anusvara that
Sanskrit deploys is a conditioned alternant of postvocalic nasals, under certain sandhi conditions.[230] Its
visarga is a word-final or morpheme-final conditioned alternant of s and r under certain sandhi
conditions.[230]

The voiceless aspirated series is also an innovation in Sanskrit but is

significantly rarer than the other three series.[229] The system of Sanskrit
Sounds
While the Sanskrit language organizes sounds for expression beyond those [The] order of Sanskrit
found in the PIE language, it retained many features found in the Iranian sounds works along three
and Balto-Slavic languages. An example of a similar process in all three is principles: it goes from
the retroflex sibilant ʂ being the automatic product of dental s following i, simple to complex; it goes
u, r, and k.[230] from the back to the front
of the mouth; and it
groups similar sounds
Phonological alternations, sandhi rules
together. [...] Among
Sanskrit deploys extensive phonological alternations on different linguistic themselves, both the
levels through sandhi rules (literally, the rules of "putting together, union, vowels and consonants are
connection, alliance"), similar to the English alteration of "going to" as ordered according to
gonna.[232] The Sanskrit language accepts such alterations within it, but where in the mouth they
offers formal rules for the sandhi of any two words next to each other in the are pronounced, going
same sentence or linking two sentences. The external sandhi rules state from back to front.
that similar short vowels coalesce into a single long vowel, while dissimilar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 15/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

vowels form glides or undergo diphthongization.[232]

Among the — A. M. Ruppel, The
consonants, most external sandhi rules recommend regressive assimilation Cambridge Introduction
for clarity when they are voiced. These rules ordinarily apply at compound to Sanskrit[231]
seams and morpheme boundaries.[232] In Vedic Sanskrit, the external
sandhi rules are more variable than in Classical Sanskrit.[233]

The internal sandhi rules are more intricate and account for the root and the canonical structure of the
Sanskrit word. These rules anticipate what are now known as the Bartholomae's law and Grassmann's law.
For example, states Jamison, the "voiceless, voiced, and voiced aspirated obstruents of a positional series
regularly alternate with each other (p ≈ b ≈ bh; t ≈ d ≈ dh, etc.; note, however, c ≈ j ≈ h), such that, for
example, a morpheme with an underlying voiced aspirate final may show alternants with all three stops
under differing internal sandhi conditions".[234] The velar series (k, g, gʰ) alternate with the palatal series (c,
j, h), while the structural position of the palatal series is modified into a retroflex cluster when followed by
dental. This rule creates two morphophonemically distinct series from a single palatal series.[234]

Vocalic alternations in the Sanskrit morphological system is termed "strengthening", and called guṇa and
vr̥ ddhi in the preconsonantal versions. There is an equivalence to terms deployed in Indo-European
descriptive grammars, wherein Sanskrit's unstrengthened state is same as the zero-grade, guṇa corresponds
to normal-grade, while vr̥ ddhi is same as the lengthened-state.[235] The qualitative ablaut is not found in
Sanskrit just like it is absent in Iranian, but Sanskrit retains quantitative ablaut through vowel
strengthening.[235] The transformations between unstrengthened to guṇa is prominent in the morphological
system, states Jamison, while vr̥ ddhi is a particularly significant rule when adjectives of origin and
appurtenance are derived. The manner in which this is done slightly differs between the Vedic and the
Classical Sanskrit.[235][236]

How Sanskrit chants sound

4:55

A recitation of the Sanskrit composition Guru Stotram, or "the hymn of praise for the teacher (guru)". (4 min
55 s)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Sanskrit grants a very flexible syllable structure, where they may begin or end with vowels, be single
consonants or clusters. Similarly, the syllable may have an internal vowel of any weight. Vedic Sanskrit
shows traces of following the Sievers–Edgerton law, but Classical Sanskrit does not. Vedic Sanskrit has a
pitch accent system (inherited from Proto-Indo-European) which was acknowledged by Pāṇini, states
Jamison; but in his Classical Sanskrit the accents disappear.[237] Most Vedic Sanskrit words have one accent.
However, this accent is not phonologically predictable, states Jamison.[237] It can fall anywhere in the word
and its position often conveys morphological and syntactic information.[237] The presence of an accent
system in Vedic Sanskrit is evidenced from the markings in the Vedic texts. This is important because of
Sanskrit's connection to the PIE languages and comparative Indo-European linguistics.[238]

Sanskrit, like most early Indo-European languages, lost the so-called "laryngeal consonants (cover-symbol
*H) present in the Proto-Indo-European", states Jamison.[237] This significantly affected the evolutionary
path of the Sanskrit phonology and morphology, particularly in the variant forms of roots.[239]

Pronunciation
Because Sanskrit is not anyone's native language, it does not have a fixed pronunciation. People tend to
pronounce it as they do their native language. The articles on Hindustani, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya and
Bengali phonology will give some indication of the variation that is encountered. When Sanskrit was a
spoken language, its pronunciation varied regionally and also over time. Nonetheless, Panini described the
sound system of Sanskrit well enough that people have a fairly good idea of what he intended.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 16/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Various renditions of Sanskrit pronunciation

Goldman Cardona
Transcription
(2002)[q] (2003)[241]
a ɐ ɐ

ā aː aː

i ɪ ɪ
ī iː iː

u ʊ ʊ

ū uː uː

r̥ ɽɪ ɽɪ ᵊɾᵊ or ᵊɽᵊ[r]

r̥̄ ɽiː ɽiː?[s] ?[s]

l̥ lɪ ?[t] [u]

ē eː eː eː
ai ai ai ɐi or ɛi

ō oː oː oː

au au au ɐu or ɔu

aṃ ɐ̃, ɐɴ ɐ̃, ɐɴ[v]

aḥ ɐh ɐhɐ[w] ɐh

k k k

kh kʰ kʰ

g ɡ ɡ
gh ɡʱ ɡʱ

ṅ ŋ ŋ

h ɦ ɦ ɦ
c t͡ ɕ t͡ ɕ

ch t͡ ɕʰ t͡ ɕʰ

j d͡ ʑ d͡ ʑ
jh d͡ ʑʱ d͡ ʑʱ

ñ n n

y j j j
ś ɕ ɕ ɕ

ṭ t̠ t̠

ṭh t̠ ʰ t̠ ʰ
ḍ d̠ d̠

ḍh d̠ ʱ d̠ ʱ

ṇ n̠ n̠
r ɾ ɾ ɾ̪ , ɾ or ɽ

ṣ s̠ s̠ ʂ

t t̪ t̪
th t̪ ʰ t̪ ʰ

d d̪ d̪

dh d̪ ʱ d̪ ʱ

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 17/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

n n̪ n̪
l l l l̪

s s s s̪

p p p
ph pʰ pʰ

b b b

bh bʱ bʱ
m m m

v ʋ ʋ ʋ

(ante)pen-
stress
ultimate[x]

Morphology
The basis of Sanskrit morphology is the root, states Jamison, "a morpheme bearing lexical meaning".[242]
The verbal and nominal stems of Sanskrit words are derived from this root through the phonological vowel-
gradation processes, the addition of affixes, verbal and nominal stems. It then adds an ending to establish
the grammatical and syntactic identity of the stem. According to Jamison, the "three major formal elements
of the morphology are (i) root, (ii) affix, and (iii) ending; and they are roughly responsible for (i) lexical
meaning, (ii) derivation, and (iii) inflection respectively".[243]

A Sanskrit word has the following canonical structure:[242]

Root + Affix0-n + Ending0–1

The root structure has certain phonological constraints. Two of the most important constraints of a "root" is
that it does not end in a short "a" (अ) and that it is monosyllabic.[242] In contrast, the affixes and endings
commonly do. The affixes in Sanskrit are almost always suffixes, with exceptions such as the augment "a-"
added as prefix to past tense verb forms and the "-na/n-" infix in single verbal present class, states
Jamison.[242]

Sanskrit verbs have the following canonical structure:[244]

Root + SuffixTense-Aspect + SuffixMood + EndingPersonal-Number-Voice

According to Ruppel, verbs in Sanskrit express the same information as other Indo-European languages
such as English.[245] Sanskrit verbs describe an action or occurrence or state, its embedded morphology
informs as to "who is doing it" (person or persons), "when it is done" (tense) and "how it is done" (mood,
voice). The Indo-European languages differ in the detail. For example, the Sanskrit language attaches the
affixes and ending to the verb root, while the English language adds small independent words before the
verb. In Sanskrit, these elements co-exist within the word.[245][y]

Word morphology in Sanskrit, A. M. Ruppel[245][z]

Sanskrit word equivalent
English expression IAST/ISO Devanagari

you carry bharasi भरसि

they carry bharanti भरन्ति

you will carry bhariṣyasi भरिष्यसि

Both verbs and nouns in Sanskrit are either thematic or athematic, states Jamison.[247] Guna (strengthened)
forms in the active singular regularly alternate in athematic verbs. The finite verbs of Classical Sanskrit have
the following grammatical categories: person, number, voice, tense-aspect, and mood. According to
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 18/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Jamison, a portmanteau morpheme generally expresses the person-number-voice in Sanskrit, and

sometimes also the ending or only the ending. The mood of the word is embedded in the affix.[247]

These elements of word architecture are the typical building blocks in Classical Sanskrit, but in Vedic
Sanskrit these elements fluctuate and are unclear. For example, in the Rigveda preverbs regularly occur in
tmesis, states Jamison, which means they are "separated from the finite verb".[242] This indecisiveness is
likely linked to Vedic Sanskrit's attempt to incorporate accent. With nonfinite forms of the verb and with
nominal derivatives thereof, states Jamison, "preverbs show much clearer univerbation in Vedic, both by
position and by accent, and by Classical Sanskrit, tmesis is no longer possible even with finite forms".[242]

While roots are typical in Sanskrit, some words do not follow the canonical structure.[243] A few forms lack
both inflection and root. Many words are inflected (and can enter into derivation) but lack a recognizable
root. Examples from the basic vocabulary include kinship terms such as mātar- (mother), nas- (nose), śvan-
(dog). According to Jamison, pronouns and some words outside the semantic categories also lack roots, as
do the numerals. Similarly, the Sanskrit language is flexible enough to not mandate inflection.[243]

The Sanskrit words can contain more than one affix that interact with each other. Affixes in Sanskrit can be
athematic as well as thematic, according to Jamison.[248] Athematic affixes can be alternating. Sanskrit
deploys eight cases, namely nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative,
vocative.[248]

Stems, that is "root + affix", appear in two categories in Sanskrit: vowel stems and consonant stems. Unlike
some Indo-European languages such as Latin or Greek, according to Jamison, "Sanskrit has no closed set of
conventionally denoted noun declensions". Sanskrit includes a fairly large set of stem-types.[249] The
linguistic interaction of the roots, the phonological segments, lexical items and the grammar for the Classical
Sanskrit consist of four Paninian components. These, states Paul Kiparsky, are the Astadhyaayi, a
comprehensive system of 4,000 grammatical rules, of which a small set are frequently used; Sivasutras, an
inventory of anubandhas (markers) that partition phonological segments for efficient abbreviations through
the pratyharas technique; Dhatupatha, a list of 2,000 verbal roots classified by their morphology and
syntactic properties using diacritic markers, a structure that guides its writing systems; and, the Ganapatha,
an inventory of word groups, classes of lexical systems.[250] There are peripheral adjuncts to these four, such
as the Unadisutras, which focus on irregularly formed derivatives from the roots.[250]

Sanskrit morphology is generally studied in two broad fundamental categories: the nominal forms and the
verbal forms. These differ in the types of endings and what these endings mark in the grammatical
context.[243] Pronouns and nouns share the same grammatical categories, though they may differ in
inflection. Verb-based adjectives and participles are not formally distinct from nouns. Adverbs are typically
frozen case forms of adjectives, states Jamison, and "nonfinite verbal forms such as infinitives and gerunds
also clearly show frozen nominal case endings".[243]

Tense and voice

The Sanskrit language includes five tenses: present, future, past imperfect, past aorist and past perfect.[246]
It outlines three types of voices: active, passive and the middle.[246] The middle is also referred to as the
mediopassive, or more formally in Sanskrit as parasmaipada (word for another) and atmanepada (word for
oneself).[244]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 19/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Voice in Sanskrit, Stephanie Jamison[244][aa]

Middle
Active
(Mediopassive)
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

1st person -mi -vas -mas -e -vahe -mahe

2nd person -si -thas -tha -se -āthe -dhve

3rd person -ti -tas -anti -te -āte -ante

The paradigm for the tense-aspect system in Sanskrit is the three-way contrast between the "present", the
"aorist" and the "perfect" architecture.[251] Vedic Sanskrit is more elaborate and had several additional
tenses. For example, the Rigveda includes perfect and a marginal pluperfect. Classical Sanskrit simplifies
the "present" system down to two tenses, the perfect and the imperfect, while the "aorist" stems retain the
aorist tense and the "perfect" stems retain the perfect and marginal pluperfect.[251] The classical version of
the language has elaborate rules for both voice and the tense-aspect system to emphasize clarity, and this is
more elaborate than in other Indo-European languages. The evolution of these systems can be seen from the
earliest layers of the Vedic literature to the late Vedic literature.[252]

Number, person
Sanskrit recognizes three numbers—singular, dual, and plural.[248] The dual is a fully functioning category,
used beyond naturally paired objects such as hands or eyes, extending to any collection of two. The elliptical
dual is notable in the Vedic Sanskrit, according to Jamison, where a noun in the dual signals a paired
opposition.[248] Illustrations include dyāvā (literally, "the two heavens" for heaven-and-earth), mātarā
(literally, "the two mothers" for mother-and-father).[248] A verb may be singular, dual or plural, while the
person recognized in the language are forms of "I", "you", "he/she/it", "we" and "they".[246]

There are three persons in Sanskrit: first, second and third.[244] Sanskrit uses the 3×3 grid formed by the
three numbers and the three persons parameters as the paradigm and the basic building block of its verbal
system.[252]

Gender, mood
The Sanskrit language incorporates three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter.[248] All nouns have
inherent gender. With some exceptions, personal pronouns have no gender. Exceptions include
demonstrative and anaphoric pronouns.[248] Derivation of a word is used to express the feminine. Two most
common derivations come from feminine-forming suffixes, the -ā- (आ, Rādhā) and -ī- (ई, Rukmīnī). The
masculine and neuter are much simpler, and the difference between them is primarily inflectional.[248][253]
Similar affixes for the feminine are found in many Indo-European languages, states Burrow, suggesting links
of the Sanskrit to its PIE heritage.[254]

Pronouns in Sanskrit include the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, unmarked for gender,
and a larger number of gender-distinguishing pronouns and adjectives.[247] Examples of the former include
ahám (first singular), vayám (first plural) and yūyám (second plural). The latter can be demonstrative,
deictic or anaphoric.[247] Both the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit share the sá/tám pronominal stem, and this
is the closest element to a third person pronoun and an article in the Sanskrit language, states Jamison.[247]

Indicative, potential and imperative are the three mood forms in Sanskrit.[246]

Prosody, metre
The Sanskrit language formally incorporates poetic metres.[255] By the late Vedic era, this developed into a
field of study; it was central to the composition of the Hindu literature, including the later Vedic texts. This
study of Sanskrit prosody is called chandas, and is considered one of the six Vedangas, or limbs of Vedic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 20/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

studies.[255][256]

Sanskrit prosody includes linear and non-linear systems.[257] The system started off with seven major
metres, according to Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, called the "seven birds" or "seven mouths of
Brihaspati", and each had its own rhythm, movements and aesthetics wherein a non-linear structure
(aperiodicity) was mapped into a four verse polymorphic linear sequence.[257] A syllable in Sanskrit is
classified as either laghu (light) or guru (heavy). This classification is based on a matra (literally, "count,
measure, duration"), and typically a syllable that ends in a short vowel is a light syllable, while those that end
in consonant, anusvara or visarga are heavy. The classical Sanskrit found in Hindu scriptures such as the
Bhagavad Gita and many texts are so arranged that the light and heavy syllables in them follow a rhythm,
though not necessarily a rhyme.[258][259][ab]

Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed
number of morae per verse.[261] The Vedic Sanskrit employs fifteen metres, of which seven are common, and
the most frequent are three (8-, 11- and 12-syllable lines).[262] The Classical Sanskrit deploys both linear and
non-linear metres, many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based
on repeating numbers of morae (matra per foot).[262]

Metre and rhythm is an important part of the Sanskrit language.

There is no word without metre, It may have played a role in helping preserve the integrity of the
nor is there any metre without words. message and Sanskrit texts. The verse perfection in the Vedic
texts such as the verse Upanishads[ac] and post-Vedic Smṛti texts
— Natya Shastra[263] are rich in prosody. This feature of the Sanskrit language led
some Indologists from the 19th century onwards to identify
suspected portions of texts where a line or sections are off the
expected metre.[264][265][ad]

The metre-feature of the Sanskrit language embeds another layer of communication to the listener or reader.
A change in metres has been a tool of literary architecture and an embedded code to inform the reciter and
audience that it marks the end of a section or chapter.[269] Each section or chapter of these texts uses
identical metres, rhythmically presenting their ideas and making it easier to remember, recall and check for
accuracy.[269] Authors coded a hymn's end by frequently using a verse of a metre different from that used in
the hymn's body.[269] However, Hindu tradition does not use the Gayatri metre to end a hymn or
composition, possibly because it has enjoyed a special level of reverence in Hinduism.[269]

Writing system
The early history of writing Sanskrit and other languages in ancient India is a problematic topic despite a
century of scholarship, states Richard Salomon – an epigraphist and Indologist specializing in Sanskrit and
Pali literature.[270] The earliest possible script from South Asia is from the Indus Valley civilization (3rd/2nd
millennium BCE), but this script – if it is a script – remains undeciphered. If any scripts existed in the Vedic
period, they have not survived. Scholars generally accept that Sanskrit was spoken in an oral society, and
that an oral tradition preserved the extensive Vedic and Classical Sanskrit literature.[271] Other scholars such
as Jack Goody argue that the Vedic Sanskrit texts are not the product of an oral society, basing this view by
comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the
Greek, Serbian, and other cultures. This minority of scholars argue that the Vedic literature is too consistent
and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without having been written
down.[272][273]

Lipi is the term in Sanskrit which means "writing, letters, alphabet". It contextually refers to scripts, the art
or any manner of writing or drawing.[100] The term, in the sense of a writing system, appears in some of the
earliest Buddhist, Hindu, and Jaina texts. Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, composed sometime around the 5th or 4th
century BCE, for example, mentions lipi in the context of a writing script and education system in his times,
but he does not name the script.[100][101][274] Several early Buddhist and Jaina texts, such as the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 21/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Lalitavistara Sūtra and Pannavana Sutta include lists of numerous

writing scripts in ancient India.[ae] The Buddhist texts list the sixty four
lipi that the Buddha knew as a child, with the Brahmi script topping the
list. "The historical value of this list is however limited by several
factors", states Salomon. The list may be a later interpolation.[276][af] The
Jain canonical texts such as the Pannavana Sutta – probably older than
the Buddhist texts – list eighteen writing systems, with the Brahmi
topping the list and Kharotthi (Kharoshthi) listed as fourth. The Jaina
text elsewhere states that the "Brahmi is written in 18 different forms",
but the details are lacking.[278] However, the reliability of these lists has
been questioned and the empirical evidence of writing systems in the
form of Sanskrit or Prakrit inscriptions dated prior to the
3rd century BCE has not been found. If the ancient surfaces for writing
Sanskrit were palm leaves, tree bark and cloth – the same as those in
later times – these have not survived.[279][ag] According to Salomon,
many find it difficult to explain the "evidently high level of political
One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit
organization and cultural complexity" of ancient India without a writing manuscript pages in Gupta script
system for Sanskrit and other languages.[279][ah] (c. 828 CE), discovered in Nepal

The oldest datable writing systems for Sanskrit are the Brāhmī script, the
related Kharoṣṭhī script and the Brahmi derivatives.[282][283] The Kharosthi was used in the northwestern
part of South Asia and it became extinct, while the Brahmi was used all over the subcontinent along with
regional scripts such as Old Tamil.[284] Of these, the earliest records in the Sanskrit language are in Brahmi,
a script that later evolved into numerous related Indic scripts for Sanskrit, along with Southeast Asian
scripts (Burmese, Thai, Lao, Khmer, others) and many extinct Central Asian scripts such as those discovered
along with the Kharosthi in the Tarim Basin of western China and in Uzbekistan.[285] The most extensive
inscriptions that have survived into the modern era are the rock edicts and pillar inscriptions of the
3rd century BCE Mauryan emperor Ashoka, but these are not in Sanskrit.[286][ai]

Scripts
Over the centuries, and across countries, a number of scripts have been used to write Sanskrit.

