Department of Civil Engineering

5th Semester

Soil Mechanics Presented by

Er. Ravi Ghimire
1
 Chapter: 2

Solid-Water-Air Relations
and Index Properties of
Soil
2
 Diagrammatic representation of different
Phase Diagram phases in soil mass

Two Phase Three Phase Represents partially saturated soil

When soil is absolutely dry

When the soil is fully saturated

3
Two Phase Diagram
 A two phase diagram represents either a dry or a completely saturated soil.

Fig: Dry Soil

Fig: Saturated Soil 4
Three Phase Diagram
 A three phase diagram represents a partially saturated soil.

It means it consists of Solid particles, Liquid and Gas.

Where,
Weight of air (Wa) is assumed to be zero.
Weight of water is represented by Ww.
Weight of solid is represented by Ws.
Total weight (W) = Ww + Ws
Soil Mass
Volume of air is represented by Va.
Volume of water is represented by Vw .
Volume of solid is represented by Vs .
Volume of voids is represented by Vv .
Total volume (V) = Va + Vw + Vs
i.e. (V) = Vv + Vs 5
Different Relations

Relation among Volumes

Relation between Weights
Relation between Weight and Volume
Relation between Mass and Volume
Relation between Unit weights
Functional Relation

6
 (A) Relation among Volumes

(i) Void Ratio (e)

> Ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solid particles (Vs).

(ii) Porosity (n)

> Ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the total volume of soil mass (V).
> Expressed in Percentage.

7
(iii) Degree of Saturation (S)
> Ratio of the volume of water present in a given soil sample (Vw) to the volume of
voids in it (Vv).
> Expressed in Percentage.
For Fully Saturated Soil (Vv) = (Vw), S = 100 %
For Dry Soil (Vw) = 0, S = 0 %

(iv) Percentage Air Voids (na)

> Ratio of the volume of air voids (Va) to the volume of soil mass (V).
Expressed in Percentage.

8
(B) Relation between Weights

(i) Water Content (ω)

> Ratio of the weight of water (Ww) to the weight of solid particles (Ws).
> Also known as moisture content.

9
(C) Relation between Weight and Volume

(i) Bulk Unit Weight (‫)ץ‬

> Ratio of total weight of soil mass (W) to its total volume (V).

(ii) Dry Unit Weight (‫ץ‬d)

> Ratio of weight of solid particles (Ws) to its total volume (V).

10
(iii) Unit Weight of Solid (‫ץ‬s)
> Ratio of weight of solid particles (Ws) to volume of solid particles (Vs).

(iv) Saturated Unit Weight (‫ץ‬sat)

> Ratio of weight of saturated soil mass (Wsat) to its total volume (V).

11
(v) Submerged Unit Weight (‫ץ‬sub)
> Ratio of weight of submerged soil mass (Wsub) to its total volume (V).

Therefore,

(vi) Unit Weight of Water(‫ץ‬w)

> Ratio of weight of water (Ww) to the volume of water (Vw).

12
(D) Relation between Mass and Volume

(i) Bulk Density (ρ)

> Ratio of total mass of soil (M) to its total volume (V).

(ii) Dry Density (ρd)

> Ratio of mass of solid particles (Ms) to its total volume (V).

13
(iii) Saturated Density (ρsat)
> Ratio of total mass of saturated soil (Msat) to its total volume (V).

(iv) Submerged Density (ρsub)

> Ratio of mass of submerged soil (Msub) to its total volume (V).

Also,
14
(v) Density of Water (ρw)
> Ratio of mass of water (Mw) to the volume of water (Vw).

(E) Relation between Unit weights

(a) Specific Gravity of Soil Solids (G)

> Ratio of unit weight of soil solids (‫ץ‬s) to that of water (‫ץ‬w).

15
(b) Apparent or Bulk Specific Gravity (Gm)
> Ratio of unit weight of soil mass (‫ )ץ‬to that of water (‫ץ‬w).

(C) Relative Density (Rd)

> Ratio of the difference between void ratio of the soil in its loosest state
and natural state to the difference between its void ratio in the loosest
and densest states.

16
 (F) Functional Relation

(i) Relation between Void Ratio & Porosity

(ii) Relation among G, e, S and ω

(iii) Relation between ‫ץ‬, G, ω, e

(iv) Relation among ‫ץ‬d , G, e, ‫ץ‬w

17
Index Properties of Soil

 Properties of soil which are used in the identification and classification of soil.

Soil
Soil Grain Index Aggregate
Properties Properties Properties

18
(A) Soil Grain Properties

 Dependent on the individual grain of soil.

 Independent of the manner of soil formation.

Grain Shape Grain Size Specific Gravity

Mineralogical Composition

19
 (B) Soil Aggregate Properties

 Depends on mode of soil formation, soil history and soil structure.

 Properties are determined by undisturbed soil sample obtained from Insitu test.

Relative Density Void Ratio Porosity

Unit Weight

20
 Determination of Various Index Properties

Water Content • Oven Drying Method

Specific Gravity • Pycnometer Method

Field (In-Situ) Density • Core Cutter Method

• Sand Replacement Method

Particle Size Distribution • Sieve Analysis

• Sedimentation Analysis

Consistency Limits and Indices • Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Shrinkage Limit
• Plasticity Index, Flow Index, Toughness Index,
Liquidity Index, Consistency Index
Relative Density/Density Index
21
 Determination of Water Content
The water content is defined as the ratio of weight of water to the weight of
solid in a given soil mass.

It is also known as moisture content and denoted by w.

i.e. w =
Procedure
•Collect a representative sample of soil in a steel cup carrying a lid.
•Find the weight of cup and lid along with soil (W1).
•Keep the cup with lid open in a thermostatically controlled oven for 24 hours at
around 105oC. Free water in the soil evaporates.
•After cooling the cup, find the weight of cup and lid along with dry soil (W2).
22
•Find the empty weight of cup and lid (W3)
S.N Description Weight (gm)
1 Weight of cup + Wet Soil (W1)
2 Weight of cup + Dry Soil (W2)
3 Weight of cup (W3)

Fig: Determination of water content by oven drying method.

23
Determination of Specific Gravity
A Pycnometer is used for the determination of Specific gravity of soil.

It is a glass jar of 1 liter capacity that is fitted at its top by a conical cap.

Suitable for both fine and coarse grained soil.

Procedure

 Weigh the empty and dry Pycnometer and record the weight
as W1.

 Take about 200 grams of oven dried soil and put it into the
Pycnometer.
Fig: Pycnometer Jar of 1litre Capacity
24
 Now weigh the Pycnometer and dry soil and record the weight as W2.

 Add water in the Pycnometer until about it is two thirds full. Gently and carefully
agitate the mixture.