Brahmi script
The Brahmi script for writing Sanskrit is a "modified consonant-
syllabic" script. The graphic syllable is its basic unit, and this
consists of a consonant with or without diacritic modifications.[283]
Since the vowel is an integral part of the consonants, and given the
efficiently compacted, fused consonant cluster morphology for
Sanskrit words and grammar, the Brahmi and its derivative writing
systems deploy ligatures, diacritics and relative positioning of the
vowel to inform the reader how the vowel is related to the
consonant and how it is expected to be pronounced for
clarity.[283][288][ak] This feature of Brahmi and its modern Indic
script derivatives makes it difficult to classify it under the main
One of the oldest Hindu Sanskrit[aj]
script types used for the writing systems for most of the world's
inscriptions, the broken pieces of this early-
languages, namely logographic, syllabic and alphabetic.[283] 1st-century BCE Hathibada Brahmi
Inscription were discovered in Rajasthan. It
The Brahmi script evolved into "a vast number of forms and is a dedication to deities Vāsudeva-
derivatives", states Richard Salomon, and in theory, Sanskrit "can Samkarshana (Krishna-Balarama) and
be represented in virtually any of the main Brahmi-based scripts mentions a stone temple.[143][287]
and in practice it often is".[289] From the ancient times, it has been
written in numerous regional scripts in South and Southeast Asia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 22/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Most of these are descendants of the Brahmi script.[al]The earliest datable varnamala Brahmi alphabet
system, found in later Sanskrit texts, is from the 2nd century BCE, in the form of a terracotta plaque found in
Sughana, Haryana. It shows a "schoolboy's writing lessons", states Salomon.[291][292]

Nagari script
Many modern era manuscripts are written and available in the Nagari script, whose form is attestable to the
1st millennium CE.[293] The Nagari script is the ancestor of Devanagari (north India), Nandinagari (south
India) and other variants. The Nāgarī script was in regular use by 7th century CE, and had fully evolved into
Devanagari and Nandinagari[294] scripts by about the end of the first millennium of the common
era.[295][296] The Devanagari script, states Banerji, became more popular for Sanskrit in India since about
the 18th century.[297] However, Sanskrit does have special historical connection to the Nagari script as
attested by the epigraphical evidence.[298]

The Nagari script has been thought of as a northern Indic script for Sanskrit as well as the regional
languages such as Hindi, Marathi, and Nepali. However, it has had a "supra-local" status as evidenced by 1st-
millennium CE epigraphy and manuscripts discovered all over India and as far as Sri Lanka, Burma,
Indonesia, and in its parent form, called the Siddhamatrka script, found in manuscripts of East Asia.[299]
The Sanskrit and Balinese languages Sanur inscription on Belanjong pillar of Bali (Indonesia), dated to
about 914 CE, is in part in the Nagari script.[300]

The Nagari script used for Classical Sanskrit has the fullest repertoire of characters consisting of fourteen
vowels and thirty three consonants. For Vedic Sanskrit, it has two more allophonic consonantal characters
(the intervocalic ळ ḷa, and ळ्ह ḷha).[299] To communicate phonetic accuracy, it also includes several
modifiers such as the anusvara dot and the visarga double dot, punctuation symbols and others such as the
halanta sign.[299]

Other writing systems

Other scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla-Assamese, Odia and major
south Indian scripts, states Salomon, "have been and often still are
used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit".[293] These and
many Indian scripts look different to the untrained eye, but the
differences between Indic scripts is "mostly superficial and they
share the same phonetic repertoire and systemic features", states
Salomon.[301] They all have essentially the same set of eleven to
fourteen vowels and thirty-three consonants as established by the
Sanskrit language and attestable in the Brahmi script. Further, a
closer examination reveals that they all have the similar basic
graphic principles, the same varnamala (literally, "garland of
letters") alphabetic ordering following the same logical phonetic
order, easing the work of historic skilled scribes writing or
reproducing Sanskrit works across South Asia.[302][am] The
Sanskrit language written in some Indic scripts exaggerate angles Sanskrit in modern Indian and other
or round shapes, but this serves only to mask the underlying Brahmi scripts: May Śiva bless those who
similarities. Nagari script favours symmetry set with squared take delight in the language of the gods.
outlines and right angles. In contrast, Sanskrit written in the (Kālidāsa)
Bengali script emphasizes the acute angles while the neighbouring
Odia script emphasizes rounded shapes and uses cosmetically
appealing "umbrella-like curves" above the script symbols.[304]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 23/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

In the south, where Dravidian languages predominate, scripts used

for Sanskrit include the Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Grantha
alphabets.

Transliteration schemes, Romanisation

Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been transliterated using
the Latin alphabet. The system most commonly used today is the
IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), which
has been the academic standard since 1888. ASCII-based
One of the earliest known Sanskrit transliteration schemes have also evolved because of difficulties
inscriptions in Tamil Grantha script at a representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These
rock-cut Hindu Trimurti temple
include Harvard-Kyoto and ITRANS, a transliteration scheme that
(Mandakapattu, c. 615 CE)
is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email,
for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues.
With the wide availability of Unicode-aware web browsers, IAST has become common online. It is also
possible to type using an alphanumeric keyboard and transliterate to Devanagari using software like Mac OS
X's international support.

European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction
of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed
in European Languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the 20th century
onwards, because of production costs, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in
Romanised transliteration.[305]

Epigraphy
The earliest known stone inscriptions in Sanskrit are in the Brahmi script from the first
century BCE.[143][an][ao] These include the Ayodhyā (Uttar Pradesh) and Hāthībādā-Ghosuṇḍī (near
Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) inscriptions.[143][308] Both of these, states Salomon, are "essentially standard" and
"correct Sanskrit", with a few exceptions reflecting an "informal Sanskrit usage".[143] Other important Hindu
inscriptions dated to the 1st century BCE, in relatively accurate classical Sanskrit and Brahmi script are the
Yavanarajya inscription on a red sandstone slab and the long Naneghat inscription on the wall of a cave rest
stop in the Western Ghats.[309]

Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the earliest Sanskrit and hybrid dialect inscriptions
are found in Mathura (Uttar Pradesh).[310] These date to the 1st and 2nd century CE, states Salomon, from
the time of the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and the subsequent Kushan Empire.[ap] These are also in the
Brahmi script.[312] The earliest of these, states Salomon, are attributed to Ksatrapa Sodasa from the early
years of 1st century CE. Of the Mathura inscriptions, the most significant is the Mora Well Inscription.[312]
In a manner similar to the Hathibada inscription, the Mora well inscription is a dedicatory inscription and is
linked to the cult of the Vrishni heroes: it mentions a stone shrine (temple), pratima (murti, images) and
calls the five Vrishnis as bhagavatam.[312][313] There are many other Mathura Sanskrit inscriptions in
Brahmi script overlapping the era of Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and early Kushanas.[312] Other
significant 1st-century inscriptions in reasonably good classical Sanskrit in the Brahmi script include the
Vasu Doorjamb Inscription and the Mountain Temple inscription.[314] The early ones are related to the
Brahmanical, except for the inscription from Kankali Tila which may be Jaina, but none are
Buddhist.[315][316] A few of the later inscriptions from the 2nd century CE include Buddhist Sanskrit, while
others are in "more or less" standard Sanskrit and related to the Brahmanical tradition.[317]

In Maharashtra and Gujarat, Brahmi script Sanskrit inscriptions from the early centuries of the common era
exist at the Nasik Caves site, near the Girnar mountain of Junagadh and elsewhere such as at Kanakhera,
Kanheri, and Gunda.[318] The Nasik inscription dates to the mid-1st century CE, is a fair approximation of
standard Sanskrit and has hybrid features.[318] The Junagadh rock inscription of Western Satraps ruler

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 24/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Starting in about the 1st century BCE, Sanskrit has been written in many South Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian
scripts.

Rudradaman I (c. 150 CE, Gujarat) is the first long poetic-style inscription in "more or less" standard
Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in the history of Sanskrit
epigraphy, states Salomon.[319][aq] Though no similar inscriptions are found for about two hundred years
after the Rudradaman reign, it is important because its style is the prototype of the eulogy-style Sanskrit
inscriptions found in the Gupta Empire era.[319] These inscriptions are also in the Brahmi script.[320]

The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest known substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions,
probably from the late 3rd century or early 4th century CE, or both.[321] These inscriptions are related to
Buddhism and the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism.[322] A few of these inscriptions from both traditions are
verse-style in the classical Sanskrit language, while some such as the pillar inscription is written in prose and
a hybridized Sanskrit language.[321] An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated
to the late 2nd century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions
related to Hinduism and Buddhism.[323] After the 3rd century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many
have survived.[324] Between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, south Indian inscriptions are exclusively in the
Sanskrit language.[ar] In the eastern regions of South Asia, scholars report minor Sanskrit inscriptions from
the 2nd century, these being fragments and scattered. The earliest substantial true Sanskrit language
inscription of Susuniya (West Bengal) is dated to the 4th century.[325] Elsewhere, such as Dehradun
(Uttarakhand), inscriptions in more or less correct classical Sanskrit inscriptions are dated to the 3rd
century.[325]

According to Salomon, the 4th-century reign of Samudragupta was the turning point when the classical
Sanskrit language became established as the "epigraphic language par excellence" of the Indian world.[326]
These Sanskrit language inscriptions are either "donative" or "panegyric" records. Generally in accurate
classical Sanskrit, they deploy a wide range of regional Indic writing systems extant at the time.[327] They
record the donation of a temple or stupa, images, land, monasteries, pilgrim's travel record, public
infrastructure such as water reservoir and irrigation measures to prevent famine. Others praise the king or
the donor in lofty poetic terms.[328] The Sanskrit language of these inscriptions is written on stone, various
metals, terracotta, wood, crystal, ivory, shell, and cloth.[329][as]

The evidence of the use of the Sanskrit language in Indic writing systems appears in southeast Asia in the
first half of the 1st millennium CE.[332] A few of these in Vietnam are bilingual where both the Sanskrit and
the local language is written in the Indian alphabet. Early Sanskrit language inscriptions in Indic writing
systems are dated to the 4th century in Malaysia, 5th to 6th centuries in Thailand near Si Thep and the Sak
River, early 5th century in Kutai (known as the Mulavarman inscription discovered in eastern Borneo), and
mid-5th century in west Java (Indonesia).[333] Both major writing systems for Sanskrit, the North Indian
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 25/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

and South Indian scripts, have been discovered in southeast Asia, but the Southern variety with its rounded
shapes are far more common.[334] The Indic scripts, particularly the Pallava script prototype,[335] spread
and ultimately evolved into Mon-Burmese, Khmer, Thai, Lao, Sumatran, Celebes, Javanese and Balinese
scripts.[336] From about the 5th century, Sanskrit inscriptions become common in many parts of South Asia
and Southeast Asia, with significant discoveries in Nepal, Vietnam and Cambodia.[326]

Literature
Literature in Sanskrit[at] can be broadly divided into texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit and the later Classical
Sanskrit.[338] Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the Vedic religion,[au] which
aside from the four Vedas, include the Brāhmaṇas and the Sūtras.[340][341][342]

The Vedic literature that survives is entirely of a religious form, whereas works in Classical Sanskrit exist in a
wide variety of fields including epics, lyric, drama, romance, fairytale, fables, grammar, civil and religious
law, the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sex, philosophy, medicine, astronomy,
astrology and mathematics, and is largely secular in subject-matter.[343][344]

While Vedic literature is essentially optimistic in spirit, portraying man as strong and powerful capable of
finding fulfilment both here and in the afterworld, the later literature is pessimistic, portraying humans as
controlled by the forces of fate with worldly pleasures deemed the cause of misery. These fundamental
differences in psychology are attributed to the absence of the doctrines of Karma and reincarnation in the
Vedic period, notions which are very prevalent in later times.[345]

Works
Sanskrit has been written in various scripts on a variety of media such as palm leaves, cloth, paper, rock and
metal sheets, from ancient times.[346]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 26/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Sanskrit literature by tradition

Sanskrit texts, genre
Tradition Example References
or collection

Scriptures Vedas, Upaniṣads, Āgamas, the Bhagavad·Gītā [347][348]

Aṣṭādhyāyī, Gaṇa·pāṭha, Pada·pāṭha, Vārttikas, Mahābhāṣya, [349][350][351]

Language, Grammar
Vākya·padīya, Phiṭ·sūtra

Civil and Religious

Law Dharma·sūtras/Dharma·śāstras,[av] Manu·smṛti [352][353]

Statecraft, political [354]

Artha·śāstra
science

Kalpa, Jyotiṣa, Gaṇita·śāstra, Śulba·sūtras, Siddhāntas, Āryabhaṭīya,

Timekeeping, Daśa·gītikā·sutra, Siddhānta·śiromaṇi, Gaṇita·sāra·saṅgraha, [355][356]
Mathematics, Logic
Bīja·gaṇita[aw]

Life sciences, health Āyurveda, Suśruta·saṃhitā, Caraka·saṃhitā [357][358]

Sex, emotions[ax] Kāma·sūtra, Pañca·sāyaka, Rati·rahasya, Rati·mañjari, Anaṅga·ranga [359][360]

Epics Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata [361][362]

Court Epic (Kāvya) Raghu·vaṃśa, Kumāra·sambhava [363]

Hinduism Subhāṣitas, Nīti·śataka, Bodhicary'âvatāra, Śṛṅgāra·jñāna·nirṇaya,

Gnomic and didactic [364]
Kalā·vilāsa, Catur·varga·saṅgraha, Nīti·mañjari, Mugdh'ôpadeśa,
literature
Subhāṣita·ratna·sandoha, Yoga·śāstra, Śṛṅgāra·vairāgya·taraṅgiṇī
Drama, dance and the [365][366][367]
Nāṭya·śāstra
performance arts

Music Sangīta·śāstra [368][369]

Poetics Kāvya·śāstra [370]

Mythology Purāṇas [371]

Mystical speculations, Darśana, Sāṅkhya, Yoga (philosophy), Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṅsa, [372]
philosophy Vedānta, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, Smārta Tradition and others

Agriculture and food Kṛṣi·śāstra [373]

Design, architecture [374][375]

Śilpa·śāstra
(Vastu, Śilpa)

Temples, Sculpture Bṛhat·saṃhitā [376]

Saṃskāra (rites-of- [377]

Gṛhya·sūtras
passage)
Sutras, Vinaya, Kāvya,
Buddhism Medicine, Buddhist Tripiṭaka,[ay] Mahayana sutras and shastras, tantras, grammar texts, [378][379][380]
philosophy Buddhist poetry, drama, Buddhist medical texts

Jainism Theology, philosophy Tattvārtha Sūtra, Mahāpurāṇa and others [381][382]

Lexicon
As an Indo-European language, Sanskrit's core lexicon is inherited from Proto-Indo-European. Over time
however, the language exhibits a tendency to shed many of these inherited words and borrow others in their
place from other sources.

In the oldest Vedic literature, there are few such non-Indo-European words, but these progressively grow in
volume.[383]

The following are some of the old Indo-European words that eventually fade out of use in Sanskrit:[384]

ápas work c.f. Latin opus

kravís raw flesh c.f. Latin crūdus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 27/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

dáma- house c.f. Latin domus

dā́ nu- moisture
háras- heat

Dravidian lexical influence

The sources of these new loanwords are many, and vary across the different regions of the Indian
subcontinent. But of all influences on the lexicon of Sanskrit, the most important is Dravidian.

The following is a list of Dravidian entrants into Sanskrit lexicon, although some may have been
contested:[385][386]

phálam ripe fruit Proto-Dravidian *paẓam

múkham mouth Proto-Dravidian *mukam
kajjala- soot, lampblack
kaṭu- sharp, pungent
kaṭhina- hard, firm
kuṭi- hut, house
kuṭṭ- to pound
kuṇḍala- loop, ring, earring,
coil of rope
khala- a rogue
mayū́ ra- peacock
mallikā jasmine
mīna- fish
vallī- creeper
heramba- buffalo

Nominal-form preference
While Vedic and epic form of speech is largely cognate to that of other Indo-European languages such as
Greek and Latin, later Sanskrit shows a tendency to move away from using verbal forms to nominal ones.
Examples of nominal forms taking the place of conventional conjugation are:

past participle with nareṇa gataḥ "the man went",

the instrumental (lit. "by the man [it was] gone")

active past participle kṛta·vān "he did"

in -vant

However the most notable development is the prolific use of word-compounding to express ideas normally
conveyed by verbal forms and subclauses introduced by conjunctions.[387]

Classical Sanskrit's pre-eminent playwright Kālidāsa uses:

vīcikṣobhastanitavihagaśreṇikāñcīguṇā whose girdle-string is a row of birds,

loquacious through the agitation of the waves

Influence on other languages

For nearly 2,000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South
Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia.[174] A significant form of post-Vedic
Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The deviations
from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or
innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian.[388] Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations
र्ष
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 28/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

ārṣa (आर्ष), meaning 'of the ṛṣis', the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts, there are also
more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit is a literary language heavily influenced by the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, based on early
Buddhist Prakrit texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying
degrees.[389]

Indian subcontinent
Sanskrit has greatly influenced the languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base;
for instance, Hindi is a "Sanskritised register" of Hindustani. All modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as
Munda and Dravidian languages have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama words),
or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words). Words originating in Sanskrit are
estimated at roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as the literary
forms of Malayalam and Kannada.[390] Literary texts in Telugu are lexically Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an
enormous extent, perhaps seventy percent or more.[391] Marathi is another prominent language in Western
India, that derives most of its words and Marathi grammar from Sanskrit.[392] Sanskrit words are often
preferred in the literary texts in Marathi over corresponding colloquial Marathi word.[393]

There has been a profound influence of Sanskrit on the lexical and grammatical systems of Dravidian
languages. As per Dalby, India has been a single cultural area for about two millennia which has helped
Sanskrit influence on all the Indic languages.[394] Emeneau and Burrow mention the tendency "for all four of
the Dravidian literary languages in South to make literary use of total Sanskrit lexicon indiscriminately".[395]
There are a large number of loanwords found in the vocabulary of the three major Dravidian languages
Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu.[394] Tamil also has significant loanwords from Sanskrit.[396]
Krishnamurthi mentions that although it is not clear when the Sanskrit influence happened on the Dravidian
languages, it might have been around the 5th century BCE at the time of separation of Tamil and Kannada
from a common ancestral stage.[397] ‌The borrowed words are classified into two types based on phonological
integration – tadbhava – those words derived from Prakrit and tatsama – unassimilated loanwords from
Sanskrit.[398]

Strazny mentions that "so massive has been the influence that it is hard to utter Sanskrit words have
influenced Kannada from the early times".[399] The first document in Kannada, the Halmidi inscription has
a large number of Sanskrit words. As per Kachru, the influence has not only been on single lexical items in
Kannada but also on "long nominal compounds and complicated syntactic expressions". New words have
been created in Kannada using Sanskrit derivational prefixes and suffixes like vikēndrīkaraṇa, anilīkaraṇa,
bahīskruṭa. Similar stratification is found in verb morphology. Sanskrit words readily undergo verbalization
in Kannada, verbalizing suffixes as in: chāpisu, dauḍāyisu, ravānisu.[400]

George mentions that "No other Dravidian language has been so deeply influenced by Sanskrit as
Malayalam".[401] According to Lambert, Malayalam is so immensely Sanskritised that every Sanskrit word
can be used in Malayalam by integrating "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant.[402] Loanwords have
been integrated into Malayalam by "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant. These phonological
changes are either by replacement of a vowel as in sant-am coming from Sanskrit santa, sāgar-am from
sāgara, or addition of prothetic vowel as in aracan from rājā-, uruvam from rūpa, codyam from
sodhya.[398]

Hans Henrich et al. note that, the language of the pre-modern Telugu literature was also highly influenced
by Sanskrit and was standardized between 11th and 14th centuries.[403] Aiyar has shown that in a class of
tadbhavas in Telugu the first and second letters are often replaced by the third and fourth letters and fourth
again replaced often by h. Examples of the same are: Sanskrit artha becomes ardhama, vīthi becomes vidhi,
putra becomes bidda, mukham becomes muhamu.[404]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 29/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Tamil also has been influenced by Sanskrit. Hans Henrich et al. mention that propagation of Jainism and
Buddhism into south India had its influence.[403] Shulman mentions that although contrary to the views
held by Tamil purists, modern Tamil has been significantly influenced from Sanskrit, further states that
"Indeed there may well be more Sanskrit in Tamil than in the Sanskrit derived north-Indian vernaculars".
Sanskrit words have been Tamilized through the "Tamil phonematic grid".[396]

Beyond the Indian subcontinent

Sanskrit has had a historical presence and influence in many parts of Asia. Above (top clockwise): [i] a Sanskrit manuscript
from Turkestan, [ii] another from Miran-China.

Sanskrit was a language for religious purposes and for the political elite in parts of medieval era Southeast
Asia, Central Asia and East Asia, having been introduced in these regions mainly along with the spread of
Buddhism. In some cases, it has competed with Pāli for prominence.[163][405]

East Asia

[i] a bell with Sanskrit engravings in South Korea [ii] the Kūkai calligraphy of Siddham-Sanskrit in Japan

Buddhist Sanskrit has had a considerable influence on Sino-Tibetan languages such as Chinese, state
William Wang and Chaofen Sun.[406] Many words have been adopted from Sanskrit into the Chinese, both
in its historic religious discourse and everyday use.[406][az] This process likely started about 200 CE and
continued through about 1400 CE, with the efforts of monks such as Yuezhi, Anxi, Kangju, Tianzhu, Yan
Fodiao, Faxian, Xuanzang and Yijing.[406]

Further, as the Chinese languages and culture influenced the rest of East Asia, the ideas in Sanskrit texts and
some of its linguistic elements migrated further.[161][407]

Many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. Chinese words like 剎 那
chànà (Devanagari: क्षण kṣaṇa 'instantaneous period') were borrowed from Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit texts
survive only in Tibetan collections of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings, the Tengyur.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 30/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Sanskrit has also influenced the religious register of Japanese mostly through transliterations. These were
borrowed from Chinese transliterations.[408] In particular, the Shingon (lit. 'True Words') sect of esoteric
Buddhism has been relying on Sanskrit and original Sanskrit mantras and writings, as a means of realizing
Buddhahood.[409]

Southeast Asia
A large number of inscriptions in Sanskrit across
Southeast Asia testify the influence the language held in
these regions.[410]

Languages such as Indonesian, Thai and Lao contain

many loanwords from Sanskrit, as does Khmer. Many
Sanskrit loanwords are also found in Austronesian
[i] the Thai script [ii] a Sanskrit inscription in Cambodia
languages, such as Javanese, particularly the older form
in which nearly half the vocabulary is borrowed.[411]

Other Austronesian languages, such as Malay (descended into modern Malaysian and Indonesian standards)
also derive much of their vocabulary from Sanskrit. Similarly, Philippine languages such as Tagalog have
some Sanskrit loanwords, although more are derived from Spanish.

A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word bhāṣā, or spoken language,
which is used to refer to the names of many languages.[412]

To this day, Southeast Asian languages such as Thai are known to draw upon Sanskrit for technical
vocabulary.[413]

Indonesia
The earliest Sanskrit text which was founded in the Indonesian Archipelago was
at Eastern Borneo dating back to 400 CE known as the Mulavarman
inscription.[414] This is one of the reason of strong influence of Indian culture
that entered the Malay Archipelago during the Indianization era, and since then,
Indian culture has been absorbed towards Indonesian culture and language.
Thus, the Sanskrit culture in Indonesia exists not as a religious aspect but more
towards a cultural aspect that has been present for generations, resulting in a
more cultural rather than Hinduistic value of the Indonesian people. As a result,
it is common to find Muslim or Christian Indonesians with names that have
Indian or Sanskrit nuances. Unlike names derived from Sanskrit in Thai and
Khmer, the pronunciation of Sanskrit names in Indonesia is more similar to the
original Indian pronunciation, except that "v" is changed to "w", for example,
"Vishnu" in India will be spelled "Wisnu" in Indonesia.

Sanskrit has influenced Indonesian to a great extent.[415] Many words in The ancient Yūpa
Indonesian are taken from Sanskrit, for example from the word "language" inscription (one of the
(bhāṣa) itself comes from Sanskrit which means: "talking accent". In fact, names earliest and oldest Sanskrit
of cities such as Jayapura (the capital city of Papua province), including terms texts written in ancient
Indonesia) dating back to
and mottoes of government, educational and military institutions use Sanskrit,
the 4th century CE written
such as the rank of general for example in the Indonesian Navy is "Laksamana"
by Brahmins under the rule
(taken from the Ramayana). The name of the environmental award given to of King Mulavarman of the
cities throughout Indonesia by the central government is also taken from Kutai Martadipura Kingdom
Sanskrit known as the "Adipura" award, namely from the words "Adi" (which located in eastern Borneo
means "role model") and "Pura" (which means "city") literally "A role model
city" or "a city worthy of being an example". Sanskrit terms are also widely used
in numerous government institutions such as the armed forces and national police, for example, the motto of

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 31/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

the Indonesian National Police which reads Rashtra Sevakottama, the motto of the Indonesian Military
Academy which reads Adhitakarya Mahatvavirya Nagarabhakti (अधिकाऱ्या विर्य नगरभक्ति) and the motto of
the Indonesian Naval Academy which reads Hree Dharma Shanti are one of the small examples. Other
Sanskrit terms such as Adhi Makayasa, Chandradimuka, Tri Dharma Eka Karma, Taruna, etc. are also
used intensively in the Indonesian security and defence forces.[416]

Rest of the world

In ancient and medieval times, several Sanskrit words in the field of food and spices made their way into
European languages including Greek, Latin and later English. Some of these are pepper, ginger and sugar.
English today has several words of Sanskrit origin, most of them borrowed[417] during the British Raj or
later. Some of these words have in turn been borrowed by other European or world languages.

Modern era

Liturgy, ceremonies and meditation

Sanskrit is the sacred language of various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. It is used during worship in
Hindu temples. In Newar Buddhism, it is used in all monasteries, while Mahayana and Tibetan Buddhist
religious texts and sutras are in Sanskrit as well as vernacular languages. Some of the revered texts of
Jainism including the Tattvartha sutra, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, the Bhaktamara Stotra and later versions
of the Agamas are in Sanskrit. Further, states Paul Dundas, Sanskrit mantras and Sanskrit as a ritual
language was commonplace among Jains throughout their medieval history.[418]

Many Hindu rituals and rites-of-passage such as the "giving away the bride" and mutual vows at weddings, a
baby's naming or first solid food ceremony and the goodbye during a cremation invoke and chant Sanskrit
hymns.[419] Major festivals such as the Durga Puja ritually recite entire Sanskrit texts such as the Devi
Mahatmya every year particularly among the numerous communities of eastern India.[420][421] In the south,
Sanskrit texts are recited at many major Hindu temples such as the Meenakshi Temple.[422] According to
Richard H. Davis, a scholar of Religion and South Asian studies, the breadth and variety of oral recitations of
the Sanskrit text Bhagavad Gita is remarkable. In India and beyond, its recitations include "simple private
household readings, to family and neighborhood recitation sessions, to holy men reciting in temples or at
pilgrimage places for passersby, to public Gita discourses held almost nightly at halls and auditoriums in
every Indian city".[423]

Literature and arts

More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since India's independence in 1947.[424] Much of this
work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern
literature in other Indian languages.[425][426]

The Sahitya Akademi has given an award for the best creative work in Sanskrit every year since 1967. In
2009, Satya Vrat Shastri became the first Sanskrit author to win the Jnanpith Award, India's highest literary
award.[427]

Sanskrit is used extensively in the Carnatic and Hindustani branches of classical music. Kirtanas, bhajans,
stotras, and shlokas of Sanskrit are popular throughout India. The Samaveda uses musical notations in
several of its recessions.[428]

In Mainland China, musicians such as Sa Dingding have written pop songs in Sanskrit.[429]

Numerous loan Sanskrit words are found in other major Asian languages. For example, Filipino,[430]
Cebuano,[431] Lao, Khmer[432] Thai and its alphabets, Malay (including Malaysian and Indonesian),
Javanese (old Javanese-English dictionary by P.J. Zoetmulder contains over 25,500 entries), and even in

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 32/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

English.

Media
Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcast on state-run All India Radio.[433] These broadcasts
are also made available on the internet on AIR's website.[434][435] Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on
the internet through the DD National channel at 6:55 am IST.[436]

Over 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. Sudharma, a daily printed
newspaper in Sanskrit, has been published out of Mysore, India, since 1970. It was started by K.N.
Varadaraja Iyengar, a Sanskrit scholar from Mysore. Sanskrit Vartman Patram and Vishwasya Vrittantam
started in Gujarat during the last five years.[433]

Schools and contemporary status

Sanskrit has been taught in schools from time immemorial in India. In
modern times, the first Sanskrit University was Sampurnanand Sanskrit
University, established in 1791 in the Indian city of Varanasi. Sanskrit is
taught in 5,000 traditional schools (Pathashalas), and
14,000 schools [437] in India, where there are also 22 colleges and
universities dedicated to the exclusive study of the language. Sanskrit is
one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.[281] Despite it being a
studied school subject in contemporary India, Sanskrit has not been
spoken as a native language in centuries.[438][439][440]

The Central Board of Secondary Education of India (CBSE), along with

several other state education boards, has made Sanskrit an alternative
option to the state's own official language as a second or third language
choice in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an
option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII). This is true of most schools Sanskrit festival at Pramati Hillview
affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) Academy, Mysore, India
board, especially in states where the official language is Hindi. Sanskrit is
also taught in traditional gurukulas throughout India.[441]

A number of colleges and universities in India have dedicated departments for Sanskrit studies. In March
2020, the Indian Parliament passed the Central Sanskrit Universities Act, 2020 which upgraded three
universities, National Sanskrit University, Central Sanskrit University and Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri National
Sanskrit University, from the deemed to be university status to a central university status.[442]

Dmitri Mendeleev used the Sanskrit numbers of one, two and three (eka-, dvi- or dwi-, and tri- respectively)
to give provisional names to his predicted elements, like eka-boron being Gallium or eka-Francium being
Ununennium.

In the province of Bali in Indonesia, a number of educational and scholarly institutions have also been
conducting Sanskrit lessons for Hindu locals.[443]

In the West
St James Junior School and Avanti Schools Trust in London, England, offer Sanskrit as part of the
curriculum.[444] Since September 2009, US high school students have been able to receive credits as
Independent Study or toward Foreign Language requirements by studying Sanskrit as part of the "SAFL:
Samskritam as a Foreign Language" program coordinated by Samskrita Bharati.[445] In Australia, the
private boys' high school Sydney Grammar School offers Sanskrit from years 7 through to 12, including for

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 33/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

the Higher School Certificate.[446]

Other schools that offer Sanskrit include the Ficino School in Auckland,
New Zealand; St James Preparatory Schools in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg, South Africa; John
Colet School, Sydney, Australia; Erasmus School, Melbourne, Australia.[447][448][449]

European studies and discourse

European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by Heinrich Roth (1620–1668) and Johann Ernst Hanxleden
(1681–1731), is considered responsible for the discovery of an Indo-European language family by Sir William
Jones (1746–1794). This research played an important role in the development of Western philology, or
historical linguistics.[450]

The 18th- and 19th-century speculations about the possible links of Sanskrit to ancient Egyptian language
were later proven to be wrong, but it fed an orientalist discourse both in the form Indophobia and
Indophilia, states Trautmann.[451] Sanskrit writings, when first discovered, were imagined by Indophiles to
potentially be "repositories of the primitive experiences and religion of the human race, and as such
confirmatory of the truth of Christian scripture", as well as a key to "universal ethnological
narrative".[452]: 96–97 The Indophobes imagined the opposite, making the counterclaim that there is little of
any value in Sanskrit, portraying it as "a language fabricated by artful [Brahmin] priests", with little original
thought, possibly copied from the Greeks who came with Alexander or perhaps the Persians.[452]: 124–126

Scholars such as William Jones and his colleagues felt the need for systematic studies of Sanskrit language
and literature. This launched the Asiatic Society, an idea that was soon transplanted to Europe starting with
the efforts of Henry Thomas Colebrooke in Britain, then Alexander Hamilton who helped expand its studies
to Paris and thereafter his student Friedrich Schlegel who introduced Sanskrit to the universities of
Germany. Schlegel nurtured his own students into influential European Sanskrit scholars, particularly
through Franz Bopp and Friedrich Max Müller. As these scholars translated the Sanskrit manuscripts, the
enthusiasm for Sanskrit grew rapidly among European scholars, states Trautmann, and chairs for Sanskrit
"were established in the universities of nearly every German statelet" creating a competition for Sanskrit
experts.[452]: 133–142

Symbolic usage
In India, Indonesia, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, Sanskrit phrases are widely used as
mottoes for various national, educational and social organisations:

India: Satyameva Jayate (सत्यमेव जयते), meaning 'truth alone triumphs'.[453]

Nepal: Janani Janmabhūmischa Swargādapi Garīyasī (जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी), meaning 'mother
and motherland are superior to heaven'.
Indonesia: In Indonesia, Sanskrit is widely used as terms and mottoes of the armed forces and other
national organizations (See: Indonesian Armed Forces mottoes). Rastra Sewakottama (राष्ट्र सेवकोत्तम,
transl. 'people's main servants') is the official motto of the Indonesian National Police, Tri Dharma Eka
Karma (त्रिधर्म एक कर्म) is the official motto of the Indonesian Military, Kartika Eka Paksi (कार्तिक एक पक्षी,
transl. 'unmatchable bird with noble goals') is the official motto of the Indonesian Army,[454] Adhitakarya
Mahatvavirya Nagarabhakti (अधीतकार्य महत्ववीर्य नगरभक्ति, transl. 'hard-working knights serving bravery as
nations hero') is the official motto of the Indonesian Military Academy,[455] Upakriya Labdha Prayojana
Balottama (उपक्रिया लब्ध प्रयोजन बालोत्तम, transl. 'purpose of the unit is to give the best service to the nation
by finding the perfect soldier') is the official motto of the Army Psychological Corps, Karmanye
Vadikaraste Mafalesu Kadatjana (कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन, transl. 'working without counting the
profit and loss') is the official motto of the Air-Force Special Forces (Paskhas),[456] Jalesu Bhumyamca
Jayamahe (जलेषु भूम्यम्च जयमहे, transl. 'on the sea and land we are glorious') is the official motto of the
Indonesian Marine Corps,[457] and there are more units and organizations in Indonesia either Armed
Forces or civil which use the Sanskrit language respectively as their mottoes and other purposes.
Many of India's and Nepal's scientific and administrative terms use Sanskrit. The Indian guided missile
program that was commenced in 1983 by the Defence Research and Development Organisation has

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 34/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia
named the five missiles (ballistic and others) that it developed Prithvi, Agni, Akash, Nag and the Trishul
missile system. India's first modern fighter aircraft is named HAL Tejas.
In November 2020, Gaurav Sharma, a New Zealand politician of Indian origin swore into parliament using
Sanskrit alongside Māori; the decision was made as a "homage to all Indian languages" compromising
between his native Pahari and Punjabi.[458]

In popular culture
The song My Sweet Lord by George Harrison includes The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to
reverentially as the Maha Mantra, a 16-word Vaishnava mantra which is mentioned in the Kali-Santarana
Upanishad. Satyagraha, an opera by Philip Glass, uses texts from the Bhagavad Gita, sung in
Sanskrit.[459][460] In 1996, English psychedelic rock band Kula Shaker released Govinda, a song entirely
sung in Sanskrit. The closing credits of The Matrix Revolutions has a prayer from the Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad. The song "Cyber-raga" from Madonna's album Music includes Sanskrit chants,[461] and
Shanti/Ashtangi from her 1998 album Ray of Light, which won a Grammy, is the ashtanga vinyasa yoga
chant.[462] The lyrics include the mantra Om shanti.[463] Composer John Williams featured choirs singing in
Sanskrit for Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom
Menace.[464][465] The theme song of Battlestar Galactica 2004 is the Gayatri Mantra, taken from the
Rigveda.[466] The lyrics of "The Child in Us" by Enigma also contain Sanskrit verses.[467] In 2006, Mexican
singer Paulina Rubio was influenced in Sanskrit for her concept album Ananda.[468]

See also
Arsha prayoga
Āryabhaṭa numeration
List of Sanskrit-related topics
Spitzer Manuscript
Proto-Indo-Aryan
Proto-Indo-Iranian
Proto-Indo-European

Notes
a. "In conclusion, there are strong systemic and paleographic indications that the Brahmi script derived
from a Semitic prototype, which, mainly on historical grounds, is most likely to have been Aramaic.
However, the details of this problem remain to be worked out, and in any case, it is unlikely that a
complete letter-by-letter derivation will ever be possible; for Brahmi may have been more of an
adaptation and remodeling, rather than a direct derivation, of the presumptive Semitic prototype,
perhaps under the influence of a preexisting Indian tradition of phonetic analysis. However, the Semitic
hypothesis is not so strong as to rule out the remote possibility that further discoveries could drastically
change the picture. In particular, a relationship of some kind, probably partial or indirect, with the
protohistoric Indus Valley script should not be considered entirely out of the question." Salomon 1998,
p. 30
b. "dhārayan·brāhmaṇam rupam·ilvalaḥ saṃskṛtam vadan..." – The Rāmāyaṇa 3.10.54 – said to be the
first known use of saṃskṛta with reference to the language.[18]
c. "All these achievements are dwarfed, though, by the Sanskrit linguistic tradition culminating in the
famous grammar by Pāṇini, known as the Aṣṭhādhyāyī. The elegance and comprehensiveness of its
architecture have yet to be surpassed by any grammar of any language, and its ingenious methods of
stratifying out use and mention, language and metalanguage, and theorem and metatheorem predate
key discoveries in western philosophy by millennia."[32]
d. "The Sanskrit grammatical tradition is also the ultimate source of the notion of zero, which, once adopted
in the Arabic system of numerals, allowed us to transcend the cumbersome notations of Roman
arithmetic."[32]
e. 6,106 Indians in 1981, 49,736 in 1991, 14,135 in 2001, and 24,821 in 2011, have reported Sanskrit to be
their mother tongue.[8]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 35/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

f. William Jones (1786), quoted by Thomas Burrow in The Sanskrit Language:[62] "The Sanscrit language,
whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the
Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the
roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong
indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from
some common source, which perhaps no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so
forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick [sic], though blended with a very different
idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the Old Persian might be added to the same family."
g. The Mitanni treaty is generally dated to the 16th century BCE, but this date and its significance remains
much debated.[80]
h. An example of the shared phrasal equations is the dyáuṣ pitṛ́ in Vedic Sanskrit, from Proto-Indo-
European *dyḗws ph₂tḗr, meaning "sky father". The Mycenaean Greek equivalent is Zeus Pater, which
evolved to Jupiter in Latin. Equivalent "paternal Heaven" phrasal equation is found in many Indo-
European languages.[85]
i. Pāṇini's use of the term lipi has been a source of scholarly disagreements. Harry Falk in his 1993
overview states that ancient Indians neither knew nor used writing script, and Pāṇini's mention is likely a
reference to Semitic and Greek scripts.[103] In his 1995 review, Salomon questions Falk's arguments and
writes it is "speculative at best and hardly constitutes firm grounds for a late date for Kharoṣṭhī. The
stronger argument for this position is that we have no specimen of the script before the time of Ashoka,
nor any direct evidence of intermediate stages in its development; but of course this does not mean that
such earlier forms did not exist, only that, if they did exist, they have not survived, presumably because
they were not employed for monumental purposes before Ashoka".[104] According to Hartmut Scharfe,
lipi of Pāṇini may be borrowed from the Old Persian dipi, in turn derived from Sumerian dup. Scharfe
adds that the best evidence, at the time of his review, is that no script was used in India, aside from the
Northwest Indian subcontinent, before c. 300 BCE because Indian tradition "at every occasion stresses
the orality of the cultural and literary heritage".[105] Kenneth Norman states writing scripts in ancient India
evolved over the long period of time like other cultures, that it is unlikely that ancient Indians developed a
single complete writing system at one and the same time in the Maurya era. It is even less likely, states
Norman, that a writing script was invented during Ashoka's rule, starting from nothing, for the specific
purpose of writing his inscriptions and then it was understood all over South Asia where the Ashoka
pillars are found.[106] Goody (1987) states that ancient India likely had a "very old culture of writing"
along with its oral tradition of composing and transmitting knowledge, because the Vedic literature is too
vast, consistent and complex to have been entirely created, memorized, accurately preserved and
spread without a written system.[107] Falk disagrees with Goody, and suggests that it is a Western
presumption and inability to imagine that remarkably early scientific achievements such as Pāṇini's
grammar (5th to 4th century BCE), and the creation, preservation and wide distribution of the large
corpus of the Brahmanic Vedic literature and the Buddhist canonical literature, without any writing
scripts. Bronkhorst (2002) disagrees with Falk, and states, "Falk goes too far. It is fair to expect that we
believe that Vedic memorisation—though without parallel in any other human society—has been able to
preserve very long texts for many centuries without losing a syllable. ... However, the oral composition of
a work as complex as Pāṇini's grammar is not only without parallel in other human cultures, it is without
parallel in India itself. ... It just will not do to state that our difficulty in conceiving any such thing is our
problem".[108]
j. Pali is also an extinct language.[121]
k. The Indian Mission for Manuscripts initiative has already counted over 5 million manuscripts. The thirty
million estimate is of David Pingree, a manuscriptologist and historian. – Peter M. Scharf[140]
l. A celebrated work on the philosophy of language is the Vakyapadiya by the 5th-century Hindu scholar
Bhartrhari.[144][147][148]
m. 'That Which Is', known as the Tattvartha Sutra to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the
earliest, most authoritative, and comprehensive summary of their religion. — [152]
n. The oldest surviving Sanskrit inscription in the Kathmandu valley is dated to 464 CE.[206]
o. Sanskrit is written in many scripts. Sounds in grey are not phonemic.
p. ḹ is not an actual sound of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the written vowels to
maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[225]
q. Correspondences are approximate.[240]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 36/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