 The water is added to its full capacity. Weigh the Pycnometer and record it as W3.

 Empty the Pycnometer and wash it. Then fill it with water up to the mark and weigh
as W4.

 Specific Gravity of Soil is then, computed by diving the weight of soil by the weight of
an equal volume of water.

25
The specific gravity of soil is determined using the relation:

Where,
M1=mass of empty Pycnometer.
M2= mass of the Pycnometer with dry soil.
M3= mass of the Pycnometer and soil and water.
M4 = mass of Pycnometer filled with water only.
G= Specific gravity of soils.

26
Determination of Field Density

27
Sand Replacement Method

Sand replacement method consists of making a

hole into ground.

The excavated soil is weighted.

The volume of hole is determined by replacement

with sand.

28
Uniformly graded sand (passing through 1mm I.S sieve and retained on 600 μ I.S sieve).

Knowing the weight of excavated soil and volume of the hole, the in-situ unit weight is
determined.

S.N Measurement of Soil Density 1 2 3

1 Weight of soil in the hole W1 (gm)
2 Weight of sand + cylinder before pouring W2 (gm)
3 Weight of sand + cylinder after pouring W3 (gm)
4 Weight of sand filling conical funnel W4 (gm)

5 Weight of sand filling hole = (W2-W3-W4)

6 Unit Weight of Sand (‫)ץ‬
7 Volume of Hole= Volume of Sand = V=

8 Bulk Density of soil (‫ =)ץ‬W1/V

9 Dry Density (‫ץ‬d)= ‫ ץ‬/ (1+ w)
29
Particle Size Distribution

 Method of separation of soil into different fractions based on particle size.

 Determined by conducting grain size analysis.

Sieve Analysis
Sedimentation Analysis
(Gravel and Sand)
(Silt and Clay)

30
Sieve Analysis

 Sieves are wire screens

having square opening.

 Analysis is carried out by

a set of standard number of
sieves.

 Sieve numbers are

expressed in mm or micron
(μ). i.e. 1μ = 10-3 mm

31
Procedure
•At first known quantity of air dried soil is taken.

•Then soil is passed through number of sieves.

•Sieves are arranged in a such a way that sieves with largest opening is at the top and
sieves with smallest opening is at bottom.

•Whole set of sieve is given a horizontal shaking manually or by machine for 10

minutes.

•The amount of soil retained in each sieves is weighted.

•Percentage retained in each sieve is computed.

32
 Common Sieve Size Used by IS, BS and ASTM Standards

Indian Standard British Standard ASTM Standard

Sieve Designation Width of Aperture Sieve Designation Width of Aperture Sieve Designation Width of Aperture
(mm) (mm) (mm)
4.75 4.75 4 4.75 4.76 4.76
2.36 2.36 7 2.40 2.38 2.38
1.18 1.18 14 1.20 1.19 1.19
850 0.85 18 0.85 841 0.841
600 0.60 25 0.60 595 0.595
425 0.425 36 0.42 420 0.420
300 0.30 52 0.30 297 0.297
150 0.15 100 0.15 149 0.149
75 0.075 200 0.075 74 0.074

33
The result of grain size
analysis is presented in the
form of a curve plotted in semi
log scale.

The grain size distribution

curve also measures the
uniformity of soils.

Uniform soils are represented

by nearly vertical curves.

S-shaped curves represents

well graded soils.

34
Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu)

Express the degree of uniformity of soil.

It is the grading characteristics of soil.

Fig: (i) Well graded soil (ii) Uniformly graded soil

Defined as the ratio of the sieve size through which 60% (by weight) of the
material passes to the sieve size that allows 10% of the material to pass.

D60 - 60 % of the soil particles are finer than this size.

D10 - 10% of the particles are finer than this size.
(Effective Size)
If Cu >4 well graded gravel
If Cu >6 well graded sand
If Cu value is between 1–2 that is uniformly graded soil
35
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc)

Also used to identify whether soil is uniform or well graded.

Coefficient of curvature is given by the formula;

D60 - 60 % of the soil particles are finer than this size.

D30 - 30% of the soil particles are finer than this size.
D10 - 10% of the particles are finer than this size.
(Effective Size)

If Cc = 1 to 3, then it is well graded soil.

D60 is the size of sieve hole in which 60% of soil will passes through them.
D30 is the size of sieve hole in which 30% of soil will passes through them.
D10 is the size of sieve hole in which 10% of soil will passes through them
36
 What is the use of this Cu and Cc?
a. Cu is always greater than 1 (equal to 1 is possible only by theoretical).

b. If Cu is closer to 1 ( i.e. D60 and D10 sizes are close to each other, which means there
are more no. of particles are in the same size range), the soil is considered as
uniformly graded.

c. If Cu is away from 1, the soil is well graded(i.e. it has a variety of size range distributed
well). For gravel, if Cu>4, it is well graded. For sand, if Cu>6, it is well graded.

d. Cc is also greater than 1 ( equal to 1 is possible only by theoretical). For a well graded
soil, Cc ranges between 1 to 3.
So,
Cu and Cc gives us idea about particle size distribution of a soil. These values are used in
the soil classification.
37
 Why log scale is used instead of normal scale?

If we use normal scale, it requires very

length sheet to plot the soil size.

Soil particles sizes ranges from few

micrometers to centimeters range( 10^(-6)
to 10^(-2) m ).

It is impossible to cover this range with

normal scale. Hence, log scale is used.

Also getting a good curve is possible only

with log scale.

38
Sedimentation Analysis

 Used for soils which is finer than 75μ in size.

 Analysis is based on Stoke’s law.

 Velocity of free falling spherical particles through a liquid are different for
different size.

 According to Stoke’s law terminal velocity is given by

‫ץ‬s = Unit wt. of soil grain
‫ץ‬w = Unit wt. of water
D = Diameter of soil grain
n = viscosity of liquid

39
Problem: 1 Sieve analysis was conducted on a soil sample weight
1000 gm. The results were as follows.
Sieve Size (mm) Soil Retained (gm)
10 83
4.75 100
2 163
1 160 Draw the particle size
0.6 145
distribution curve, and
determine the coefficient of
425μ 123
uniformity, coefficient of
200μ 67 curvature and effective size.
150μ 38
75μ 41
Pan 80
40
Solution: The calculation carried out are shown in table below :
Sieve Size Diameter of Soil Retained Percentage Cumulative Percentage
(mm) Grain (mm) (gm) Retained (%) Percentage Passing (%)
Retained (%)
10 10 83
4.75 4.75 100
2 2 163
1 1 160
0.6 0.6 145
425μ 0.425 123
200μ 0.20 67
150μ 0.15 38
75μ 0.075 41
41
Sieve Size Diameter of Soil Retained Percentage Cumulative Percentage
(mm) Grain (mm) (gm) Retained (%) Percentage Passing (%)
Retained (%)
10 10 83 8.3
4.75 4.75 100 10
2 2 163 16.3
1 1 160 16
0.6 0.6 145 14.5
425μ 0.425 123 12.3
200μ 0.20 67 6.7
150μ 0.15 38 3.8
75μ 0.075 41 4.1
42
Sieve Size Diameter of Soil Retained Percentage Cumulative Percentage
(mm) Grain (mm) (gm) Retained (%) Percentage Passing (%)
Retained (%)
10 10 83 8.3 8.3
4.75 4.75 100 10 18.3
2 2 163 16.3 34.6
1 1 160 16 50.6
0.6 0.6 145 14.5 65.1
425μ 0.425 123 12.3 77.4
200μ 0.20 67 6.7 84.1
150μ 0.15 38 3.8 87.9
75μ 0.075 41 4.1 92
43
Sieve Size Diameter of Soil Retained Percentage Cumulative Percentage
(mm) Grain (mm) (gm) Retained (%) Percentage Passing (%)
Retained (%)
10 10 83 8.3 8.3 91.7
4.75 4.75 100 10 18.3 81.7
2 2 163 16.3 34.6 65.4
1 1 160 16 50.6 49.4
0.6 0.6 145 14.5 65.1 34.9
425μ 0.425 123 12.3 77.4 22.6
200μ 0.20 67 6.7 84.1 15.9
150μ 0.15 38 3.8 87.9 12.1
75μ 0.075 41 4.1 92 8
44
45
46
From the particle size distribution curve we have,

(i) D10 = 0.11 mm (ii) D30 = 0.58 mm (iii) D60 = 1.6 mm

We know that, Coefficient of Uniformity

Cu > 6 well graded sand

Coefficient of Curvature

If Cc = 1 to 3, then it is well graded soil.

Effective Size = D10 = 0.11 mm

47
Problem: 2 Spring 2021

Draw the grain size distribution curves for Soil A and B for which the following
observations were taken. The total weight of the soil sample was 500 gm in
each case. Find out uniformity coefficient of both soils and explain what these
values indicate. Also find the effective diameter of Sample B.

Sieve opening in 4.78 2.41 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075 Pan
mm
Sample A, Wt. - 72 91 75 182 15 55 10
retained in gm
Sample B, Wt. - - 4 8 201 52 227 8
retained in gm
48
Solution: The calculation carried out are shown in table below :

Sieve Size Soil Retained Percentage Cumulative Percentage

(mm) (gm) Retained (%) Percentage Passing (%)
Retained (%)
4.78
2.41
1.2
0.6
0.3
0.15
0.075

49
 500 gm of dry soil was subjected to a sieve analysis. The
Problem: 3
weight of soil retained on each sieve is as follows as

IS Sieve Weight Retained Plot the grain size distribution curve

and determine the following:-
(mm) (gm)
4.75 10 i. Percentage of gravel, coarse and
2.00 165 medium sand, fine sand and slit
clay fraction in the soil as per IS:
1.00 100 1498 - 1970.
425μ 85
ii. Effective size
212μ 60
150μ 20 iii. Uniformity Coefficient
75μ 40 iv. Coefficient of curvature
v. The gradation of soil. 50
 Soil Range

Gravel > 4.75 mm

Coarse Sand 4.75 to 2.00 mm

Medium Sand 2.00 to 0.425 mm

Fine Sand 0.425 to 0.075 mm

Silt < 0.075 mm

51
Solution: The calculation carried out are shown in table below :

Sieve Size Diameter of Soil Retained Percentage Cumulative Percentage

(mm) Grain (mm) (gm) Retained (%) Percentage Passing (%)
Retained (%)
4.75 4.75 10 2.0 2.0 98.0
2.00 2.00 165 33.0 35.0 65.0
1.00 1.00 100 20.0 55.0 45.0
425μ 0.425 85 17.0 72.0 28.0
212μ 0.212 60 12.0 84 16
150μ 0.150 20 4.0 88 12
75μ 0.075 40 8.0 96 4

52
53
 Soil Range
Gravel > 4.75 mm
Coarse Sand 4.75 to 2.00 mm
Medium Sand 2.00 to 0.425 mm
Fine Sand 0.425 to 0.075 mm
Silt < 0.075 mm
Effective size D10 =
Percentage of gravel = 100 - 98 = 2% > 4.75 mm 0.13 mm
Percentage of coarse sand = 98 - 65 = 33% (4.75 mm - 2.0 mm)
The soil is classified
Percentage of medium sand = 65 - 28 = 37% (2.00 mm - 0.425 mm) as well graded sand
since CU > 6 and Cc
Percentage of fine sand = 28 - 4 = 24% (0.425 mm - 0.075 mm)
is between 1 & 3.
Percentage of silt = 4% (<0.075 mm)
54
 500 gm of dry soil was used for sieve analysis. The masses
Problem: 4
of soil retained on each sieve is given below:

IS Sieve (mm) Mass (gm) Plot a grain size distribution curve and
compute the following:
2.00 10
1.40 18  Percentage of gravel, coarse sand
1.00 60 and medium sand, fine and silt as
500μ 135 per IS: 1498-1959.
250μ 145
 Uniformity Coefficient
125μ 56
75μ 45  Coefficient of Curvature

2016 Spring
55
 Consistency Limits and Indices
Physical state of fine grained soil at particular water content.

Indicates the degree of firmness of soils and termed as soft, firm, stiff or hard.

Depending upon the water content a soil can have various states of consistency.

i) Liquid State

ii) Plastic State

iii) Semi-solid State

iv) Solid State

56
Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Shrinkage Limit

Boundary of water Boundary of water Boundary of water

between liquid and between plastic and between semi-sold
plastic states semi-sold states and solid states

Lowest water content

Soil is still in liquid Soil will just begin to
at which reduction in
state but has a small crumble when rolled
water content will not
shearing strength into thread of approx.
cause a decrease in
against flowing 3 mm diameter
volume of soil mass
57
 Atterberg’s Limit
(a) Determination of Liquid Limit (b) Determination of Plastic Limit

58
# Problem: 5
The following data has been obtained from liquid and plastic limit tests on a soil samples.