r. Consonant described as either at the roots of the teeth, alveolar, and retroflex. Vowels are very short,
may be equivalent to short a, e or i.
s. Like the preceding but longer.
t. Pronounced somewhat like the lur in English "slurp".
u. Only found in the verb kl̥ p "to be fit", "arrange".
v. As a nasal vowel or, if followed by a stop consonant (plosive, affricate or nasal), it is realized as the
nasal in the same series as the following consonant.
w. Voiceless [h] followed by a short echo vowel. If the preceding vowel is /ai/ or /au/, the echo vowel will be
[i] or [u], respectively.
x. Use depends on whether penultimate is light or heavy.
y. The "root + affix" is called the "stem".[246]
z. Other equivalents: bharāmi (I carry), bharati (he carries), bharāmas (we carry).[61] Similar morphology is
found in some other Indo-European languages; for example, in the Gothic language, baira (I carry),
bairis (you carry), bairiþ (he carries).
aa. Ruppel gives the following endings for the "present indicative active" in the Sanskrit language: 1st dual: -
vaḥ, 1st plural: -maḥ, 2nd dual: -thaḥ, 2nd plural: -tha and so on.[112]
ab. The Sanskrit in the Indian epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are all in meter, and the
structure of the metrics has attracted scholarly studies since the 19th century.[260]
ac. Kena, Katha, Isha, Shvetashvatara, and Mundaka Upanishads are examples of verse-style ancient
Upanishads.
ad. Sudden or significant changes in metre, wherein the metre of succeeding sections return to earlier
sections, suggest a corruption of the message, interpolations and insertion of text into a Sanskrit
manuscript. It may also reflect that the text is a compilation of works of different authors and time
periods.[266][267][268]
ae. The Buddhist text Lalitavistara Sūtra describes the young Siddhartha—the future Buddha—to have
mastered philology and scripts at a school from Brahmin Lipikara and Deva Vidyasinha.[275]
af. A version of this list of sixty-four ancient Indian scripts is found in the Chinese translation of an Indian
Buddhist text, and this translation has been dated to 308 CE.[277]
ag. The Greek Nearchos who visited ancient India with the army of Alexander the Great in the
4th century BCE, mentions that Indians wrote on cloth, but Nearchos could have confused Aramaic
writers with the Indians.[280]
ah. Salomon writes, in The World's Writing Systems (edited by Peter Daniels), that "many scholars feel that
the origins of these scripts must have gone back further than this [mid-3rd century BCE Ashoka
inscriptions], but there is no conclusive proof".[281]
ai. Minor inscriptions discovered in the 20th century may be older, but their dating is uncertain.[286]
aj. Salomon states that the inscription has a few scribal errors, but is essentially standard Sanskrit.[143]
ak. Salomon illustrates this for the consonant ka which is written as " " in the Brahmi script and "क" in the
Devanagari script, the vowel is marked together with the consonant before as in "कि", after "का", above
"के " or below "कृ ".[283]
al. Sanskrit and the Prakrits, at different times and places were written in a vast number of forms and
derivatives of Brahmi. In the premodern period, in other words, these languages would be written by a
given scribe in whatever happened to be the current local script ... – Richard Salomon, p 70 [290]
am. Salomon states that these shared graphic principles that combine syllabic and alphabetic writing are
distinctive for Indic scripts when contrasted with other major world languages. The only known similarity
is found in the Ethiopic scripts, but Ethiopic system lacks clusters and the Indic set of full vowels
signs.[303]
an. Some scholars date these to the 2nd century BCE.[306][307]
ao. Prakrit inscriptions of ancient India, such as those of Ashoka, are older. Louis Renou called it "the great
linguistical paradox of India" that the Sanskrit inscriptions appear later than Prakrit inscriptions, although
Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.[143]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 37/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

ap. According to Salomon, towards the end of pre-Christian era, "a smattering" of standard or nearly
standard Sanskrit inscriptions came into vogue, and "we may assume that these are isolated survivals of
what must have been then an increasingly common practice". He adds, that the Scythian rulers of
northern and western India while not the originators, were promoters of the use of Sanskrit language for
inscriptions, and "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves
as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical
elite".[311]
aq. The Rudradaman inscription is "not pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit
exceptions, it approaches high classical Sanskrit.[319]
ar. Finally, after this transitional period in the fourth and early fifth centuries CE, Prakrit fell out of use
completely in southern Indian inscriptions. For the next few centuries Sanskrit was the sole epigraphic
language, until the regional Dravidian languages began to come into use around the seventh century. —
[325]

as. The use of the Sanskrit language in epigraphy gradually dropped after the arrival and the consolidation
of Islamic Delhi Sultanate rule in the late 12th century, but it remained in active epigraphical use in the
south and central regions of India. By about the 14th century, with the Islamic armies conquering more of
South Asia, the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions became rarer and it was replaced with Persian,
Arabic, Dravidian and North-Indo-Aryan languages, states Salomon.[330] The Sanskrit language,
particularly in bilingual form, re-emerged in the epigraphy of Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara,
Yadavas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, and others that re-established themselves.[331] Some Muslim rulers such
as Adil Shah also issued Sanskrit language inscriptions recording the donation of a mosque.[331]
at. "Since the Renaissance there has been no event of such worldwide significance in the history of culture
as the discovery of Sanskrit literature in the latter part of the eighteenth century" – Macdonell[337]
au. 'The style of the [Vedic] works is more simple and spontaneous while that of the later works abounds in
puns, conceits and long compounds. Rhetorical ornaments are more and more copious and complex
and the rules of Poetic and Grammar more and more rigidly observed as time advances.' – Iyengar,[339]
av. These are just generic names for works of law
aw. an account of Indian algebra
ax. Kāma·śāstra, 'the science of love'
ay. Most Tripiṭaka historic texts in the Pali language, but Sanskrit Tripiṭaka texts have been discovered.[378]
az. Examples of phonetically imported Sanskrit words in Chinese include samgha (Chinese: seng), bhiksuni
(ni), kasaya (jiasha), namo or namas (namo), and nirvana (niepan). The list of phonetically transcribed
and semantically translated words from Sanskrit into Chinese is substantial, states Xiangdong Shi.[406]

References
1. Mascaró, Juan (2003). The Bhagavad Gita (https://books.google.com/books?id=UZEKghCNbVIC&pg=P
T13). Penguin. pp. 13 ff. ISBN 978-0-14-044918-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202403291316
00/https://books.google.com/books?id=UZEKghCNbVIC&pg=PT13#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 11 October 2020. "The Bhagawad Gita, an intensely spiritual work,
that forms one of the cornerstones of the Hindu faith, and is also one of the masterpieces of Sanskrit
poetry. (from the backcover)"
2. Besant, Annie (trans) (1922). "Discourse 1". The Bhagavad-gita; or, The Lord's Song, with text in
Devanagari, and English translation (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bhagavad-Gita_(Besant_4th)/Discour
se_1). Madras: G. E. Natesan & Co. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201012205516/https://en.
wikisource.org/wiki/Bhagavad-Gita_(Besant_4th)/Discourse_1) from the original on 12 October 2020.
Retrieved 10 October 2020. "प्रवृत्ते शस्त्रसम्पाते धनुरुद्यम्य पाण्डवः ॥ २० ॥
Then, beholding the sons of Dhritarâshtra standing arrayed, and flight of missiles about to begin, ... the
son of Pându, took up his bow,(20)
हृषीके शं तदा वाक्यमिदमाह महीपते । अर्जुन उवाच । ...॥ २१ ॥
And spake this word to Hrishîkesha, O Lord of Earth: Arjuna said: ..."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 38/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

3. Radhakrishnan, S. (1948). The Bhagavadgītā: With an introductory essay, Sanskrit text, English
translation, and notes. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. p. 86. "... pravyite Sastrasampate
dhanur udyamya pandavah (20)
Then Arjuna, ... looked at the sons of Dhrtarastra drawn up in battle order; and as the flight of missiles
(almost) started, he took up his bow.
hystkesam tada vakyam
idam aha mahipate ... (21)
And, O Lord of earth, he spoke this word to Hrsikesha (Krsna): ..."
4. Uta Reinöhl (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=nR_4CwAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. pp. xiv, 1–16. ISBN 978-0-19-873666-
0.
5. Colin P. Masica 1993, p. 55: "Thus Classical Sanskrit, fixed by Panini's grammar in probably the fourth
century BC on the basis of a class dialect (and preceding grammatical tradition) of probably the seventh
century BC, had its greatest literary flowering in the first millennium AD and even later, much of it
therefore a full thousand years after the stage of the language it ostensibly represents."
6. McCartney, Patrick (10 May 2020), Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census (https://thewir
e.in/culture/india-census-sanskrit), The Wire, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201021135747/htt
ps://thewire.in/culture/india-census-sanskrit) from the original on 21 October 2020, retrieved
24 November 2020 Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri
is a "Sanskrit village" where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also
difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2
and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt
also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the
country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also
suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of
Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is
related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism."
7. McCartney, Patrick (11 May 2020), The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power (https://t
hewire.in/society/sanskrit-soft-power), The Wire, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021012420493
7/https://thewire.in/society/sanskrit-soft-power) from the original on 24 January 2021, retrieved
24 November 2020 Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has
evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second
official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language
shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every "block" (administrative
division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts
and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is
that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit
tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager
who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand."
8. Sreevastan, Ajai (10 August 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?" (https://www.thehindu.com/new
s/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-speakers/article6299433.ece). The Hindu. Chennai. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20211224204957/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-sp
eakers/article6299433.ece) from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
"Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers
in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. "This fluctuation is
not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the
immediate political climate," says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ...
Because some people "fictitiously" indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige
and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is
no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence,
the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... "Sanskrit has influence without presence," says Devy. "We all
feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken." But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often
referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 39/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

9. Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53). Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-
879357-1. "The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing
linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the
composition of the Aṣṭādhyāyī, attributed to the grammarian Pāṇini, no later than the early fourth century
BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased
to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the
grammatical tradition."
10. Ruppel, A. M. (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit (https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3
DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2). Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20240329131543/https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=
onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020. "The study of any
ancient (or dead) language is faced with one main challenge: ancient languages have no native
speakers who could provide us with examples of simple everyday speech"
11. Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism" (https://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEM
YC&pg=PA223). In Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar (eds.). Language in South Asia.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20240329131538/https://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEMYC&pg=PA223#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020. "Some of the migrated languages
... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native
speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their
speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants'
languages."
12. Jain, Dhanesh (2007). "Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages" (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA51). In George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages.
Routledge. pp. 47–66, 51. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2024032913
1538/https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 12 October 2020. "In the history of Indo-Aryan, writing was a later
development and its adoption has been slow even in modern times. The first written word comes to us
through Asokan inscriptions dating back to the third century BC. Originally, Brahmi was used to write
Prakrit (MIA); for Sanskrit (OIA) it was used only four centuries later (Masica 1991: 135). The MIA
traditions of Buddhist and Jain texts show greater regard for the written word than the OIA Brahminical
tradition, though writing was available to Old Indo-Aryans."
13. Salomon, Richard (2007). "The Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages" (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67). In George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain (eds.). The Indo-Aryan
Languages. Routledge. pp. 67–102. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
240329131539/https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false)
from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 12 October 2020. "Although in modern usage Sanskrit is
most commonly written or printed in Nagari, in theory, it can be represented by virtually any of the main
Brahmi-based scripts, and in practice it often is. Thus scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla, and Oriya, as well
as the major south Indian scripts, traditionally have been and often still are used in their proper territories
for writing Sanskrit. Sanskrit, in other words, is not inherently linked to any particular script, although it
does have a special historical connection with Nagari."
14. "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions" (http://www.gov.za/
documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions). gov.za. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
141028043044/http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions) from the
original on 28 October 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
15. Cardona, George; Luraghi, Silvia (2018). "Sanskrit" (https://books.google.com/books?id=lR9WDwAAQB
AJ&pg=PT497). In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World's Major Languages. Taylor & Francis. pp. 497–.
ISBN 978-1-317-29049-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329131540/https://books.google.
com/books?id=lR9WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT497#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March
2024. Retrieved 13 October 2020. "Sanskrit (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') ... It is in the Ramayana that
the term saṃskṛta- is encountered probably for the first time with reference to the language."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 40/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

16. Wright, J.C. (1990). "Reviewed Works: Pāṇini: His Work and Its Traditions. Vol. I. Background and
Introduction by George Cardona; Grammaire sanskrite pâninéenne by Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat" (https://w
ww.jstor.org/stable/618999). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
53 (1). Cambridge University Press: 152–154. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0002156X (https://doi.org/10.101
7%2FS0041977X0002156X). JSTOR 618999 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/618999). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20220121084149/https://www.jstor.org/stable/618999) from the original on 21 January
2022. Retrieved 12 October 2020. "The first reference to 'Sanskrit' in the context of language is in the
Ramayana, Book 5 (Sundarkanda), Canto 28, Verse 17: अहं ह्यतितनुश्चैव वनरश्च विशेषतः // वाचंचोदाहरिष्यामि
मानुषीमिह संस्कृ ताम् // १७ // Hanuman says, 'First, my body is very subtle, second I am a monkey.
Especially as a monkey, I will use here the human-appropriate Sanskrit speech / language.' "
17. Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1957). Revised and enlarged edition of Prin. V.S. Apte's The practical Sanskrit-
English Dictionary (https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/apte_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%8
2%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4&searchhws=yes). Poona:
Prasad Prakashan. p. 1596. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220407164144/https://dsal.uchicag
o.edu/cgi-bin/app/apte_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A
4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4&searchhws=yes) from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved
13 October 2020. "from संस्कृ त saṃskṛitə past passive participle: Made perfect, refined, polished,
cultivated. -तः -tah A word formed regularly according to the rules of grammar, a regular derivative. -तम् -
tam Refined or highly polished speech, the Sanskṛit language; संस्कृ तं नाम दैवी वागन्वाख्याता महर्षिभिः
("named sanskritam the divine language elaborated by the sages") from Kāvyadarśa.1. 33. of Daṇḍin"
18. Cardona 1997, p. 557.
19. Roger D. Woodard (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas (https://books.google.com/
books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20240329131545/https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC) from
the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. "The earliest form of this 'oldest' language,
Sanskrit, is the one found in the ancient Brahmanic text called the Rigveda, composed c. 1500 BCE. The
date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European
family – the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek – and, in keeping with its early
appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-
European family – Proto-Indo-European."
20. Bauer, Brigitte L. M. (2017). Nominal Apposition in Indo-European: Its forms and functions, and its
evolution in Latin-romance (https://books.google.com/books?id=BWzNDgAAQBAJ). De Gruyter. pp. 90–
92. ISBN 978-3-11-046175-6. For detailed comparison of the languages, see pp. 90–126.
21. Ramat, Anna Giacalone; Ramat, Paolo (2015). The Indo-European Languages (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=PLa5CAAAQBAJ). Routledge. pp. 26–31. ISBN 978-1-134-92187-4.
22. Dyson, Tim (2018). A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14). Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15.
ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8. "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to
have been due to an 'Aryan invasion' it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few
centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from
the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would
eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and
3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these
languages belonged to the Indo-European language family."
23. Pinkney, Andrea Marion (2014). "Revealing the Vedas in 'Hinduism': Foundations and issues of
interpretation of religions in South Asian Hindu traditions" (https://books.google.com/books?id=e7qbBAA
AQBAJ&pg=PA38). In Bryan S. Turner; Oscar Salemink (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Religions in
Asia. Routledge. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-1-317-63646-5. "According to Asko Parpola, the Proto-Indo-Aryan
civilization was influenced by two external waves of migrations. The first group originated from the
southern Urals (c. 2100 BCE) and mixed with the peoples of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological
Complex (BMAC); this group then proceeded to South Asia, arriving around 1900 BCE. The second
wave arrived in northern South Asia around 1750 BCE and mixed with the formerly arrived group,
producing the Mitanni Aryans (c. 1500 BCE), a precursor to the peoples of the Ṛgveda. Michael Witzel
has assigned an approximate chronology to the strata of Vedic languages, arguing that the language of
the Ṛgveda changed through the beginning of the Iron Age in South Asia, which started in the Northwest
(Punjab) around 1000 BCE. On the basis of comparative philological evidence, Witzel has suggested a
five-stage periodization of Vedic civilization, beginning with the Ṛgveda. On the basis of internal
evidence, the Ṛgveda is dated as a late Bronze Age text composed by pastoral migrants with limited
settlements, probably between 1350 and 1150 BCE in the Punjab region."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 41/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

24. Michael C. Howard 2012, p. 21

25. Pollock, Sheldon (2006). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power
in Premodern India (https://books.google.com/books?id=CMskDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14). University of
California Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-520-24500-6. "Once Sanskrit emerged from the sacerdotal
environment ... it became the sole medium by which ruling elites expressed their power ... Sanskrit
probably never functioned as an everyday medium of communication anywhere in the cosmopolis—not
in South Asia itself, let alone Southeast Asia ... The work Sanskrit did do ... was directed above all
toward articulating a form of ... politics ... as celebration of aesthetic power."
26. Burrow 1973, pp. 62–64.
27. Cardona, George; Luraghi, Silvia (2018). "Sanskrit" (https://books.google.com/books?id=lR9WDwAAQB
AJ&pg=PT497). In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World's Major Languages. Taylor & Francis. pp. 497–.
ISBN 978-1-317-29049-0. "Sanskrit (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') refers to several varieties of Old
Indo-Aryan whose most archaic forms are found in Vedic texts: the Rigveda (Ṛgveda), Yajurveda,
Sāmveda, Atharvaveda, with various branches."
28. Alfred C. Woolner (1986). Introduction to Prakrit (https://books.google.com/books?id=IwE16UFBfdEC).
Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9. "If in 'Sanskrit' we include the Vedic language
and all dialects of the Old Indian period, then it is true to say that all the Prakrits are derived from
Sanskrit. If on the other hand 'Sanskrit' is used more strictly of the Panini-Patanjali language or 'Classical
Sanskrit,' then it is untrue to say that any Prakrit is derived from Sanskrit, except that Sauraseni, the
Midland Prakrit, is derived from the Old Indian dialect of the Madhyadesa on which Classical Sanskrit
was mainly based."
29. Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms
(https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2). Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2.
ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20231010004628/https://books.google.
com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 10 October 2023.
Retrieved 13 October 2020. "It consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions
originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-
Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around
1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of
what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India."
30. Witzel, Michael (2006). "Early Loan Words in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations,
Migrations, and Trade Relations" (https://books.google.com/books?id=8-OilJCX1moC&pg=PA160). In
Victor H. Mair (ed.). Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 158–
190, 160. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4. "The Vedas were composed (roughly between 1500-1200 and 500
BCE) in parts of present-day Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and northern India. The oldest text at our
disposal is the Rgveda (RV); it is composed in archaic Indo-Aryan (Vedic Sanskrit)."
31. Shulman, David (2016). Tamil (https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA19).
Harvard University Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-0-674-97465-4. "(p. 17) Similarly, we find a large number
of other items relating to flora and fauna, grains, pulses, and spices—that is, words that we might expect
to have made their way into Sanskrit from the linguistic environment of prehistoric or early-historic India.
... (p. 18) Dravidian certainly influenced Sanskrit phonology and syntax from early on ... (p 19) Vedic
Sanskrit was in contact, from very ancient times, with speakers of Dravidian languages, and that the two
language families profoundly influenced one another."
32. Evans, Nicholas (2009). Dying Words: Endangered languages and what they have to tell us (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=kjXnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-0-631-
23305-3.
33. Glenn Van Brummelen (2014). "Arithmetic" (https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=P
A46). In Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.). Medieval Science, Technology, and
Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 46–48. ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20231010004629/https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46#v=onepag
e&q&f=false) from the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2020. "The story of the growth
of arithmetic from the ancient inheritance to the wealth passed on to the Renaissance is dramatic and
passes through several cultures. The most groundbreaking achievement was the evolution of a
positional number system, in which the position of a digit within a number determines its value according
to powers (usually) of ten (e.g., in 3,285, the "2" refers to hundreds). Its extension to include decimal
fractions and the procedures that were made possible by its adoption transformed the abilities of all who
calculated, with an effect comparable to the modern invention of the electronic computer. Roughly
speaking, this began in India, was transmitted to Islam, and then to the Latin West."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 42/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

34. Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58). Oxford University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-19-
879357-1. "The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the
Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic
sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source,
an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period."
35. Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb
Forms (https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2). Oxford University Press. pp. 2–.
ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20231010004628/https://books.google.
com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 10 October 2023.
Retrieved 13 October 2020. "The importance of the Rigveda for the study of early Indo-Aryan historical
linguistics cannot be underestimated. ... its language is ... notably similar in many respects to the most
archaic poetic texts of related language families, the Old Avestan Gathas and Homer's Iliad and
Odyssey, respectively the earliest poetic representatives of the Iranian and Greek language families.
Moreover, its manner of preservation, by a system of oral transmission which has preserved the hymns
almost without change for 3,000 years, makes it a very trustworthy witness to the Indo-Aryan language
of North India in the second millennium BC. Its importance for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-
European, particularly in respect of the archaic morphology and syntax it preserves, ... is considerable.
Any linguistic investigation into Old Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, or Proto-Indo-European cannot avoid
treating the evidence of the Rigveda as of vital importance."
36. Staal 1986.
37. Filliozat 2004, pp. 360–375.
38. Filliozat 2004, p. 139.
39. Gazzola, Michele; Wickström, Bengt-Arne (2016). The Economics of Language Policy (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=C4snDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA469). MIT Press. pp. 469–. ISBN 978-0-262-03470-8. "The
Eighth Schedule recognizes India's national languages as including the major regional languages as well
as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India's cultural heritage. ... The original list of
fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has
now grown to twenty-two."
40. Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in
the Himalayan Foothills (https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58). Palgrave
Macmillan UK. pp. 58–. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0. "As Mahapatra says: "It is generally believed that the
significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to
draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment" ... Being recognized in the
Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions."
41. "Indian village where people speak in Sanskrit" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30446917).
BBC News. 22 December 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230405161459/https://www.bb
c.com/news/world-asia-india-30446917) from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
42. Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism" (https://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEM
YC&pg=PA223). In Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar (eds.). Language in South Asia.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. "Some of the migrated languages ...
such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native
speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their
speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants'
languages."
43. Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages – India / States / Union Territories – Sanskrit (https://censusi
ndia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf) (PDF), Census of India, 2011, p. 30, archived (http
s://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pd
f) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022, retrieved 4 October 2020
44. Seth 2007, p. 171.
45. Angus Stevenson & Maurice Waite 2011, p. 1275
46. Shlomo Biderman 2008, p. 90.
47. Will Durant 1963, p. 406.
48. Sir Monier Monier-Williams 2005, p. 1120.
49. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 1–2.
50. Annette Wilke & Oliver Moebus 2011, pp. 62–66 with footnotes.
51. Guy L. Beck 2006, pp. 117–123.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 43/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

52. Southworth 2004, p. 45.

53. Klein, Joseph & Fritz 2017, pp. 318–320.
54. "Ancient tablet found: Oldest readable writing in Europe" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110401192141/
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/03/110330-oldest-writing-europe-tablet-greece-science-
mycenae-greek/). National Geographic. 1 April 2011. Archived from the original (http://news.nationalgeog
raphic.com/news/2011/03/110330-oldest-writing-europe-tablet-greece-science-mycenae-greek) on 1
April 2011.
55. Rose, Jenny (18 August 2011). Zoroastrianism: A guide for the perplexed (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=4h0SBwAAQBAJ). Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-1-4411-2236-0.
56. Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Masson, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia (https://
books.google.com/books?id=GXzycd3dT9kC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 357–358. ISBN 978-81-208-
1407-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134400/https://books.google.com/books?id=GX
zycd3dT9kC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
57. Colin P. Masica 1993, p. 34.
58. Levin, Saul (24 October 2002). Semitic and Indo-European. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory No. 226.
Vol. II: Comparative morphology, syntax, and phonetics. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 431.
ISBN 9781588112224. OCLC 32590410 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32590410). ISBN 1588112225
59. Bryant & Patton 2005, p. 208.
60. Robins, R. H. (2014). General Linguistics (https://books.google.com/books?id=IryOAwAAQBAJ).
Routledge. pp. 346–347. ISBN 978-1-317-88763-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134
204/https://books.google.com/books?id=IryOAwAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved
18 July 2018.
61. J. P. Mallory & D. Q. Adams 2006, p. 6.
62. Burrow 1973, p. 6.
63. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 36–38.
64. Burrow 1973, pp. 30–32.
65. Burrow 1973, pp. 30–34.
66. Meier-Brügger 2003, p. 20.
67. MacDonell 2004.
68. Keith 1996, pp. 3–4.
69. Deshpande 1993, p. 165.
70. Bloomfield & Edgerton 1932, §163–170.
71. Deshpande 1993, pp. 130–196.
72. Barbara A. Holdrege 2012, pp. 229–230.
73. Bryant 2001, pp. 66–67.
74. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 5–6.
75. Cardona 2012.
76. Witzel 1997, p. 9.
77. Witzel 1997, p. 16-17.
78. Harold G. Coward 1990, pp. 3–12, 36–47, 111–112, Note: Sanskrit was both a literary and spoken
language in ancient India..
79. Cohen, Signe (2017). The Upanisads: A complete guide (https://books.google.com/books?id=EnE3DwA
AQBAJ). Taylor & Francis. pp. 11–17. ISBN 978-1-317-63696-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0240329134215/https://books.google.com/books?id=EnE3DwAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March
2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
80. Bryant 2001, p. 249.
81. Robinson, Andrew (2014). India: A Short History (https://books.google.com/books?id=TgU7CwAAQBAJ&
pg=PT44). Thames & Hudson. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-0-500-77195-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20240329134211/https://books.google.com/books?id=TgU7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44#v=onepage&q&f=
false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
82. Woodard, Roger D. (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas (https://books.google.com/
books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC). Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20240329131545/https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 44/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

83. Lowe, John Jeffrey (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb
forms (https://books.google.com/books?id=u7u6BwAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. pp. 2–3.
ISBN 978-0-19-870136-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230907144358/https://books.google.
com/books?id=u7u6BwAAQBAJ) from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
84. Stephanie W. Jamison & Joel P. Brereton 2014, pp. 10–11, 72.
85. Stephanie W. Jamison & Joel P. Brereton 2014, p. 50.
86. Stephanie W. Jamison & Joel P. Brereton 2014, pp. 66–67.
87. Gombrich, Richard (2006). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern
Colombo (https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ). Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1-134-
90352-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230703145618/https://books.google.com/books?id=jZ
yJAgAAQBAJ) from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
88. Huet, Gérard; Kulkarni, Amba; Scharf, Peter (2009). Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and
Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May
15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers (https://books.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C). Springer.
pp. v–vi. ISBN 978-3-642-00154-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134221/https://book
s.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
89. Cardona, George (1998), Pāṇini: A Survey of Research (https://books.google.com/books?id=adWXhQ-y
HQUC&pg=PA268), Motilal Banarsidass, p. 268, ISBN 978-81-208-1494-3, archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20240329134213/https://books.google.com/books?id=adWXhQ-yHQUC&pg=PA268#v=onepa
ge&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024, retrieved 18 July 2018
90. "Ashtadhyayi, Work by Panini" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ashtadhyayi). Encyclopædia Britannica.
2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170805063047/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ashtadh
yayi) from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017. "Ashtadhyayi, Sanskrit Aṣṭādhyāyī
('Eight Chapters'), Sanskrit treatise on grammar written in the 6th to 5th century BCE by the Indian
grammarian Panini."
91. Staal, Frits (April 1965). "Euclid and Pāṇini" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397332). Philosophy East and
West. 15 (2): 99–116. doi:10.2307/1397332 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1397332). JSTOR 1397332 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/1397332). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230305221238/https://www.j
stor.org/stable/1397332) from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
92. Fortson, §10.26.
93. Harold G. Coward 1990, pp. 13–14, 111.
94. Pāṇini; Katre, Sumitra Mangesh (1989). Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini (https://books.google.com/books?id=iSDak
Y97XckC&pg=PR19). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xix–xxi. ISBN 978-81-208-0521-7. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20240329134719/https://books.google.com/books?id=iSDakY97XckC&pg=PR19#v=one
page&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
95. Cardona 1997, p. 2.
96. Renou, Louis, and Filliozat, Jean. L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes. Vol. II. pp. 86–90.
École française d'Extrême-Orient, 2000 [1953]. ISBN 2-85539-903-3.
97. Angot, Michel (2001). L'Inde Classique. pp. 213–215. Paris: Les Belles Lettres. ISBN 2-251-41015-5
98. Kawaguchi, Yuji; Minegishi, Makoto; Viereck, Wolfgang (2011). Corpus-based Analysis and Diachronic
Linguistics (https://books.google.com/books?id=iaZxAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA223). John Benjamins. pp. 223–
224. ISBN 978-90-272-7215-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134751/https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=iaZxAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA223#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March
2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
99. Bowman, John (2005). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C). Columbia University Press. p. 728. ISBN 978-0-231-50004-3.
100. Salomon 1998, p. 11.
101. Rhi, Juhyung (2009). "On the Peripheries of Civilizations: The Evolution of a Visual Tradition in
Gandhāra". Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. 1: 5, 1–13.
102. Sherma, Rita; Sharma, Arvind (2008). Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA235). Springer. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-4020-
8192-7.
103. Falk, Harry (1993). Schrift im alten Indien: ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmerkungen (in German). Gunter
Narr. pp. 109–167.
104. Salomon 1995, pp. 271–279.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 45/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

105. Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). Education in Ancient India. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Leiden, Netherlands:
Brill. pp. 10–12.
106. von Hinüber, Oskar (1989). Der Beginn der Schrift und frühe Schriftlichkeit in Indien (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=xiYTAQAAMAAJ) (in German). Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur.
pp. 241–245. ISBN 9783515056274. OCLC 22195130 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/22195130).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20231215194736/https://books.google.com/books?id=xiYTAQAA
MAAJ) from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
107. Goody 1987, pp. 110–124.
108. Bronkhorst, Johannes (2002). "Literacy and rationality in ancient India". Asiatische Studien. 56 (4): 803–
804, 797–831.
109. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, p. 53.
110. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 53–54.
111. Burrow 1973, pp. 33–34.
112. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 378–383.
113. Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1997). A Sanskrit Grammar for Students (https://books.google.com/books?id
=HbFJJ2NF8W4C). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 236–244. ISBN 978-81-208-0505-7. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20240329134721/https://books.google.com/books?id=HbFJJ2NF8W4C) from the original
on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
114. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 1–59.
115. Fleet, John Faithfull (1907). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol 3 (1970)ac 4616 (https://archive.org/stre
am/in.ernet.dli.2015.358795/2015.358795.Corpus-Inscriptionum#page/n373/mode/2up). p. 153, line 14
of the inscription.
116. Woolner, Alfred C. (1986). Introduction to Prakrit (https://books.google.com/books?id=IwE16UFBfdEC).
Motilal Banarsidass. p. 6, context: 1–10. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9.
117. Maloney, Clarence (1978). Language and Civilization Change in South Asia (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=M_oUAAAAIAAJ). Brill Academic. pp. 111–114. ISBN 978-90-04-05741-8. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20240329134722/https://books.google.com/books?id=M_oUAAAAIAAJ) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
118. Shastri, Gaurinath Bhattacharyya (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-81-208-0027-4.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134732/https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4
hAC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
119. Johansson, Rune Edvin Anders (1981). Pali Buddhist Texts: Explained to the beginner (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=fovyapaDaYIC). Psychology Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7007-1068-3. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20240329134722/https://books.google.com/books?id=fovyapaDaYIC) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018. "Pali is known mainly as the language of Theravada
Buddhism. ... very little is known about its origin. We do not know where it was spoken or if it originally
was a spoken language at all. The ancient Ceylonese tradition says that the Buddha himself spoke
Magadhi and that this language was identical to Pali."
120. Dundas, Paul (2003). The Jains (https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ). Routledge.
pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0-415-26606-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230702114824/https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ) from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
121. "Ethnologue report for language code: pli" (http://www.ethnologue.com/15/show_language/pli/).
Ethnologue. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180720080930/http://www.ethnologue.com/15/sho
w_language/pli/) from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
122. Krishnavarma, P. S. (1881). Sanskrit as a living language in India: Journal of the National Indian
Association (https://books.google.com/books?id=TikJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA737). Henry S. King &
Company. pp. 737–745. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134734/https://books.google.co
m/books?id=TikJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA737#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 19 July 2018.
123. Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 20–23. ISBN 978-81-208-0027-4.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134732/https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4
hAC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
124. Deshpande 2011, pp. 218–220.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 46/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

125. Winternitz, Moriz (1996). A History of Indian Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O

8C). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 42–46. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
231226083105/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C) from the original on 26 December
2023. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
126. Deshpande 2011, pp. 222–223.
127. Lamotte, Étienne (1976). "Histoire du buddhisme indien, des origines à l'ère saka". Institut orientaliste.
Tijdschrift voor Filosofie (in French). 21 (3). Louvain-la-Neuve, France: Université de Louvain: 539–541.
128. Pollock, Sheldon (1996). "The Sanskrit cosmopolis, A.D. 300–1300: transculturation, vernacularization,
and the question of ideology" (https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA197). In
Houben, Jan (ed.). Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language.
Leiden, New York: E. J. Brill. pp. 197–199, pp. 197–239 for context and details. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-
0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135457/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q
9qYC&pg=PA197#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 22 March
2024.
129. Reyar, Akrita (19 February 2019). " 'Kashmir had an overwhelmingly Indic and Sanskritic identity and
character' " (https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/kashmir-had-an-overwhelmingly-indic-and-sans
kritic-identity-and-character-shonaleeka-kaul-jnu/334839). timesnownews.com. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20240108212808/https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/kashmir-had-an-overwhelmi
ngly-indic-and-sanskritic-identity-and-character-shonaleeka-kaul-jnu/334839) from the original on 8
January 2024.
130. P. 116 Sanskrit and Other Indian Languages By Śaśiprabhā Kumāra; "Their language was Vedic
Sanskrit which is spoken by all Kashmiris presently."
131. Kashmir: Its Aborigines and Their Exodus By Colonel Tej K Tikoo
132. Reinöhl, Uta (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan. Oxford
University Press. pp. 120–121.
133. Ruzca, Ferenc (2013). "The influence of Dravidian on Indo-Aryan phonetics". In Klein, Jared S. (ed.).
Indic Across the Millennia: from the Rigveda to Modern Indo-Aryans (https://www.academia.edu/472464/
The_influence_of_Dravidian_on_Indo_Aryan_phonetics). Hempen Verlag. pp. 145–152.
ISBN 9783934106055.
134. Hock, Hans Henrich; Bashir, E.; Subbarao, K. V. (2016). The languages and linguistics of South Asia a
comprehensive guide. Berlin de Gruyter Mouton. pp. 94–95.
135. Hart, George (1976). The relation between Tamil and classical Sanskrit literature. Wiesbaden: O.
Harrassowitz. pp. 317–320. ISBN 3447017856.
136. Shulman, David Dean (2016). Tamil : a biography. London, UK: The Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press. pp. 12–14, 20.
137. Burrow 1973, p. 386.
138. Gérard Huet; Amba Kulkarni; Peter Scharf (2009). Sanskrit Computational Linguistics (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=P3pqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PR5). Springer. pp. v–vi. ISBN 978-3-642-00155-0. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135412/https://books.google.com/books?id=P3pqCQAAQBAJ&p
g=PR5#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
139. P M Scharf; M Hyman (2009). V Govindaraju and S Setlur (ed.). Guide to OCR for Indic Scripts:
Document Recognition and Retrieval (https://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC&pg=PA23
8). Springer. p. 238. ISBN 978-1-84800-330-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135502/h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC&pg=PA238#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
140. Justin McDaniel; Lynn Ransom (2015). From Mulberry Leaves to Silk Scrolls: New Approaches to the
Study of Asian Manuscript Traditions (https://books.google.com/books?id=KL-XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233).
University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 233–234. ISBN 978-0-8122-4736-7. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20240329135232/https://books.google.com/books?id=KL-XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233#v=onepage
&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
141. Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0027-4. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20240329134732/https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
142. Banerji 1989, pp. 618–632, see also the extended list of Sanskrit texts in Part II.
143. Salomon 1998, pp. 86–87.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 47/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

144. J.F. Staal (1976). Herman Parret (ed.). History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=hQh0bC5RAe8C&pg=PA102). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 102–130.
ISBN 978-3-11-005818-5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135311/https://books.google.c
om/books?id=hQh0bC5RAe8C&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 20 July 2018.
145. Burrow 1973, pp. 57–64, 289, 319.
146. Madhav Deshpande (2010), Language and Testimony in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Source Link (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-india/) Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20240329135433/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-india/) 29 March
2024 at the Wayback Machine
147. Stephanie Theodorou (2011), Bhartrihari (c. 450—510 CE), IEP, Source link (https://www.iep.utm.edu/bh
artrihari/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180720081334/https://www.iep.utm.edu/bhartrihari/)
20 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine
148. J.F. Staal (1976). Herman Parret (ed.). History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=hQh0bC5RAe8C&pg=PA102). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 121–125.
ISBN 978-3-11-005818-5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135311/https://books.google.c
om/books?id=hQh0bC5RAe8C&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 20 July 2018.
149. Wayman 1965, pp. 111–115.
150. John Kelly (1996). Jan E.M. Houben (ed.). Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History
of the Sanskrit Language (https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA87). BRILL
Academic. pp. 87–102. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202403291400
02/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA87#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
151. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 177–180.
152. Umāsvāti 1994, pp. xi–xiii.
153. Paul Dundas (2006). Patrick Olivelle (ed.). Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC). Oxford University Press. pp. 395–396. ISBN 978-0-
19-977507-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135744/https://books.google.co.ma/book
s?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&redir_esc=y) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
154. K. Preisendanz (2018). Florence Bretelle-Establet; Stéphane Schmitt (eds.). Pieces and Parts in
Scientific Texts (https://books.google.com/books?id=XYteDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175). Springer. pp. 175–
178 with footnotes. ISBN 978-3-319-78467-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135939/ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=XYteDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original
on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
155. Eli Franco (2004), The Spitzer Manuscript: The Oldest Philosophical Manuscript in Sanskrit, Volume 1 &
2, Verlag Der Österreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften (Austrian Academy of Sciences Press),
ISBN 978-37001-3-3018, pp. 461–465
156. Eli Franco (2003). "The Oldest Philosophical Manuscript in Sanskrit". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 31
(1/3): 21–31. doi:10.1023/A:1024690001755 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1024690001755).
JSTOR 23497034 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23497034). S2CID 169685693 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:169685693).
157. Robert E. Buswell Jr. & Donald S. Lopez Jr. 2013, p. 504.
158. Stephen K. Stein (2017). The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade [2 volumes] (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=QmOWDgAAQBAJ). ABC-CLIO. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4408-3551-3. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135836/https://books.google.com/books?id=QmOWDgAAQBAJ)
from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
159. Charles Taliaferro (2010). A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion (https://books.google.com/books?id=Cf
WoAwAAQBAJ). Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 245–246. ISBN 978-1-4411-8504-4. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20240329135940/https://books.google.com/books?id=CfWoAwAAQBAJ) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
160. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar 1974, pp. 1–4.
161. Charles Orzech; Henrik Sørensen; Richard Payne (2011). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East
Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC). BRILL Academic. pp. 985–996. ISBN 978-
90-04-18491-6.
162. Banerji 1989, pp. 595–596.
163. Michael C. Howard 2012, p. 21.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 48/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