Details Liquid Limit Test Data Plastic Limit

Mass of container with wet soil, (gm) 43.39 47.62 45.24 45.58 43.62 40.38

Mass of container with dry soil, (gm) 40.18 43.61 41.87 41.5 41.94 38.85

Mass of container, (gm) 29.86 31.5 32.01 30.51 33.1 30.9

Number of blows (N) 34 27 23 17

Determine:
i) Liquid limit, Plastic limit.
59
# Solution:
Liquid Limit Determination

S.N Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Water Number

Container Container Container Water Solid Content of Blows
(gm) with Wet with Dry Soil Mw particles (w) % (N)
Soil (gm) (gm) (gm) Ms (gm)

1 29.86 43.39 40.18 34

2 31.5 47.62 43.61 27
3 32.01 45.24 41.87 23
4 30.51 45.58 41.5 17
60
S.N Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Water Number
Container Container Container Water Solid Content of Blows
(gm) with Wet with Dry Soil Mw particles (w) % (N)
Soil (gm) (gm) (gm) Ms (gm)

1 29.86 43.39 40.18 3.21 34

2 31.5 47.62 43.61 4.01 27
3 32.01 45.24 41.87 3.37 23
4 30.51 45.58 41.5 4.08 17

61
S.N Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Water Number
Container Container Container Water Solid Content of Blows
(gm) with Wet with Dry Soil Mw particles (w) % (N)
Soil (gm) (gm) (gm) Ms (gm)

1 29.86 43.39 40.18 3.21 10.32 34

2 31.5 47.62 43.61 4.01 12.11 27
3 32.01 45.24 41.87 3.37 9.86 23
4 30.51 45.58 41.5 4.08 10.99 17

62
S.N Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Water Number
Container Container Container Water Solid Content of Blows
(gm) with Wet with Dry Soil Mw particles (w) % (N)
Soil (gm) (gm) (gm) Ms (gm)

1 29.86 43.39 40.18 3.21 10.32 31.1 34

2 31.5 47.62 43.61 4.01 12.11 33.11 27

3 32.01 45.24 41.87 3.37 9.86 34.18 23

4 30.51 45.58 41.5 4.08 10.99 37.12 17

63
From the graph, Liquid Limit (LL) = 33.8 % Generally, LL is expressed in whole number. So LL = 34 %64
Plastic Limit Determination

S.N Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Water

Container Container Container with Water Solid Content
(gm) with Wet Soil Dry Soil Mw (gm) particles (w) %
(gm) (gm) Ms (gm)

1 33.1 43.62 41.94

2 30.9 40.38 38.85

65
S.N Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Water
Container Container Container with Water Solid Content
(gm) with Wet Soil Dry Soil Mw (gm) particles (w) %
(gm) (gm) Ms (gm)

1 33.1 43.62 41.94 1.68 8.84 19

2 30.9 40.38 38.85 1.53 7.95 19.25

Therefore, PL = (19+19.25)/2 = 19.13%

66
Different Indices
Consistency
Index (IC)
Liquidity Flow Index
Index (IL) (IF)

Plasticity Atterberg Toughness

Index (IP) Indices Index (IT)

67
 a) Plasticity Index

Range of water content over which soil will remain in plastic state.

Equals to the difference between liquid limit and plastic limit.

PI = IP = LL – PL = (wL – wP)

b) Liquidity Index

 Defines relative consistency of a fine grained soil in the original state.

Ratio of natural content minus plastic limit to plasticity index.

If a soil have the natural moisture content and the liquid limit of same value, the
liquidity index will be 1.
68
If the soil has liquidity index value less than zero, the soil will behave like brittle
or crumbled into pieces.

If liquidity index value is equal to zero, then the soil will behave similar to a
plastic material.

c) Consistency Index

Ratio of liquid limit minus natural water content to the plasticity index.

If the consistency index of a soil is equal to unity, it is at the plastic limit.

Soil with Consistency index equal to zero is at its liquid limit.

If it exceeds unity, the soil is in a semi-solid state and will be stiff.

Better foundation material if Ic is greater. 69

A negative consistency index indicates that the soil has a natural water content
greater than the liquid limit and hence behaves just like a liquid.

d) Flow Index

Slope of a flow curve.

Obtained by plotting water

content as ordinate on natural
scale against number of blows as
abscissa on logarithmic scale.

Better strength as a function of

water if the value of flow index is
lower.
70
e) Toughness Index

 Ratio of plasticity index to flow index.

 Gives us an idea of shear strength of soil at its plastic limit.

 When toughness index is less than 1, the soil can be easily crushed at plastic limit.

 Better strength at the plastic limit if the value of IT is greater.

71
 Two soils A and B are tested in a laboratory for the
# Problem: 6
consistency tests and the following results were obtained.

Soil A Soil B Which of the soils is

 More plastic (greater Ip)
Liquid Limit 35 % 65 %
 Better foundation material (greater Ic)
Plastic Limit 15 % 20 %
 Of better strength as a function of water
Flow Index 8 4 (Lower IF)
Water Content 30 % 30 %  Better strength at the plastic limit
(greater IT)
 More compressible ? (greater WL)

IP = LL – PL = (wL – wP) 2020 Fall

72
 The following index properties were determined for the
# Problem: 7
two soils X and Y.

Soil X Soil Y Determine which of the soil

 contains more clay particles.
Liquid Limit 62 % 34 %
 has a greater wet density. (bulk)
Plastic Limit 26 % 19 %
 has a greater dry density.
Specific Gravity 2.72 2.67
 has a greater void ratio.
Water Content 38 % 25 %
Degree of Saturation 100 100 Give reasons in your answers.

IP = LL – PL = (wL – wP)
73
# Problem: 8 2014 Spring, 2015 Spring
For a soil in natural state e = 0.8, w = 24% and G = 2.68. Determine the
moist unit weight, dry unit weight and degree of saturation. If the soil is
made completely saturated by adding water, what would be its moisture
content at that time ? Also find saturated unit weight.

74
# Problem: 9 2018 Fall, 2019 Spring
Two soil A and B are mixed in dry condition at 30% and 70% by weight.
The specific gravity of soil A and B are 2.64 and 2.78 resp. If the bulk
density of mixed soil is 1.85 gm/cc at 13% water content, then determine
the void ratio and degree of saturation.

75
End of Chapter 2....
ANY

QUESTIONS ?

76
 Soil Mechanics

Chapter- 2
Physical and Index Properties of Soil
Phase Diagram
The diagrammatic representation of the different phases in the soil mass is called the phase
diagram. It is extremely useful for studying the various terms used in the soil engineering and
their interrelationship. A phase diagram may be two phase diagram or three phase diagram.

i. Two Phase Diagram

Although a soil has three phase diagram, it becomes two phase in the following two
cases.
- When the soil is absolutely dry.
- When the soil is fully saturated.

Thus, a two phase diagram represents either a dry or a completely saturated soil.

Fig: Dry Soil Fig: Saturated Soil

Where,
Weight of air (Wa ) is assumed to be zero. Volume of air is represented by Va .
Weight of water is represented by Ww. Volume of water is represented by Vw .
Weight of solid is represented by Ws. Volume of solid is represented by Vs .
Total weight (W) = Ww + Ws Volume of voids is represented by Vv .
Total volume (V) = Va + Vw + Vs
i.e. (V) = Vv + Vs

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ii. Three Phase Diagram

A three phase diagram represents the partially saturated soil. It means it consists of solid
particles, liquid and gas.

Different Relations
• Relation among Volumes
• Relation between Weights
• Relation between Weight and Volume
• Relation between Mass and Volume
• Relation between Unit weights
• Functional Relation

A. Relation Among Volumes

i. Void Ratio: Void ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv ) to the volume
of solid particles (Vs). It is denoted by e.

ii. Porosity: Porosity is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume of soil
mass (V). It is denoted by n and usually expressed in percentage.

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iii. Degree of Saturation: Degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of water
present in a given soil sample (Vw) to the volume of voids in it (Vv ). It is denoted by S
and expressed in percentage.
For Fully Saturated Soil (Vv) = (Vw), S = 100 %
For Dry Soil (Vw) = 0, S = 0 %
iv. Percentage Air Voids: Percentage air voids is defined as the ratio of volume of air voids
(Va) to the volume of soil mass (V). It is denoted by (na) and also expressed in
percentage.

B. Relation Between Weights

i. Water Content: Water content is defined as the ratio of weight of water (Ww) to
weight of solid particles (Ws). It is also known as moisture content and denoted by w.

C. Relation Between Weight and Volume

i. Bulk Unit Weight: Bulk unit weight is defined as the ratio of total weight of soil mass
(W) to its volume (V). It is denoted by ‫ ץ‬or ‫ץ‬t or ‫ץ‬b

ii. Dry Unit Weight: Dry unit weight is defined as the ratio of weight of solid particles
(Ws) to its total volume (V). It is denoted by ‫ץ‬d.

iii. Unit Weight of Solid: Unit weight of solid is defined as the ratio of weight of solid
particles (Ws) to the volume of solid particles (Vs). It is denoted by ‫ץ‬s.

iv. Saturated Unit Weight: Saturated unit weight is defined as the ratio of weight of
saturated soil mass (Wsat ) to its volume (V). It is denoted by ‫ץ‬sat .

v. Submerged Unit Weight: Submerged unit weight is defined as the ratio of weight of
submerged soil mass (Wsub) to its volume (V). It is denoted by ‫ץ‬sub or ‫ ’ץ‬.

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Also,

vi. Unit Weight of Water: Unit weight of water is defined as the ratio of weight of water
(Ww) to the volume of water (Vw). It is denoted by ‫ץ‬w.

D. Relation Between Mass and Volume

i. Bulk Density: Bulk density is defined as the ratio of total mass of soil mass (M) to its
volume (V). It is denoted by ρ or ρ b or ρ t .

ii. Dry Density: Dry density is defined as the ratio of mass of solid particles (M s) to its
total volume (V). It is denoted by ρ d.

iii. Saturated Density: Saturated density is defined as the ratio of total mass of saturated
soil (Msat ) to its total volume (V). It is denoted by ρ s .

iv. Submerged Density: Submerged density is defined as the ratio of mass of submerged
soil (Msub) to its volume (V). It is denoted by ρ bus.

Also,

v. Density of Water: Density of water is defined as the ratio of mass of water (Mw) to the
volume of water (Vw). It is denoted by ρ w.

E. Relation Between Unit Weights

i. Specific Gravity of Soil Solids: Specific gravity of solids is defined as the ratio of unit
weight of soil solids (‫ץ‬s) to that of water (‫ץ‬w). It is denoted by G. Specific gravity of
sand ranges from 2.61 to 2.71, inorganic clay ranges from 2.7 to 2.8 and for soil with
enormous amount of organic matter, the specific gravity will range from 2.00 to 2.6.

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ii. Apparent or Bulk Specific Gravity: Bulk or mass specific gravity is defined as the
ratio of unit weight of soil mass (‫ )ץ‬or (‫ץ‬d) to that of water (‫ץ‬w). It is denoted by Gm.

iii. Relative Density or Density Index: Relative density is defined as the ratio of the
difference between void ratio of the soil in its loosest state and natural state to the
difference between its void ratio in the loosest and densest states. It is denoted by Rd.
When,
enat = emax, then Rd = 0
enat = emin , then Rd = 1
F. Functional Relation

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Index Properties of Soil

Soil exhibiting approximately similar behavior can be put together to form a particular group.
Various classifications in practice place these soil in different categories based on certain
properties of soil. The properties of soil which are used for identification and classification are
known as Index Properties of Soil. The index properties of soil can be divided into two
categories:
 Soil grain properties
 Soil aggregate properties
a) Soil grain properties
Soil grain properties are those which are dependent on the individual grain of the soil and are
independent of the manner of soil formation. The soil grain properties are shape of grain, size
of grain, mineralogical composition, specific gravity.
Grain Shape:
Shape of grain is an important index property. The shape of grain in a coarse grained soil can
be examined with naked eye, where as fine grained soil requires microscope for examination.
In coarse grained soil the grain shape is bulky and it is described as angular, sub angular, sub
rounded, rounded and well rounded. In fine grained soil, soil grain is mostly plate shaped and
is less instances needle shape.
Grain Size:
Grain size distribution in a given dry soil sample is an important soil grain property. The
grain size analysis of coarse grained soil is carried out by sieve analysis; where as fine
grained soils are analyzed by hydrometer method. If the soil contains both coarse and fined
grained constituents, a combined analysis is carried out where a soil sample in the dry state is
first subjected to sieve analysis and the finer fraction is analyzed by hydrometer.
Mineralogical Composition:
Soil particles are composed of minerals. They might have primary or secondary minerals
based on the mode of formation. Primary minerals will have same composition as that in
parent rock. Sand, gravel which is product of physical weathering is composed of primary
minerals. Secondary mineral occur in silt, clay and are the result of chemical weathering.
b) Soil aggregate properties
Soil aggregate properties depend upon the mode of soil formation, soil history and soil
structure and thus represent the collective behavior of soil. These properties are determined
by undisturbed sample obtained from Insitu tests. These properties possess great significance
in engineering practice. The soil aggregate properties are relative density, void ratio,
porosity, unit weight.

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Determination of Various Index Properties

Water Content • Oven Drying Method

Specific Gravity • Pycnometer Method

Field (In-Situ) Density • Core Cutter Method

• Sand Replacement Method
Particle Size Distribution • Sieve Analysis
• Sedimentation Analysis
Consistency Limits and Indices • Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Shrinkage Limit
• Plasticity Index, Flow Index, Toughness Index,
Relative Density/Density Index Liquidity Index, Consistency Index

A. Determination of Water Content

 The water content is defined as the ratio of weight of water to the weight of solid in a
given soil mass.
 It is also known as moisture content and denoted by w.