164. The 14th Dalai Lama 1979, pp. 3–5.

165. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 55–56.
166. Keat Gin Ooi (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC). ABC-CLIO. p. 643. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC) from
the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
167. Burrow 1973, p. 60.
168. Houben, Jan (1996). Ideology and status of Sanskrit: contributions to the history of the Sanskrit
language. Leiden New York: E.J. Brill. p. 11. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-0.
169. William Bright (2014). American Indian Linguistics and Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=TV
a1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16). Walter De Gruyter. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-3-11-086311-6. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20240329140013/https://books.google.com/books?id=TVa1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16#v=
onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
170. Cynthia Groff (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in
the Himalayan Foothills (https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ). Palgrave Macmillan UK.
pp. 183–185. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135747/https://
books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July
2018.
171. Iswari P. Pandey (2015). South Asian in the Mid-South: Migrations of Literacies (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=vFnkCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT86). University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-0-8229-
8102-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140436/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFn
kCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT86#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July
2018.
172. Hock 1983.
173. Sheldon Pollock 2009, pp. 167–168.
174. Pollock 2001.
175. Hanneder 2002, pp. 293–310.
176. Pollock 2001, pp. 397–398.
177. Pollock 2001, p. 398.
178. Audrey Truschke (2016). Culture of Encounters: Sanskrit at the Mughal Court (https://books.google.com/
books?id=DMJ1CwAAQBAJ). Columbia University Press. pp. 9–15, 30–36, 45–47. ISBN 978-0-231-
54097-1.
179. Deshpande, Madhav M. (1993). Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=NDrqaELkKTEC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 118–124. ISBN 978-81-208-1136-2.
180. B.B. Kachru (1981). Kashmiri Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C). Otto
Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-3-447-02129-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240
329140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 20 July 2018.
181. Gurnam Singh Sidhu Brard (2007). East of Indus (https://books.google.com/books?id=UUdYFH9skIkC).
Hemkunt Press. pp. 80–82. ISBN 978-81-7010-360-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202403291
50337/https://books.google.com/books?id=UUdYFH9skIkC) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 20 July 2018.
182. Pollock 2001, p. 393.
183. Hatcher, B. A. (2007). "Sanskrit and the morning after: The metaphorics and theory of intellectual
change". Indian Economic. 44 (3): 333–361. doi:10.1177/001946460704400303 (https://doi.org/10.117
7%2F001946460704400303). S2CID 144219653 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144219653).
184. Moriz Winternitz (1996). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=JR
fuJFRV_O8C). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 37–39. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20231226083105/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C) from the original on 26
December 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
185. Hatcher, Brian A. (2016). "Sanskrit and the morning after". The Indian Economic & Social History
Review. 44 (3): 333–361. doi:10.1177/001946460704400303 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946460704
400303). ISSN 0019-4646 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0019-4646). S2CID 144219653 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:144219653).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 49/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

186. Hanneder, J. (2009), "Modernes Sanskrit: eine vergessene Literatur", in Straube, Martin; Steiner,
Roland; Soni, Jayandra; Hahn, Michael; Demoto, Mitsuyo (eds.), Pāsādikadānaṃ: Festschrift für
Bhikkhu Pāsādika (http://indologica.de/drupal/?q=node/749), Indica et Tibetica Verlag, pp. 205–228,
archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141027040119/http://indologica.de/drupal/?q=node/749) from
the original on 27 October 2014, retrieved 23 November 2014
187. Robert P. Goldman & Sally J Sutherland Goldman 2002, pp. xi–xii.
188. Seth 2007, pp. 172–176.
189. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 50–57.
190. Philipp Strazny 2013, pp. 499–500.
191. Dutt, Sagarika (2014). India in a Globalized World (https://books.google.com/books?id=ouYdDAAAQBAJ
&pg=PA16). Oxford University Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-0-7190-6901-7. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20240329140726/https://books.google.com/books?id=ouYdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
192. Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India (https://books.google.com/books?id
=qLc7DwAAQBAJ). Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 183–185. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20240329135747/https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ) from the original
on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
193. Avari, Burjor (2016) [first published 2007]. India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent
from c. 7000 BCE to CE 1200 (https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ) (2nd ed.).
Routledge. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-1-317-23673-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2024032914033
0/https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved
24 July 2018.
194. Sheldon Pollock (1996). Jan E. M. Houben (ed.). Ideology and Status of Sanskrit (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC). BRILL Academic. pp. 197–223 with footnotes. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-0.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9q
YC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
195. William S.-Y. Wang; Chaofen Sun (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. pp. 6–19, 203–212, 236–245.
ISBN 978-0-19-985633-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140436/https://books.google.
com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
196. Burrow 1973, pp. 63–66.
197. Jinah Kim (2013). Receptacle of the Sacred: Illustrated Manuscripts and the Buddhist Book Cult in South
Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=k6lgKmQ82WoC). University of California Press. pp. 8, 13–15,
49. ISBN 978-0-520-27386-3.
198. Pieter C. Verhagen (1994). A History of Sanskrit Grammatical Literature in Tibet (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=7sphfld8fIgC&pg=PA159). BRILL. pp. 159–160. ISBN 978-90-04-09839-8. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20240329140839/https://books.google.com/books?id=7sphfld8fIgC&pg=PA159#v=
onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
199. Salomon 1998, pp. 154–155.
200. Salomon 1998, pp. 158–159.
201. Salomon 1998, pp. 155–157.
202. Salomon 1998, p. 158.
203. Salomon 1998, p. 157.
204. Salomon 1998, p. 155.
205. William M. Johnston (2013). Encyclopedia of Monasticism (https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgA
AQBAJ). Routledge. p. 926. ISBN 978-1-136-78716-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202304091
60917/https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ) from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved
28 July 2018.
206. Todd T. Lewis; Subarna Man Tuladhar (2009). Sugata Saurabha An Epic Poem from Nepal on the Life of
the Buddha by Chittadhar Hridaya (https://books.google.com/books?id=X_Zt4JBNjt4C). Oxford
University Press. pp. 343–344. ISBN 978-0-19-988775-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202403
29150852/https://books.google.com/books?id=X_Zt4JBNjt4C) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 28 July 2018.
207. Salomon 1998, pp. 159–160.
208. Olivelle, Patrick (2006). Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE (https://books.google.
com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&pg=PA356). Oxford University Press. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-19-977507-1.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 50/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

209. Salomon 1998, pp. 152–153.

210. Alley, Rewi (1957). Journey to Outer Mongolia: A diary with poems (https://books.google.com/books?id=
YuYDAQAAIAAJ). Caxton Press. pp. 27–28. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140850/htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=YuYDAQAAIAAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved
28 July 2018.
211. Salomon 1998, pp. 153–154.
212. Gian Luca Bonora; Niccolò Pianciola; Paolo Sartori (2009). Kazakhstan: Religions and Society in the
History of Central Eurasia (https://books.google.com/books?id=DEwqAQAAMAAJ). U. Allemandi. pp. 65,
140. ISBN 978-88-42217-558. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140937/https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=DEwqAQAAMAAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
213. Bjarke Frellesvig (2010). A History of the Japanese Language (https://books.google.com/books?id=v1Fc
AgiAC9IC&pg=PA164). Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–165, 183. ISBN 978-1-139-48880-8.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140942/https://books.google.com/books?id=v1FcAgiAC
9IC&pg=PA164#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
214. Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2017). Hyecho's Journey: The world of Buddhism (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=SNA6DwAAQBAJ). University of Chicago Press. pp. 16–22, 33–42. ISBN 978-0-226-51806-0.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140850/https://books.google.com/books?id=SNA6DwA
AQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
215. Salomon 1998, p. 160 with footnote 134.
216. Cynthia Groff (2013). Jo Arthur Shoba and Feliciano Chimbutane (ed.). Bilingual Education and
Language Policy in the Global South (https://books.google.com/books?id=0TO-yudLLWEC&pg=PT178).
Routledge. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-135-06885-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140850/htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=0TO-yudLLWEC&pg=PT178#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original
on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
217. "Sanskrit second official language of Uttarakhand" (https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp
-otherstates/Sanskrit-second-official-language-of-Uttarakhand/article15965492.ece). The Hindu. 21
January 2010. ISSN 0971-751X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X). Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20180303145846/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/Sanskrit-s
econd-official-language-of-Uttarakhand/article15965492.ece) from the original on 3 March 2018.
Retrieved 2 October 2018.
218. "HP Assy clears three Bills, Sanskrit becomes second official language" (http://www.uniindia.com/hp-ass
y-clears-three-bills-sanskrit-becomes-second-official-language/north/news/1501689.html). Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20230516125815/http://www.uniindia.com/hp-assy-clears-three-bills-sanskrit-be
comes-second-official-language/north/news/1501689.html) from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved
26 May 2019.
219. Jamison 2008, pp. 8–9.
220. Jamison 2008, p. 9.
221. Robert P. Goldman & Sally J Sutherland Goldman 2002, pp. 1–9.
222. Michael Coulson, Richard Gombrich & James Benson 2011, pp. 21–36.
223. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 163–165.
224. Robert P. Goldman & Sally J Sutherland Goldman 2002, pp. 13–19.
225. Salomon 2007, p. 75.
226. Colin P. Masica 1993, p. 146 notes of this diacritic that "there is some controversy as to whether it
represents a homorganic nasal stop [...], a nasalised vowel, a nasalised semivowel, or all these
according to context".
227. This visarga is a consonant, not a vowel. It is a post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative [h], and an
allophone of s (or less commonly r) usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an
echo of the preceding vowel after the [h] (Wikner, Charles (1996). "A Practical Sanskrit Introductory" (htt
p://sanskritdocuments.org/learning_tutorial_wikner/index.html). p. 6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20080618194654/http://sanskritdocuments.org/learning_tutorial_wikner/index.html) from the original on
18 June 2008. Retrieved 26 June 2020.): इः [ihi]. Colin P. Masica 1993, p. 146 considers the visarga,
along with letters ङ ṅa and ञ ña, for the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals, to be examples
of "phonetic overkill in the [writing] system".
228. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 160–161.
229. Jamison 2008, pp. 9–10.
230. Jamison 2008, p. 10.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 51/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

231. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 18–19.

232. Jamison 2008, pp. 10–11.
233. Jamison 2008, p. 11.
234. Jamison 2008, pp. 11–12.
235. Jamison 2008, p. 12.
236. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 164–166.
237. Jamison 2008, p. 13.
238. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 163–164.
239. Jamison 2008, pp. 13–14.
240. Goldman, Robert P.; Sutherland Goldman, Sally J. (2002). Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An introduction to the
Sanskrit language. Center for South Asia Studies. University of California Press.
241. Jain; Cardona (2003). "Sanskrit". The Indo-Aryan Languages.
242. Jamison 2008, p. 15.
243. Jamison 2008, pp. 15–16.
244. Jamison 2008, p. 20.
245. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 31–33.
246. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 33–34.
247. Jamison 2008, pp. 19–20.
248. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17.
249. Jamison 2008, pp. 17–18.
250. Kiparsky, Paul (2014). Koerner, E. F. K.; Asher, R. E. (eds.). Concise History of the Language Sciences:
From the Sumerians to the Cognitivists (https://books.google.com/books?id=VCqLBQAAQBAJ).
Elsevier. pp. 59–65. ISBN 978-1-4832-9754-5.
251. Jamison 2008, p. 21.
252. Jamison 2008, pp. 20–21.
253. Robert P. Goldman & Sally J Sutherland Goldman 2002, pp. 59, 79, 91, 113.
254. Burrow 1973, pp. 191–194.
255. James Lochtefeld, James (2002). "Chandas". In The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. 1: A-M.
Rosen. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1. p. 140
256. Winternitz, Moriz (1988). A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=Lgz1eMhu0JsC&pg=PA577). Motilal Banarsidass. p. 577. ISBN 978-81-208-
0265-0.
257. Annette Wilke & Oliver Moebus 2011, pp. 391–392 with footnotes.
258. Egenes, Thomas (1996). Introduction to Sanskrit (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAu6xhfb4bUC).
Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 86–91. ISBN 978-81-208-1693-0.
259. Sargeant, Winthrop (2010). Chapple, Christopher Key (ed.). The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–
Anniversary Edition (https://books.google.com/books?id=COuy5CDAqt4C). State University of New York
Press. pp. 3–8. ISBN 978-1-4384-2840-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230721075137/http
s://books.google.com/books?id=COuy5CDAqt4C) from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 2 August
2018.
260. Brockington, J. L. (1998). The Sanskrit Epics (https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C).
BRILL Academic. pp. 117–130. ISBN 978-90-04-10260-6.
261. Scharf, Peter (2013). Allan, Keith (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics (https://books.
google.com/books?id=BQfDosHckzEC). Oxford University Press. pp. 228–234. ISBN 978-0-19-164344-
6.
262. Preminger, Alex; Warnke, Frank J.; Hardison Jr., O. B. (2015). Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and
Poetics (https://books.google.com/books?id=vLp9BgAAQBAJ). Princeton University Press. pp. 394–395.
ISBN 978-1-4008-7293-0.
263. Har Dutt Sharma (1951). "Suvrttatilaka" (https://books.google.com/books?id=goUkVCiQEbMC). Poona
Orientalist: A Quarterly Journal Devoted to Oriental Studies. XVII: 84.
264. Olivelle, Patrick (1998). The Early Upanisads: Annotated text and translation (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC). Oxford University Press. pp. xvi–xviii, xxxvii. ISBN 978-0-19-535242-9.
265. Olivelle, Patrick (2008). Collected Essays: Language, texts, and society (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=P_Jx52VYRssC). Firenze University Press. pp. 293–295. ISBN 978-88-8453-729-4.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 52/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

266. Winternitz, Maurice (1963). History of Indian Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=ql0BmInD1c

4C). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 3–4, with footnotes. ISBN 978-81-208-0056-4.
267. Olivelle, Patrick (2008). Collected Essays: Language, texts, and society (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=P_Jx52VYRssC). Firenze University Press. pp. 264–265. ISBN 978-88-8453-729-4.
268. Hiltebeitel, Alf (2000). "Review: John Brockington, The Sanskrit Epics". Indo-Iranian Journal. 43 (2): 161–
169. doi:10.1163/000000000124993958 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F000000000124993958).
S2CID 161239418 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161239418).
269. Elizarenkova, Tatyana J. (1995). Language and Style of the Vedic Rsis (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=j-B0Y-IwTQAC). State University of New York Press. pp. 111–121. ISBN 978-0-7914-1668-6.
270. Salomon 1998, p. 10.
271. Salomon 1998, pp. 7–10, 86.
272. Goody 1987, pp. 110–121.
273. Donald S. Lopez Jr. 1995, pp. 21–47
274. Rita Sherma; Arvind Sharma (2008). Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC). Springer. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-4020-8192-7.;
Takao Hayashi (2008). Gavin Flood (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C). John Wiley & Sons. p. 365. ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20240329144114/https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
275. Nado, Lopon (1982). "The development of language in Bhutan". The Journal of the International
Association of Buddhist Studies. 5 (2): 95. "Under different teachers, such as the Brahmin Lipikara and
Deva Vidyasinha, he mastered Indian philology and scripts. According to Lalitavistara, there were as
many as sixty-four scripts in India."
276. Salomon 1998, pp. 8–9 with footnotes.
277. Salomon 1998, pp. 8–9.
278. Salomon 1998.
279. Salomon 1998, pp. 8–14.
280. Salomon 1998, pp. 11–12.
281. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 371–372.
282. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 373–374, 376–378.
283. Salomon 1998, pp. 14–16.
284. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 373–375.
285. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 373–376.
286. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 373–374.
287. Charles Higham (2014). Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations (https://books.google.com/books?id
=H1c1UIEVH9gC). Infobase Publishing. p. 294. ISBN 978-1-4381-0996-1. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20230115081256/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC) from the original on 15
January 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
288. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 376–380.
289. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 69–70 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
290. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 68–72 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
291. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, p. 72 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
292. Bahadur Chand Chhabra (1970). "Sugh Terracotta with Brahmi Barakhadi". Bull. National Mus. (2): 14–
16.
293. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 68–70 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
294. "Nandanagiri" (https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2013/13002-nandinagari.pdf) (PDF). Unicode Standards
(Report). 2013. 13002. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210309054659/https://www.unicode.org/
L2/L2013/13002-nandinagari.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
295. Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). The Culture of India. New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 83.
ISBN 978-1615301492.
296. Salomon, Richard (2014). Indian Epigraphy. Oxford University Press. pp. 33–47. ISBN 978-0195356663.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 53/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

297. Sures Chandra Banerji (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=

JkOAEdIsdUsC&pg=PA672). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 671–672. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20240329143940/https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC&pg=PA6
72#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
298. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 70, 75–77 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
299. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 75–77 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
300. John Norman Miksic; Goh Geok Yian (2016). Ancient Southeast Asia (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=zjklDwAAQBAJ). Taylor & Francis. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-317-27904-4. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20240329144447/https://books.google.com/books?id=zjklDwAAQBAJ) from the original on 29
March 2024. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
301. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 70–78 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
302. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 70–71, 75–76 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
303. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 70–71 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
304. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 72–73 in Chapter 3 by Salomon.
305. "Modern Transcription of Sanskrit" (http://shashir.autodidactus.org/shashir_umich/sanskrit_transcription.
html). autodidactus.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150107183947/http://shashir.autodidact
us.org/shashir_umich/sanskrit_transcription.html) from the original on 7 January 2015. Retrieved
26 February 2015.
306. Jan Gonda (2016). Visnuism and Sivaism: A Comparison (https://books.google.com/books?id=khrmDAA
AQBAJ&pg=PA166). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 166, note 243. ISBN 978-1-4742-8082-2. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20240329144448/https://books.google.com/books?id=khrmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA
166#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
307. James Hegarty (2013). Religion, Narrative and Public Imagination in South Asia: Past and place in the
Sanskrit Mahabharata (https://books.google.com/books?id=qMSoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46). Routledge.
p. 46, note 118. ISBN 978-1-136-64589-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329144615/http
s://books.google.com/books?id=qMSoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original
on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
308. Theo Damsteegt (1978). Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit (https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf4UAAAAIA
AJ&pg=PA209). Brill Academic. pp. 209–211. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230702132035/htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=Mf4UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA209) from the original on 2 July 2023.
Retrieved 8 August 2018.
309. Sonya Rhie Quintanilla (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC). BRILL Academic. pp. 254–255. ISBN 978-90-04-
15537-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230702132035/https://books.google.com/books?id=X
7Cb8IkZVSMC) from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
310. Salomon 1998, p. 87 with footnotes.
311. Salomon 1998, p. 93.
312. Salomon 1998, pp. 87–88.
313. Sonya Rhie Quintanilla (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC). BRILL Academic. pp. 260–263. ISBN 978-90-04-
15537-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230702132035/https://books.google.com/books?id=X
7Cb8IkZVSMC) from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
314. Sonya Rhie Quintanilla (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC). BRILL Academic. p. 260. ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230702132035/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZV
SMC) from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
315. Salomon 1998, p. 88.
316. Inscription No 21 in Janert, l (1961). Mathura Inscriptions (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201
093).
317. Salomon 1998, pp. 88–89.
318. Salomon 1998, pp. 89–90.
319. Salomon 1998, p. 89.
320. Salomon 1998, pp. 10, 86–90
321. Salomon 1998, pp. 91–94.
322. Salomon 1998, pp. 90–91.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 54/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