Procedure:

• Collect a representative sample of soil in a steel cup carrying a lid.

• Find the weight of cup and lid along with soil (W 1 ).

• Keep the cup with lid open in a thermostatically controlled oven for 24 hours at around
105o C. Free water in the soil evaporates.

• After cooling the cup, find the weight of cup and lid along with dry soil (W2 ).

• Find the empty weight of cup and lid (W 3 )

S.N Description Weight (gm)

1 Weight of cup + Wet Soil (W1 )

2 Weight of cup + Dry Soil (W2 )

3 Weight of cup (W3 )

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Fig: Determination of water content by oven drying method

B. Determination of Specific Gravity

 A Pycnometer is used for the determination of Specific gravity of soil.

 It is a glass jar of 1 liter capacity that is fitted at its top by a conical cap.

 Suitable for both fine and coarse grained soil.

Fig: Pycnometer Jar of 1litre Capacity

Procedure:
 Weigh the empty and dry Pycnometer and record the weight as W 1 .

 Take about 200 grams of oven dried soil and put it into the Pycnometer.

 Now weigh the Pycnometer and dry soil and record the weight as W2 .
 Add water in the Pycnometer until about it is two thirds full. Gently and carefully agitate
the mixture.

 The water is added to its full capacity. Weigh the Pycnometer and record it as W 3 .

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 Empty the Pycnometer and wash it. Then fill it with water up to the mark and weigh as
W4 .

 Specific Gravity of Soil is then, computed by diving the weight of soil by the weight of
an equal volume of water.
The specific gravity of soil is determined using the relation:

Where,
M1 =mass of empty Pycnometer.

M2 = mass of the Pycnometer with dry soil.

M3 = mass of the Pycnometer and soil and water.

M4 = mass of Pycnometer filled with water only.

G= Specific gravity of soils.

C. Determination of Field Density

 Determined either by Core Cutter Method or Sand Replacement Method.

 Sand replacement method consists of making a hole into ground.

 The excavated soil is weighted.

 The volume of hole is determined by replacement with sand.

Fig: Determination of field density by Sand Replacement Method

 Uniformly graded sand (passing through 1mm I.S sieve and retained on 600 μ I.S sieve).

 Knowing the weight of excavated soil and volume of the hole, the in-situ unit weight is
determined.

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S.N Measurement of Soil Density 1 2 3

1 Weight of soil in the hole W1 (gm)

2 Weight of sand + cylinder before pouring W2 (gm)

3 Weight of sand + cylinder after pouring W3 (gm)

4 Weight of sand filling conical funnel W4 (gm)

5 Weight of sand filling hole = (W2 -W3 -W4 )

6 Unit Weight of Sand (‫)ץ‬

7 Volume of Hole= Volume of Sand

V=

8 Bulk Density of soil (‫ =)ץ‬W1 /V

9 Dry Density (‫ץ‬d)= ‫ ץ‬/ (1+ w)

D. Particle Size Distribution

Particle size distribution, also known as gradation, refers to the proportions by dry mass of a
soil distributed over specified particle-size ranges.
 Method of separation of soil into different fractions based on particle size.
 Determined by conducting grain size analysis.
 Sieve analysis is done for coarse grained soil (gravel & sand) whereas, Sedimentation
analysis for fine grained soil (silt & clay).
(i) Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis of soil is a simple operation of dividing a sample of aggregate into fractions, each
consisting of particles of the same size. A sieve consists of a metal ring, usually made of brass,
whose dimensions are typically 2 inches Deep and 8 inches Diameter with a wire mesh or screen
on the bottom. The sieve is given a number that corresponds to the number of openings per linear
inch of the screen.
Sieve numbers are expressed in mm or micron (μ). i.e. 1μ = 10-3 mm

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Table: Common Sieve Size Used by IS, BS and ASTM Standards

Indian Standard British Standard ASTM Standard

Sieve Width of Sieve Width of Sieve Width of
Designation Aperture Designation Aperture Designation Aperture
(mm) (mm) (mm)
4.75 4.75 4 4.75 4.76 4.76
2.36 2.36 7 2.40 2.38 2.38
1.18 1.18 14 1.20 1.19 1.19
850 0.85 18 0.85 841 0.841
600 0.60 25 0.60 595 0.595
425 0.425 36 0.42 420 0.420
300 0.30 52 0.30 297 0.297
150 0.15 100 0.15 149 0.149
75 0.075 200 0.075 74 0.074

Procedure:
• At first known quantity of air dried soil is taken.
• Then soil is passed through number of sieves.

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• Sieves are arranged in such a way that sieves with largest opening is at the top and sieves
with smallest opening are at bottom.
• Whole set of sieve is given a horizontal shaking manually or by machine for 10 minutes.
• The amount of soil retained in each sieves is weighted.
• Percentage retained in each sieve is computed.
• The result of grain size analysis is presented in the form of a curve plotted in semi log
scale.
• The grain size distribution curve also measures the uniformity of soils.
• Uniform soils are represented by nearly vertical curves.
• S-shaped curves represent well graded soils.

Fig: Particle Size Distribution Curve

Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu )

 Express the degree of uniformity of soil.
 It is the grading characteristics of soil.
 Defined as the ratio of the sieve size through which 60% (by weight) of the material
passes to the sieve size that allows 10% of the material to pass.

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Fig: (i) Well graded soil (ii) Uniformly graded soil

If Cu >4 well graded gravel
If Cu >6 well graded sand
If Cu value is between 1–2 that is uniformly graded soil
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc)

 Also used to identify whether soil is uniform or well graded.

 If Cc = 1 to 3, then it is well graded soil.
 Coefficient of curvature is given by the formula;

D60 is the size of sieve hole in which 60% of soil will passes through them.

D30 is the size of sieve hole in which 30% of soil will passes through them.
D10 is the size of sieve hole in which 10% of soil will passes through them.

 Cu is always greater than 1 (equal to 1 is possible only by theoretical).

 If Cu is closer to 1 (i.e. D60 and D10 sizes are close to each other, which means there are
more no. of particles are in the same size range), the soil is considered as uniformly
graded.

 If Cu is away from 1, the soil is well graded (i.e. it has a variety of size range distributed
well). For gravel, if Cu>4, it is well graded. For sand, if Cu>6, it is well graded.

 Cc is also greater than 1 (equal to 1 is possible only by theoretical). For a well graded
soil, Cc ranges between 1 to 3.

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Thus, Cu and Cc gives us idea about particle size distribution of a soil. These values are used in
the soil classification.

Why log scale is used instead of normal scale?

 If we use normal scale, it requires very length sheet to plot the soil size.

 Soil particles sizes ranges from few micrometers to centimeters range (10^ -6 to 10^ -2 m).

 It is impossible to cover this range with normal scale. Hence, log scale is used.

 Also getting a good curve is possible only with log scale.

(ii) Sedimentation Analysis

Sedimentation analysis is generally carried out for determining the grain size distribution of soil
fraction finer than 75μ in size. The analysis is based on Stoke’s law according to which the
velocities of free fall of spherical fine particles through a liquid are different for different size of
particles. According to Stoke’s law terminal velocity is given by

E. Consistency Limits and Indices

Consistency is a term which is used to describe the degree of firmness of soil and may be
termed as soft, firm, stiff or hard. It is mostly related to fine grained soil (clay) for which the
consistency is related to a large extent of water content. The water contents at which the soil
changes from one state to the other are known as consistency limits or Atterberg limits.
Depending upon the water content a soil can have various states of consistency.
 Liquid State
 Plastic State
 Semi-solid State
 Solid State
If a large quantity of water is mixed in a
fine grained soil, the soil will be in a
liquid state. The soil will not be able to
offer any resistance to deformation. i.e.
shear strength of soil will be equal to
zero. On gradual reduction of water
content and through kneading of soil, the Fig: Different States of Soil

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soil starts offering some resistance to deformation and become plastic. The limiting water
content above which the soil will be in a plastic state is called plastic limit. Below the
plastic limit the soil shows the property of semi-solid. If the water content is further
reduced, a state is reached where further reduction in water content doesn’t reduce the
volume of soil. The water content corresponding to this state is called shrinkage limit.
Below the shrinkage limit the solid doesn’t remain saturated. Air enters the voids of the soil
and finally attains a dry state (i.e. solid state)

Fig: Consistency of Soils as a Function of Water Content

From engineering view point, the following three consistency limits are significant:

 Liquid limit (LL)

 Plastic limit (PL)
 Shrinkage limit (SL).

Liquid limit (LL)

Liquid limit is the water content at which a soil changes from the liquid state to the plastic
state. It is the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid state but
possesses small shear strength against flow. The liquid limit is not the same for all soils.
The magnitude of liquid limit for a given soil depends on the type and proportion of clay
minerals present in the soil. The liquid limit is high for soils containing montmorillonite
clay mineral, medium for soils containing illite, and minimum for soils containing kaolinite
clay mineral. In general, the higher the clay content present in a given soil, the higher is the
liquid limit.
By one point formula method, LL = w (N/25)n
Where,
w = water content
N = no of blow
n = an index

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Plastic limit (PL)

Plastic limit is the water content at which a soil changes from the plastic state to the semi-
solid state. It is the minimum water content at which the soil remains in plastic state and
can be molded to any shape without rupture.
Shrinkage limit (SL)
Shrinkage limit is the water content at which the soil changes from the semi-solid state to
the solid state. For fine-grained soils, it was observed that a decrease in the water content
causes a corresponding decrease in the volume of the soil, when the soil is in plastic or
semi-solid state. At some water content, a further reduction of the water content does not
cause any decrease in the volume of the soil. The decrease in the volume of the soil with
the decrease in the water content due to drying/evaporation is called as shrinkage.

Determination of Atterberg’s Limit in Laboratory

CASE A: Liquid Limit

1. Take about 100 g of moist soil and mix it thoroughly with distilled water to form a
uniform paste.
2. Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device; smooth the surface off to
a maximum depth of 12 mm.
3. Be sure to remove entrapped air and have surface smooth.
4. Groove soil with tool perpendicular to the cup at the point of contact.
5. Turn crank at 2 blows/second rate until groove closes for a length of 13 mm and
recorded number of blows.
6. Obtain water of soil from Casagrande cup.
7. Obtain four of five separate water content determination between 15 - 35 blows by
adding some distilled water and repeating from step 1.
8. Plot the water content against log of blows and select the liquid limit as the
intersection of this curve at the 25 blow line.

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Fig: Determination of liquid limit by Casagrande Method

CASE B: Plastic Limit

1. Separate about 20 gm of the tempered soil before starting the liquid limit
experiment and set aside to dry.
2. Roll it on a ground glass plate using the palm of your hand. The rolling should
be done at the rate of about 80 strokes per minute.
3. When the thread being rolled reaches 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) in diameter without
crumbing, repeat step 2 again.
4. Until the strand shows signs of crumbing 1/8 in. (3.2 mm), take the sample for
water content determination.

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Observation and Calculation:

Liquid Limit

Container Number 1 2 3
Number of blows
Wt of wet soil + container (gm)
Wt of dry soil + container (gm)
Weight of water (gm)
Weight of container (gm)
Wt of dry soil (gm)
Water content, w (%)

Plastic Limit

Description Plastic Limit Natural water content

Container Number 1 2 1 2
Wt of wet soil + container (gm)
Wt of dry soil + container (gm)
Weight of water (gm)
Weight of container (gm)
Wt of dry soil (gm)
Water content, w (%)
Average (%)

Conclusion:

From the result of testing we can summarize:

Liquid Limit by Casagrande Method = ……… %

Plastic Limit = ……… %
Natural water content = ……… %

We can calculate other soil indexes:

Plasticity Index = LL – PL = ……. %

Liquidity Index = (w - PL)/PI = ……

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Different Indices

Consistency
Index (IC)
Liquidity Flow Index
Index (IL) (IF)

Plasticity Atterberg Toughness

Index (IP) Indices Index (IT)

a) Plasticity Index (IP)

The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size of
the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference
between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL - PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay,
those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 (non-plastic) tend to have little or
no silt or clay.
b) Liquidity Index (IL)
The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the
limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit,
𝒘−𝑷𝑳
and liquid limit. i.e. Liquidity Index (LI) = (IL) =
𝑳𝑳−𝑷𝑳
 If a soil have the natural moisture content and the liquid limit of same value, the liquidity
index will be 1.
 If the soil has liquidity index value less than zero, the soil will behave like brittle or
crumbled into pieces.
 If liquidity index value is equal to zero, then the soil will behave similar to a plastic
material.

c) Consistency Index (IC)

The consistency index (CI) indicates the consistency (firmness) of a soil. CI =

 If the consistency index of a soil is equal to unity, it is at the plastic limit.

 Soil with Consistency index equal to zero is at its liquid limit.

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 If it exceeds unity, the soil is in a semi-solid state and will be stiff.