323. Salomon 1998, pp. 90–91 with footnote 51.

324. Salomon 1998, pp. 91–93.
325. Salomon 1998, p. 92.
326. Salomon 1998, pp. 92–93.
327. Salomon 1998, pp. 110–112, 132–148.
328. Salomon 1998, pp. 110–126.
329. Salomon 1998, pp. 126–132.
330. Salomon 1998, pp. 148–149.
331. Salomon 1998, pp. 149–150.
332. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 445–447, in the chapter by Christopher Court.
333. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 445–447 in the chapter by Christopher Court.
334. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 445–456 in the chapter by Christopher Court.
335. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 446–448 in the chapter by Christopher Court.
336. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 143–144.
337. Macdonell, p. 1.
338. Fortson, §10.23.
339. Iyengar 1965, p. 2.
340. Keith, §1.
341. Macdonnell, §1.
342. Burrow, §2.9.
343. Iyengar 1965, pp. xxx–xxxiii, 5.
344. Macdonell, p. ix., §1
345. Iyengar 1965, p. 5.
346. Banerji 1989, p. 672 with footnotes.
347. Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447-
01603-5
348. Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447-02091-1
349. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007.
350. Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447-01722-8
351. Keith 1996.
352. Duncan, J.; Derrett, M. (1978). Gonda, Jan (ed.). Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of
Indian literature. Vol. 4. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3-447-01519-5.
353. Keith 1996, ch 22.
354. Olivelle, Patrick (31 January 2013). King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-989182-5.
355. Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-12067-6
356. Pingree, David (1970). A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit. Vol. 1–5. American Philosophical
Society. ISBN 978-0-87169-213-9.
357. Valiathan, M.S. (2003). The Legacy of Caraka. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-250-2505-4.
358. Zysk, Kenneth (1998). Medicine in the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1401-1.
359. Meyer, J.J. (22 February 2013). Sexual Life in Ancient India. Vol. 1 & 2. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-1-4826-1588-3.
360. Keith 1996, ch 24.
361. John L. Brockington 1998.
362. Sures Chandra Banerji (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=
JkOAEdIsdUsC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–4, with a long list in Part II. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329144637/https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsd
UsC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 6 August 2018 – via Google Books. "Spanning a
period of over three thousand years; containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical
terms, geographical names, myths, [and] legends, [with] several appendices."
363. Keith 1996, §4.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 55/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

364. Sternbach, Ludwik (1974). Subhāṣita: Gnomic and didactic literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
ISBN 978-3-447-01546-2.
365. Berriedale, Keith A. The Sanskrit Drama (https://archive.org/details/SanskritDrama-KeithA.Berriedale).
Oxford University Press – via Archive.org.
366. Baumer, Rachel; Brandon, James (1993). Sanskrit Drama in Performance. Motilal Banarsidass.
ISBN 81-208-0772-3.
367. Khokar, Mohan (1981). Traditions of Indian Classical Dance. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-
0574-7.
368. te Nijenhuis, E. "Musicological literature". Scientific and Technical Literature. A History of Indian
Literature. Vol. 6. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-01831-9. Fasc. 1.
369. Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-
73033-6
370. Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447-01722-8
371. Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-02522-5
372. Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 81-208-0309-4
373. Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-05306-8
374. Acharya, P.K. (1946). An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture (https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaof
h07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up). Vol. 7. Oxford University Press. Also see volumes 1–6.
375. Bruno Dagens (1995), Mayamata : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography,
ISBN 978-81-208-3525-2
376. Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3
377. Rajbali Pandey (2013), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious study of the Hindu sacraments, 2nd Edition,
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803961
378. Banerji 1989, pp. 634–635 with the list in Appendix IX.
379. Eltschinger 2017.
380. Wayman 1965.
381. Paul Dundas (2003). The Jains (https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ). Routledge.
pp. 68–76, 149, 307–310. ISBN 978-1-134-50165-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023070211
4824/https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ) from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved
20 July 2018.
382. Wendy Doniger (1993). Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and transformation in Hindu and Jaina texts (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC). State University of New York Press. pp. 192–193.
ISBN 978-0-7914-1381-4.
383. Burrow 2001, p. 375.
384. Burrow 2001, pp. 39–40.
385. Burrow 2001, pp. 381–385.
386. Parpola 1994, p. 168.
387. Keith 1996, pp. 20–21.
388. Oberlies 2003, pp. xxvii–xxix.
389. Edgerton, Franklin (2004). Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit grammar and dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
ISBN 978-81-215-1110-0.
390. Staal 1963, p. 261.
391. Rao, Velcheru (2002). Classical Telugu poetry an anthology. Berkeley, Calif: University of California
Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-520-22598-5.
392. Sugam Marathi Vyakaran & Lekhana. 2007. Nitin publications. Author: M. R. Walimbe.
393. Carey, William (1805). A Grammar of the Marathi Language. Serampur [sic]: Serampore Mission Press.
ISBN 9781108056311.
394. Dalby, A (2004). Dictionary of languages : the definitive reference to more than 400 languages. New
York: Columbia University Press. p. 155.
395. Emeneau, M.; Burrow, T. (1962). Dravidian Borrowings from Indo-Aryan. University of California.
396. Shulman, David Dean (2016). Tamil : a biography. London: The Belknap Press Of Harvard University
Press. pp. 12–14.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 56/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

397. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian languages. ‌. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
p. 480.
398. Grant, A (2019). The Oxford handbook of language. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. Section
23.2, 23.3.
399. Strazny, Philipp (2005). Encyclopedia of linguistics. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 501–502.
400. Kachru, B.B.; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S.N, eds. (2008). Language in South Asia. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press. pp. 331–332.
401. George, K.M. (1998). Modern Indian Literature. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 8.
402. Lambert, H.M. (January 1958). [presentation title not cited]. Contemporary Indian Literature: A
symposium. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. 90, no. 1–2. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 89.
doi:10.1017/s0035869x00116910 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0035869x00116910). ISSN 1356-1863 (h
ttps://www.worldcat.org/issn/1356-1863). "Foreword by S. Radhakrishnan, Ministry of Information, Delhi,
p. 8."
403. Hock, Hans Henrich; Bashir, E.; Subbarao, K.V. (2016). The languages and linguistics of South Asia a
comprehensive guide. Berlin De Gruyter Mouton. p. 95.
404. Aiyar, R Swaminatha (1987). Dravidian theories. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 294. ISBN 8120803310.
405. Burrow 2001, p. 63.
406. William S.-Y. Wang; Chaofen Sun (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. pp. 5–6, 12, 236–247. ISBN 978-0-19-
985633-6. "In chapter 18, Shi Xiangdong makes it clear that the influence of Buddhist Sanskrit on the
Chinese language has been considerable. Many words have crossed the line from religious discourse to
everyday use."
407. William S.-Y. Wang; Chaofen Sun (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-19-985633-6.
408. "Nichiren Buddhism Library" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150222074700/http://www.nichirenlibrary.or
g/). nichirenlibrary.org. Archived from the original (https://www.nichirenlibrary.org/) on 22 February 2015.
409. Orzech, Charles; Sørensen, Henrik; Payne, Richard (2011). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East
Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC&pg=PA985). BRILL. p. 985. ISBN 978-
9004184916.
410. Burrow 2001, pp. 63, 64.
411. Zoetmulder, P.J. (1982). Old Javanese-English Dictionary (http://sealang.net/ojed/). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20230601111918/http://sealang.net/ojed/) from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved
29 October 2014.
412. Joshi, Manoj. Passport India (eBook) (3rd ed.). World Trade Press. p. 15.
413. Burrow 2001, p. 64.
414. Kulke, Hermann (1998). A History of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC).
Psychology Press. p. 145. ISBN 9780415154826. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202312231852
34/https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC) from the original on 23 December 2023.
Retrieved 21 March 2023.
415. Kumar, Ravi (2014). Hindu Resurgence in Indonesia, Inspiring Story of Millions of Muslims converting to
Hinduism. Suruchi Prakashan. p. 46. ISBN 9789381500477.
416. Jones, Russell (2007). Loan-Words in Indonesian and Malay (https://books.google.com/books?id=sXrxD
QAAQBAJ). Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia. p. XXIII. ISBN 9786024331740. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=sXrxDQAAQBAJ) from the original
on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
417. Yule, Henry; Burnell, Arthur Coke (2010), "Gujputty to Hackery" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo97811391
97922.016), Hobson-Jobson: Being a Glossary of Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words and Phrases and of
Kindred Terms Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. 402–407, doi:10.1017/cbo9781139197922.016 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo978113919792
2.016), ISBN 978-1-139-19792-2, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210208015307/https://www.c
ambridge.org/core/books/hobsonjobson/hobsonjobson/87D9A7751CD751A9BB87C06C0A35C8DB)
from the original on 8 February 2021, retrieved 20 February 2021
418. Paul Dundas (1996). Jan E. M. Houben (ed.). Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the
History of the Sanskrit Language (https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC). BRILL. pp. 152–
155. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140438/https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 57/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

419. Swami Veda Bharati (1968). Ritual Songs and Folk Songs of the Hindus of Surinam: Proefschrift (https://
books.google.com/books?id=cyIVAAAAIAAJ). Brill Archive. pp. 11–22. GGKEY:GJ0YGRH08YW.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145026/https://books.google.com/books?id=cyIVAAAAI
AAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
420. John Stratton Hawley (1996). Devi: Goddesses of India (https://archive.org/details/devi00john).
University of California Press. pp. 42 (https://archive.org/details/devi00john/page/42)–44. ISBN 978-0-
520-20058-6.
421. John Stratton Hawley (1996). Devi: Goddesses of India (https://archive.org/details/devi00john).
University of California Press. pp. 187 (https://archive.org/details/devi00john/page/187)–188. ISBN 978-
0-520-20058-6.
422. Christopher John Fuller (2003). The Renewal of the Priesthood: Modernity and Traditionalism in a South
Indian Temple (https://books.google.com/books?id=GEFuDcK7i44C). Princeton University Press.
pp. 49–53. ISBN 978-0-691-11658-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145206/https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=GEFuDcK7i44C) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 13 August
2018.
423. Richard H. Davis (2014). The Bhagavad Gita: A Biography (https://books.google.com/books?id=vQ3rAw
AAQBAJ&pg=PA179). Princeton University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-4008-5197-3. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20240329145025/https://books.google.com/books?id=vQ3rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA179#v
=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
424. Prajapati, Manibhai (2005). Post-independence Sanskrit literature: a critical survey (https://books.google.
com/books?id=jtZjAAAAMAAJ) (1 ed.). New Delhi: Standard publishers India.
425. Ranganath, S. (2009). Modern Sanskrit Writings in Karnataka (https://web.archive.org/web/2012050107
2906/http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/DigitalBook/M/Mswk.pdf) (PDF) (1st ed.). New Delhi: Rashtriya Sanskrit
Sansthan. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-86111-21-5. Archived from the original (http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/digitalboo
k/m/mswk.pdf) (PDF) on 1 May 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2014. "Contrary to popular belief, there is an
astonishing quality of creative upsurge of writing in Sanskrit today. Modern Sanskrit writing is
qualitatively of such high order that it can easily be treated on par with the best of Classical Sanskrit
literature, It can also easily compete with the writings in other Indian languages."
426. "Adhunika Sanskrit Sahitya Pustakalaya" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130113021104/http://www.sans
krit.nic.in/ASSP/INDEX.html). Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan. Archived from the original (http://www.sanskr
it.nic.in/ASSP/Index.html) on 13 January 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2014. "The latter half of the
nineteenth century marks the beginning of a new era in Sanskrit literature. Many of the modern Sanskrit
writings are qualitatively of such high order that they can easily be treated at par with the best of
classical Sanskrit works, and they can also be judged in contrast to the contemporary literature in other
languages."
427. "Sanskrit's first Jnanpith winner is a 'poet by instinct' " (http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/sanskrits-fi
rst-jnanpith-winner-is-a-poet-by-instinct/410480/0). The Indian Express. 14 January 2009. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20090607005229/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/sanskrits-first-jnanpith-wi
nner-is-a-poet-by-instinct/410480/0) from the original on 7 June 2009. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
428. "Samveda" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624383/Veda#ref942524). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20150429181056/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624383/Veda#ref94252
4) from the original on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
429. "Awards for World Music 2008" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/worldmusic/a4wm2008/2008_sa_ding_din
g.shtml). BBC Radio 3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080424011748/http://www.bbc.co.uk/rad
io3/worldmusic/a4wm2008/2008_sa_ding_ding.shtml) from the original on 24 April 2008. Retrieved
24 March 2011.
430. Haspelmath, Martin (2009). Loanwords in the World's Languages: A comparative handbook. De Gruyter
Mouton. p. 724. ISBN 978-3110218435.
431. Kuizon, Jose G. (1964). "The Sanskrit Loan-words in the Cebuano-Bisayan Language" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20220401020118/https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/646). Asian Folklore Studies. 23 (1): 111–
158. doi:10.2307/1177640 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1177640). JSTOR 1177640 (https://www.jstor.org/
stable/1177640). Archived from the original (https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/646) on 1 April 2022.
Retrieved 15 March 2018.
432. Sak-Humphry, Channy (1993). "The syntax of nouns and noun phrases in dated pre-Angkorian
inscriptions" (http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/sak-humphry1993syntax.pdf) (PDF). Mon Khmer
Studies. 22: 1–26. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171011131725/http://sealang.net/sala/archiv
es/pdf4/sak-humphry1993syntax.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 15 March
2018.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 58/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

433. Mayank Austen Soofi (23 November 2012). "Delhi's Belly | Sanskrit-vanskrit" (http://www.livemint.com/Le
isure/rQ6mXnvWNS0UYv8lz4h12O/Delhis-Belly%E2%80%94Sanskritvanskrit.html). Livemint. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20150403134925/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/rQ6mXnvWNS0UYv8lz4
h12O/Delhis-Belly%E2%80%94Sanskritvanskrit.html) from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved
6 December 2012.
434. "News on Air" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120905194622/http://www.newsonair.com/nsd_schedule.a
sp). News on Air. 15 August 2012. Archived from the original (http://www.newsonair.com/nsd_schedule.a
sp) on 5 September 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
435. "News archive search" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130115062354/http://newsonair.com/archive.asp).
Newsonair. 15 August 2012. Archived from the original (http://www.newsonair.com/archive.asp) on 15
January 2013. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
436. "Doordarshan News Live webcast" (http://webcast.gov.in/live). Webcast.gov.in. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20121215160147/http://webcast.gov.in/live/) from the original on 15 December 2012.
Retrieved 6 December 2012.
437. "Vision and Roadmap of the Sanskrit Development" (http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/data/Vision_and_Road_M
ap.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200807000915/http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/data/Vi
sion_and_Road_Map.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
438. "Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census" (https://thewire.in/culture/india-census-sanskrit).
The Wire. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201021135747/https://thewire.in/culture/india-census-
sanskrit) from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
439. "The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power" (https://thewire.in/society/sanskrit-soft-pow
er). The Wire. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210124204937/https://thewire.in/society/sanskrit-
soft-power) from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
440. Sreevatsan, Ajai (10 August 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?" (https://www.thehindu.com/new
s/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-speakers/article6299433.ece). The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211224204957/https://www.the
hindu.com/news/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-speakers/article6299433.ece) from the original on 24
December 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
441. "In 2013, UPA to CBSE: Make Sanskrit a must" (http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/in-201
3-upa-to-cbse-make-sanskrit-a-must/). The Indian Express. 4 December 2014. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20150226170651/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/in-2013-upa-to-cbse-m
ake-sanskrit-a-must/) from the original on 26 February 2015. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
442. "Central Sanskrit Universities Act, 2020" (http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/uploads/2020_05_09_VC/The_Centr
al_Sanskrit_Universities_Act_2020.pdf) (PDF). The Gazette of India. Government of India. 25 March
2020. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201022201528/http://sanskrit.nic.in/uploads/2020_05_09
_VC/The_Central_Sanskrit_Universities_Act_2020.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 22 October 2020.
Retrieved 22 November 2020.
443. "A Sanskrit class being conducted in a village in Bali, Indonesia" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJ3
B5C0lxeE). YouTube. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210826075148/https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=uJ3B5C0lxeE) from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
444. "Sanskrit @ St James" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171009042112/http://www.sanskritatstjames.org.u
k/about-us/st-james-schools/). Sanskrit @ St James. Archived from the original (http://www.sanskritatstja
mes.org.uk/about-us/st-james-schools/) on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
445. Varija Yelagalawadi. "Why SAFL?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150512170117/http://www.samskritab
haratiusa.org/index.php/safl-why.html). Samskrita Bharati USA. Archived from the original (http://www.sa
mskritabharatiusa.org/index.php/safl-why.html) on 12 May 2015.
446. Sydney Grammar School. "Headmaster's Introduction" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150315001425/htt
p://www.sydgram.nsw.edu.au/headmaster/). Archived from the original (http://www.sydgram.nsw.edu.au/
headmaster/) on 15 March 2015.
447. "Home" (https://www.johnscottus.ie/). John Scottus School. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230
902010646/https://www.johnscottus.ie/) from the original on 2 September 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
448. "Sanskrit script opens the path to spirituality and helps improve focus" (https://www.iol.co.za/saturday-sta
r/sanskrit-script-opens-the-path-to-spirituality-and-helps-improve-focus-13127550). Independent Online.
Saturday Star. South Africa. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230404061051/https://www.iol.co.z
a/saturday-star/sanskrit-script-opens-the-path-to-spirituality-and-helps-improve-focus-13127550) from
the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2019.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 59/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

449. Barrett, David V. (1996). Sects, Cults, and Alternative Religions: A world survey and sourcebook (https://
archive.org/details/sectscultsaltern00barr). London, UK: Blandford. ISBN 0713725672. OCLC 36909325
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36909325).
450. Friedrich Max Müller (1859). A history of ancient Sanskrit literature so far as it illustrates the primitive
religion of the Brahmans (https://archive.org/details/ahistoryancient00mlgoog). Williams and Norgate.
p. 1 (https://archive.org/details/ahistoryancient00mlgoog/page/n24).
451. Thomas R. Trautmann (2004). Aryans and British India (https://books.google.com/books?id=dhbwDFfE9
J8C&pg=PA161). Yoda Press. pp. 73–84, 62–87. ISBN 978-81-902272-1-6.
452. Trautmann, Thomas R. (2004). Aryans and British India (https://books.google.com/books?id=dhbwDFfE9
J8C&pg=PA161). Yoda Press. ISBN 978-81-902272-1-6.
453. Upadhyay, Pankaj; Jaiswal, Umesh Chandra; Ashish, Kumar (2014). "TranSish: Translator from Sanskrit
to English-A Rule based Machine Translation". International Journal of Current Engineering and
Technology: 2277–4106.
454. TNI Angkatan Darat (https://tniad.mil.id/2012/07/kartika-eka-paksi/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20190626032150/https://tniad.mil.id/2012/07/kartika-eka-paksi/) 26 June 2019 at the Wayback
Machine. Official website of the Indonesian Army.
455. Akademi Militer (https://www.akmil.ac.id/lambang) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201904231733
27/https://www.akmil.ac.id/lambang) 23 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Official website of the
Indonesian Military Academy.
456. Sejarah (https://paskhas.mil.id/sejarah) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180922191026/http://pa
skhas.mil.id/sejarah) 22 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Official website of the Air-Force
Special Forces (Paskhas).
457. "Korps Marinir" (https://web.archive.org/web/20201231230503/https://marinir.tnial.mil.id/). Archived from
the original (https://marinir.tnial.mil.id/) on 31 December 2020. Retrieved 26 June 2019. "Official website
of the Indonesian Marine Corps."
458. "Indian-origin New Zealand MP takes the oath in Sanskrit" (https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/
indian-origin-new-zealand-mp-takes-the-oath-in-sanskrit/article33176793.ece). The Hindu. 25 November
2020. ISSN 0971-751X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X). Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20201217012702/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/indian-origin-new-zealand-mp-takes-th
e-oath-in-sanskrit/article33176793.ece) from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved 27 December
2020.
459. Vibhuti Patel (18 December 2011). "Gandhi as operatic hero" (http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-f
eatures/tp-sundaymagazine/gandhi-as-operatic-hero/article2725141.ece). The Hindu. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20191017155223/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymag
azine/gandhi-as-operatic-hero/article2725141.ece) from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved
31 October 2014.
460. Rahim, Sameer (4 December 2013). "The opera novice: Satyagraha by Philip Glass" (https://www.telegr
aph.co.uk/culture/music/opera/10491171/The-opera-novice-Satyagraha-by-Philip-Glass.html). The Daily
Telegraph. London, UK. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.u
k/culture/music/opera/10491171/The-opera-novice-Satyagraha-by-Philip-Glass.html) from the original on
10 January 2022.
461. Morgan, Les (2011). Croaking frogs: a guide to Sanskrit metrics and figures of speech. Los Angeles:
Mahodara Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4637-2562-4.
462. Doval, Nikita (24 June 2013). "Classic conversations" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141031153553/htt
p://week.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/theWeekContent.do?contentId=14371440
&programId=1073755753&tabId=2&BV_ID=%40%40%40&categoryId=-203181). The Week. Archived
from the original (http://week.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/theWeekContent.do?c
ontentId=14371440&programId=1073755753&tabId=2&BV_ID=@@@&categoryId=-203181) on 31
October 2014.
463. "Yoga and Music" (http://www.yogajournal.com/article/lifestyle/sounds-divine/). Yoga Journal. 26 July
2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141031153647/http://www.yogajournal.com/article/lifestyl
e/sounds-divine/) from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
464. "Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (John Williams)" (http://www.filmtracks.com/titles/temple_doom.
html). Filmtracks. 11 November 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111118153841/http://filmtr
acks.com/titles/temple_doom.html) from the original on 18 November 2011. Retrieved 5 April 2012.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 60/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

465. "Episode I FAQ" (https://web.archive.org/web/20031011014523/http://www.starwarsfaq.com/e1faq03.htm

l). Star Wars FAQ. Archived from the original (http://www.starwarsfaq.com/e1faq03.html) on 11 October
2003.
466. "Battlestar Galactica (TV Series 2004–2009)" (https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0407362/trivia). IMDb.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145027/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0407362/trivia/)
from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
467. "The Child in Us Lyrics – Enigma" (http://www.lyricsfreak.com/e/enigma/the+child+in+us_20050416.htm
l). Lyricsfreak.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130522182513/http://www.lyricsfreak.com/e/
enigma/the+child+in+us_20050416.html) from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
468. "Paulina Rubio (Ananda Review)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070107221442/http://www.mixup.com.
mx/mixup/product.asp?sku=602517055070&dept_id=1&subdept_id=801). mixup.com.mx (in Spanish). 7
January 2007. Archived from the original (http://www.mixup.com.mx/mixup/product.asp?sku=602517055
070&dept_id=1&subdept_id=801) on 7 January 2007. Retrieved 30 May 2020.

Bibliography
Banerji, Sures (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature: Spanning a period of over three thousand
years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names,
myths, legends, and several appendices. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2.
Guy L. Beck (2006). Sacred Sound: Experiencing Music in World Religions (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=t-IeHbqAfSsC). Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-421-8.
Shlomo Biderman (2008). Crossing Horizons: World, Self, and Language in Indian and Western Thought
(https://books.google.com/books?id=xfTzz8EsEbAC). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-
51159-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145029/https://books.google.com/books?id=xf
Tzz8EsEbAC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
John L. Brockington (1998). The Sanskrit Epics (https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C).
BRILL Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-10260-6.
Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate.
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4.
Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian
History (https://books.google.com/books?id=fHYnGde4BS4C). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-
1463-6.
Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber.
Burrow, Thomas (2001). The Sanskrit Language. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2.
Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA504). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-
4805-8.
Cardona, George (1997). Pāṇini - His work and its traditions. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0419-8.
Cardona, George (2012). Sanskrit Language (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language).
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20231016072043/https://www.britannic
a.com/topic/Sanskrit-language) from the original on 16 October 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2018.
Michael Coulson; Richard Gombrich; James Benson (2011). Complete Sanskrit: A Teach Yourself Guide
(https://books.google.com/books?id=vLkRAUhzlkIC). Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-175266-4.
Harold G. Coward (1990). Karl Potter (ed.). The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of
Indian Philosophies (https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC). Vol. 5. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5.
Peter T. Daniels (1996). The World's Writing Systems (https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQ
BAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2024032
9150129/https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 4 August 2018.
Deshpande, Madhav (2011). "Efforts to vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of success and failure". In
Joshua Fishman; Ofelia Garcia (eds.). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The success-failure
continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
983799-1.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 61/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Will Durant (1963). Our oriental heritage (https://books.google.com/books?id=lSJxAAAAMAAJ). Simon &

Schuster. ISBN 978-1567310122. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150302/https://books.
google.com/books?id=lSJxAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
Eltschinger, Vincent (2017). "Why Did the Buddhists Adopt Sanskrit?" (https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopli-20
17-0015). Open Linguistics. 3 (1). doi:10.1515/opli-2017-0015 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopli-2017-001
5). ISSN 2300-9969 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2300-9969).
Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written
Literature", in Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.), History of Science, History
of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science), Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 360–375,
doi:10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7), ISBN 978-1-4020-2320-0
Robert P. Goldman; Sally J Sutherland Goldman (2002). Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the
Sanskrit Language (https://books.google.com/books?id=65fqnQEACAAJ). Center for South Asia
Studies, University of California Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150100/https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=65fqnQEACAAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July
2018.
Goody, Jack (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral (https://archive.org/details/interface
between00good). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33794-6.
Hanneder, J. (2002). "On 'The Death of Sanskrit' " (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:102136613
1934). Indo-Iranian Journal. 45 (4): 293–310. doi:10.1163/000000002124994847 (https://doi.org/10.116
3%2F000000002124994847). JSTOR 24664154 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24664154).
S2CID 189797805 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189797805). Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20220628151357/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1021366131934) from the original
on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022.
Hock, Hans Henrich (1983). Kachru, Braj B (ed.). "Language-death phenomena in Sanskrit: grammatical
evidence for attrition in contemporary spoken Sanskrit". Studies in the Linguistic Sciences. 13 (2).
Barbara A. Holdrege (2012). Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=YlvikndgEmIC). State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-0695-4.
Michael C. Howard (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-
Border Trade and Travel (https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA21). McFarland.
ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2.
Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages (https://books.google.com/books?id
=OtCPAgAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas
(https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
68494-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329131545/https://books.google.com/books?id=U
QpAuNIP4oIC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
Stephanie W. Jamison; Joel P. Brereton (2014). The Rigveda: 3-Volume Set, Volume I (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972078-1. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20230907144356/https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ) from
the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
Keith, A. Berriedale (1996) [First published 1920]. A History of Sanskrit Literature (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20240118074240/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C) from the original
on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (2017). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-
European Linguistics: An International Handbook (https://books.google.com/books?id=cQA2DwAAQBA
J). Walter De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-026128-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2024032915010
5/https://books.google.com/books?id=cQA2DwAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved
16 July 2018.
The 14th Dalai Lama (1979). "Sanskrit in Tibetan Literature". The Tibet Journal. 4 (2): 3–5.
JSTOR 43299940 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/43299940).
Donald S. Lopez Jr. (1995). "Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna" (https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstr
eam/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf) (PDF). Numen. 42 (1). Brill
Academic: 21–47. doi:10.1163/1568527952598800 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568527952598800).
hdl:2027.42/43799 (https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F43799). JSTOR 3270278 (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/3270278). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110101012117/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bit
stream/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 1
January 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 62/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Colin P. Masica (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages (https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhX

wC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023
0201230338/https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC) from the original on 1 February
2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Meier-Brügger, Michael (2003). Indo-European Linguistics (https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3Ul
KWckC). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017433-5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202403291
34206/https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 15 November 2015.
J. P. Mallory; D. Q. Adams (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-
European World (https://books.google.com/books?id=iNUSDAAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-928791-8.
MacDonell, Arthur (2004). A History Of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-
0619-2.
Sir Monier Monier-Williams (2005). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically
Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=zUezTfym7CAC). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-3105-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20230111053950/https://books.google.com/books?id=zUezTfym7CAC) from the original on 11
January 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1974). Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=oUE3AAAAIAAJ). Sanskrit College. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150711/http
s://books.google.com/books?id=oUE3AAAAIAAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July
2018.
Oberlies, Thomas (2003). A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit. Berlin New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-
11-014448-2.
Sheldon Pollock (2009). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in
Premodern India (https://books.google.com/books?id=U7owDwAAQBAJ). University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-26003-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150648/https://books.google.
com/books?id=U7owDwAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Pollock, Sheldon (2001). "The Death of Sanskrit". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 43 (2).
Cambridge University Press: 392–426. doi:10.1017/s001041750100353x (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0
01041750100353x). JSTOR 2696659 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2696659). S2CID 35550166 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35550166).
Louis Renou; Jagbans Kishore Balbir (2004). A history of Sanskrit language (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ). Ajanta. ISBN 978-8-1202-05291. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2024
0329150712/https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 17 July 2018.
A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit (https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3
DgAAQBAJ). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20240329151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ) from the original on 29
March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and
the other Indo-Aryan Languages (https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC). Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230702132352/http
s://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC) from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July
2018.
Salomon, Richard (1995). "On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts". Journal of the American Oriental
Society. 115 (2): 271–279. doi:10.2307/604670 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F604670). JSTOR 604670 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/604670).
Seth, Sanjay (2007). Subject lessons: the Western education of colonial India (https://books.google.com/
books?id=QU9glkC4ceMC&pg=PA172). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4105-5.
Staal, Frits (1986), The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science, Mededelingen der
Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie von Wetenschappen, Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing
Company
Staal, J. F. (1963). "Sanskrit and Sanskritization". The Journal of Asian Studies. 22 (3). Cambridge
University Press: 261–275. doi:10.2307/2050186 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2050186).
JSTOR 2050186 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2050186). S2CID 162241490 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:162241490).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 63/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Angus Stevenson; Maurice Waite (2011). Concise Oxford English Dictionary (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960110-3. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20230414031013/https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ) from the original
on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
Southworth, Franklin (2004). Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=h
TwuFUW5aEgC). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-31777-6.
Philipp Strazny (2013). Encyclopedia of Linguistics (https://books.google.com/books?id=27JOMobauYA
C). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-45522-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329151130/http
s://books.google.com/books?id=27JOMobauYAC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July
2018.
Umāsvāti, Umaswami (1994). That Which Is (https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rw4RwN9Q1kC).
Translated by Nathmal Tatia. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-06-068985-8. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20240329151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rw4RwN9Q1kC) from the original on
29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
Wayman, Alex (1965). "The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit". Journal of the
American Oriental Society. 85 (1): 111–115. doi:10.2307/597713 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F597713).
JSTOR 597713 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/597713).
Annette Wilke; Oliver Moebus (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of
Sanskrit Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-
3-11-024003-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329151211/https://books.google.com/book
s?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
Witzel, M. (1997). Inside the texts, beyond the texts: New approaches to the study of the Vedas (http://w
ww.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/intro.pdf) (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211119022723/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witze
l/intro.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
Iyengar, V. Gopala (1965). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature (https://archive.org/details/A
ConciseHistoryOfClassicalSanskritLiterature).
Parpola, Asko (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-
521-43079-8.
Bloomfield, Maurice; Edgerton, Franklin (1932). Vedic Variants - Part II - Phonetics. Linguistic Society of
America.

Further reading
Bahadur, P.; Jain, A.; Chauhan, D.S. (2011). "English to Sanskrit Machine Translation" (https://dl.acm.or
g/doi/10.1145/1980022.1980161). Proceedings of the International Conference & Workshop on
Emerging Trends in Technology - ICWET '11. ICWET '11: Proceedings of the International Conference &
Workshop on Emerging Trends in Technology. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing
Machinery. p. 641. doi:10.1145/1980022.1980161 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1980022.1980161).
ISBN 9781450304498. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210920212548/https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.
1145/1980022.1980161) from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
Bailey, H. W. (1955). "Buddhist Sanskrit". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Ireland. 87 (1/2). Cambridge University Press: 13–24. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00106975 (https://doi.org/
10.1017%2FS0035869X00106975). JSTOR 25581326 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25581326).
S2CID 250346761 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250346761).
Beekes, Robert S.P. (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An introduction (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC) (2nd ed.). John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-8500-3.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145028/https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG7
5PYC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Benware, Wilbur (1974). The Study of Indo-European Vocalism in the 19th Century: From the
Beginnings to Whitney and Scherer: A Critical-Historical Account. Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-0894-1.
Bloomfield, Leonard (1984). Language (https://books.google.com/books?id=87BCDVsmFE4C).
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226060675. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2024032915010
6/https://books.google.com/books?id=87BCDVsmFE4C) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved
8 November 2021.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 64/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=wu4ABAAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-74324-8. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20240329145206/https://books.google.com/books?id=wu4ABAAAQBAJ) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Briggs, Rick (15 March 1985). "Knowledge Representation in Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence" (https://
ojs.aaai.org//index.php/aimagazine/article/view/466). AI Magazine. 6 (1). RIACS, NASA Ames Research
Center. doi:10.1609/aimag.v6i1.466 (https://doi.org/10.1609%2Faimag.v6i1.466). S2CID 6836833 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6836833). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021092021274
1/https://ojs.aaai.org//index.php/aimagazine/article/view/466) from the original on 20 September 2021.
Retrieved 20 September 2021.
Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993). "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit: The Original Language". Aspects of Buddhist
Sanskrit: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Language of Sanskrit Buddhist Texts, 1–5
Oct. 1991. Sarnath. pp. 396–423. ISBN 978-81-900149-1-5.
Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (1957). "Indianism and Sanskrit". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute. 38 (1/2). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute: 1–33. JSTOR 44082791 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/44082791).
Clackson, James (18 October 2007). Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=DJDjNp6wODoC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-46734-6.
Coulson, Michael (1992). Richard Gombrich; James Benson (eds.). Sanskrit : an introduction to the
classical language (2nd, revised by Gombrich and Benson ed.). Random House. ISBN 978-0-340-
56867-5. OCLC 26550827 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26550827).
Filliozat, J. (1955). "Sanskrit as Language of Communication". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute. 36 (3/4). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute: 179–189. JSTOR 44082954 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/44082954).
Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2000). The Sanskrit Language: An Overview : History and Structure, Linguistic
and Philosophical Representations, Uses and Users (https://books.google.com/books?id=ij1jAAAAMAA
J). Indica. ISBN 978-81-86569-17-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150103/https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=ij1jAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Fortson, Benjamin W., IV (2011). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5968-8. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20230423121418/https://books.google.com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC) from the
original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V. (2010). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A
Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II:
Bibliography, Indexes (https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC). Walter de Gruyter.
ISBN 978-3-11-081503-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150101/https://books.google.
com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, V. V. (1990). "The Early History of Indo-European Languages".
Scientific American. 262 (3). Nature America: 110–117. Bibcode:1990SciAm.262c.110G (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/1990SciAm.262c.110G). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0390-110 (https://doi.org/10.1
038%2Fscientificamerican0390-110). JSTOR 24996796 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24996796).
Grünendahl, Reinhold (2001). South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints: Grantha Tamil,
Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Nandinagari (https://books.google.com/books?id=ApAn2YZIz6wC). Otto
Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04504-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150240/
https://books.google.com/books?id=ApAn2YZIz6wC) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved
13 July 2018.
Huet, Gerard (2005). "A functional toolkit for morphological and phonological processing, application to a
Sanskrit tagger" (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956796804005416). Journal of Functional Programming.
15 (4). Cambridge University Press: 573–614. doi:10.1017/S0956796804005416 (https://doi.org/10.101
7%2FS0956796804005416). S2CID 483509 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:483509).
Lehmann, Winfred Philipp (1996). Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics (https://books.google.
com/books?id=i9Ls1Gwmx5cC). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-13850-5. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20240329150149/https://books.google.com/books?id=i9Ls1Gwmx5cC) from the original on
29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. (2013). Encyclopedia of Buddhism (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=D1pcAgAAQBAJ). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-98595-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20240329160106/https://books.google.com/books?id=D1pcAgAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March
2024. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 65/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Kak, Subhash C. (1987). "The Paninian approach to natural language processing" (https://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/0888-613X%2887%2990007-7). International Journal of Approximate Reasoning. 1 (1): 117–130.
doi:10.1016/0888-613X(87)90007-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0888-613X%2887%2990007-7).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150107/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/0888613X87900077?via%3Dihub) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
Kessler-Persaud, Anne (2009). Knut A. Jacobsen; et al. (eds.). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism: Sacred
texts, ritual traditions, arts, concepts (https://books.google.com/books?id=QnVQSAAACAAJ). Brill
Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9.
Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01227-1.
Malhotra, Rajiv (2016). The Battle for Sanskrit: Is Sanskrit Political or Sacred, Oppressive or Liberating,
Dead or Alive?. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-9351775386.
Mallory, J. P. (1992). "In Search of the Indo-Europeans / Language, Archaeology and Myth".
Praehistorische Zeitschrift. 67 (1). Walter de Gruyter GmbH. doi:10.1515/pz-1992-0118 (https://doi.org/1
0.1515%2Fpz-1992-0118). ISSN 1613-0804 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1613-0804).
S2CID 197841755 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:197841755).
Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20230219032618/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC) from the original on 19
February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Matilal, Bimal (2015). The word and the world : India's contribution to the study of language. New Delhi,
India Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-565512-4. OCLC 59319758 (https://www.worldcat.
org/oclc/59319758).
Maurer, Walter (2001). The Sanskrit language: an introductory grammar and reader. Surrey, England:
Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1382-0.
Michael Meier-Brügger (2013). Indo-European Linguistics (https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt4fAAA
AQBAJ). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-089514-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202403291
50645/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt4fAAAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024.
Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Murray, Tim (2007). Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia (https://books.google.com/
books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA115). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-186-1. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20240329150646/https://books.google.com/books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA115) from the
original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Nedi︠ a︡ lkov, V. P. (2007). Reciprocal constructions. Amsterdam Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Pub. Co.
ISBN 978-90-272-2983-0.
Petersen, Walter (1912). "Vedic, Sanskrit, and Prakrit". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 32 (4).
American Oriental Society: 414–428. doi:10.2307/3087594 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3087594).
ISSN 0003-0279 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0279). JSTOR 3087594 (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/3087594).
Raghavan, V. (1968). "Sanskrit: Flow of Studies". Indian Literature. 11 (4). Sahitya Akademi: 82–87.
JSTOR 24157111 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24157111).
Raghavan, V. (1965). "Sanskrit". Indian Literature. 8 (2). Sahitya Akademi: 110–115. JSTOR 23329146
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/23329146).
Renfrew, Colin (1990). Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins (https://books.
google.com/books?id=R645AAAAIAAJ). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38675-3.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150730/https://books.google.com/books?id=R645AAAAI
AAJ) from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
Sanyal, Ratna; Pappu, Aasish (2008). "Vaakkriti: Sanskrit Tokenizer" (https://aclanthology.org/I08-2075).
Proceedings of the Third International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing: Volume-II.
International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (IJCNLP). Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20210921112001/https://aclanthology.org/I08-2075/) from the original on 21 September 2021.
Retrieved 20 September 2021.
Shendge, Malati J. (1997). The Language of the Harappans: From Akkadian to Sanskrit (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=ynEWVCLMQY4C). Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-325-0. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20240329151206/https://books.google.com/books?id=ynEWVCLMQY4C) from
the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 66/67
5/14/24, 12:23 PM Sanskrit - Wikipedia

Thieme, Paul (1958). "The Indo-European Language". Scientific American. 199 (4): 63–78.
Bibcode:1958SciAm.199d..63T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958SciAm.199d..63T).
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1058-63 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1058-63).
JSTOR 24944793 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24944793).
van der Veer, Peter (2008). "Does Sanskrit Knowledge Exist?". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 36 (5/6).
Springer: 633–641. doi:10.1007/s10781-008-9038-8 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10781-008-9038-8).
JSTOR 23497502 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23497502). S2CID 170594265 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:170594265).
Whitney, W.D. (1885). "The Roots of the Sanskrit Language". Transactions of the American Philological
Association. 16. JSTOR: 5–29. doi:10.2307/2935779 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2935779). ISSN 0271-
4442 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0271-4442). JSTOR 2935779 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/293577
9).

External links
"INDICORPUS-31" (http://dia.eu5.org/). 31 Sanskrit and Dravidian dictionaries for Lingvo.
Karen Thomson; Jonathan Slocum. "Ancient Sanskrit Online" (https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/vedol). free
online lessons from the "Linguistics Research Center" (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc). University of
Texas at Austin.
"Samskrita Bharati" (http://www.samskritabharati.org/). an organisation promoting the usage of Sanskrit
"Sanskrit Documents" (http://sanskritdocuments.org/home.html). — Documents in ITX format of
Upanishads, Stotras etc.
"Sanskrit texts" (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm). Sacred Text Archive.
"Sanskrit Manuscripts" (http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/sanskrit). Cambridge Digital Library.
"Lexilogos Devanagari Sanskrit Keyboard" (https://www.lexilogos.com/keyboard/sanskrit_devanagari.ht
m). for typing Sanskrit in the Devanagari script.
"Online Sanskrit Dictionary" (https://www.sanskritdictionary.com/). — sources results from Monier
Williams etc.
"The Sanskrit Grammarian" (https://sanskrit.inria.fr/DICO/grammar.html). — dynamic online declension
and conjugation tool
"Online Sanskrit Dictionary" (https://learnsanskrit.cc/). — Sanskrit hypertext dictionary
"Sanskrit Shlokas collection" (https://www.sanatansanskrit.in/2021/05/sanskrit-shlok.html). — Collection
of Sanskrit Shlokas from Various Sanskrit Texts

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit&oldid=1223670705"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit 67/67