 A negative consistency index indicates that the soil has natural water content greater than
the liquid limit and hence behaves just like a liquid.

d) Flow Index (IF)

Flow index is the slope of the flow curve obtained between the number of blows and water
content in Casagrande’s method of determination of liquid limit. It is denoted by I F. Flow index
is obtained by plotting water content as ordinate on natural scale against number of blows as
abscissa on logarithmic scale.

e) Toughness Index (IT)

Toughness index (IT ) is defined as a ratio of the plasticity index (IP ) to the flow index (IF). It is a
measure of shearing strength of soil at the plastic limit. When toughness index is less than 1, the
soil can be easily crushed at plastic limit.

Toughness Index

Uses of Consistency Limits

Consistency limits are very significant in the study of clays and other fine-grained soils.
Important deductions can be made based on the relative values of consistency limits and the
index properties as follows:

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 Soil Mechanics

1. The liquid limit and plasticity index are extremely useful for the classification of soils. The
plasticity index and the plasticity chart are used to classify the coarse-grained soils having some
fine fraction. The liquid limit and the plasticity chart are used to classify fine-grained soils.

2. The liquid limit is a measure of the compressibility of the soil, that is, the decrease in volume
of saturated soils under loads from the structure.

3. The liquid limit of a clay decreases at a faster rate compared to plastic limit with the increase
in silt content in the clay. The plasticity index, therefore, decreases with the increasing silt
content in a clayey soil.

4. The liquid limit and plasticity index are an indication of the type and amount of clay present in
a soil. The higher the liquid limit and plasticity index, the more severe will be the anticipated
problems due to compressibility, swelling, and shrinkage to the foundations and to the structure
located in such soils.

5. The compressibility of the soil having higher liquid limit is more, and its shear strength is also
less compared to a soil with lower liquid limit, although their plasticity index is the same.

6. Soils with higher plasticity index have a higher dry strength and lower permeability compared
to soils with lower plasticity index, although their liquid limit is the same.

7. The plasticity index of the soil increases with the increase in organic content in the soil.

8. Consistency index is a measure of the shear strength of the soils. The higher the consistency
index, the higher will be the unconfined compressive strength of the soil.

9. The toughness index is a measure of the shear strength of the soil at its plastic limit and for
soils with same plasticity index, the toughness is inversely proportional to flow index.

10. Soils with a high flow index lose their shear strength rapidly with the increase in water
content. Such soils cannot sustain heavy loads at high water content.

11. Soils with higher flow index (steeper flow curve) will have lower shear strength if the
plasticity index is the same.

12. Earth work can be carried out easily with the least effort when the water content of the soil is
at plastic limit.

13. The shrinkage limit is useful to estimate the expected settlements of structures due to drying
of soils with change of seasons. The lower the shrinkage limit, the higher will be the possible
settlements of structures. Expansive soils also have low values of shrinkage limit.

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24 Geotechnical Engineering

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 2.1 The bulk density of a soil sample is 1.90 gm/cc. The moisture content is 15%.
The specific gravity of the soil particles is 2.61. Calculate the dry unit weight, dry density, void
ratio, porosity and degree of saturation.
Total mass M
Solution: Bulk density r = ___________ = __ = 1.9 gm/cc
Total volume V

Ww + Ws Ww
Bulk unit weight g = ________; w = ___ × 100
V Ws

\
( w
Ws 1 + ____
100 ) V×g
g = ___________ or Ws = _________
V
(
w
1 + ____
100 )
Ws V×g g r×g 1.9 × 9.8
Dry unit weight, gd = ___ = ___________ = _______
w =
_______
w =
________ = 16.2 kN/m3
V
(
1+
w
____
100
V 1+) ____
100
1+ ____
100
15
1 + ____
100

V×r
Dry density rd = Ms/V; M/V = 1.9, M = 1.9 V, Ms = __________
w
(
1 + ____ V
100 )
1.9 V 1.9
= __________ = ____ = 1.65 gm/cc
(
1+
w
____
100
V )1.15

Consider 1 cc of soil (V = 1), Vs = 1.65/Gs = 1.65/2.61 = 0.63 cc

Vv = 1 – 0.63 = 0.37 cc
c = Vv /Vs = 0.37/0.63 = 0.59
Vv
n = ___ = 0.37/1.00 = 0.37
V
Mass of water in 1 cc of soil = 1.90 – 1.65 = 0.25 gm
0.25
Degree of saturation = Vw /Vv = 100 × ____ = 67.6%.
0.37
Example 2.2 If a soil has a void ratio of 0.7 and a specific gravity of 2.72, calculate the
following:
(a) Dry unit weight (b) Saturated unit weight
(c) Submerged unit weight
Also compute the unit weight and water content at a degree of saturation of 75%.
 Basic Terminology and Interrelations 25

Solution: e = 0.7; Gs = 2.72

Gsgw 2.72 × 9.8
(a) Dry unit weight gd = _____ = _________ = 15.68 kN/m3
1+e 1 + 0.7
Gs + e
(b) Saturated unit weight gsat = ______ gw; S = 1
1+e
2.72 + 0.7
gsat = _________ × 9.8 = 19.7 kN/m3
1 + 0.7
Gs – 1
(c) Submerged (or buoyant) unit weight g = ______ × gw
1+e
2.72 – 1
g = _______ × 9.8 = 9.91 kN/m3
1 + 0.7
Gs + Sr × e
g = _________ gw
1+e

2.72 + (0.75 × 0.70) 2.72 + 0.525

At Sr = 0.75, g = _________________ × 9.8 = ___________ × 9.8
1 + 0.70 1.70
3.245 × 9.8
= __________ = 18.7 kN/m3
1.70
Since w Gs = Sre
0.75 × 0.70
w × 2.72 = 0.75 × 0.70 \ w = __________ = 19.3%
2.72

Example 2.3 A cylindrical soil specimen having a volume of 86.15 cm3 weighs 168.0 gm in its
natural condition. When dried completely in an oven, the specimen weighs 130.5 gm. The value
of Gs is 2.73. What is the degree of saturation of the specimen?
Solution: W = 168.0 gm, Ws = 130.5 gm
Water content w = Ww /Ws = (168.0 – 130.5)/130.5 = 37.5/130.5 = 0.287 or 28.7%
Gs = Ws /Vs i.e., 2.73 = 130.5/Vs or Vs = 47.8 cm3
Vv = V – V s
Vv = 86.1 – 47.8 = 38.3 cm3
Void ratio e = Vv /Vs = 38.3/47.8 = 0.80
Now Sr e = wGs
Sr × 0.8 = 0.287 × 2.73
or Sr = 0.979
i.e., degree of saturation of the soil sample = 97.9%
26 Geotechnical Engineering

Example 2.4 An attempt was made to determine the water content of a given moist soil of
known specific gravity, using a pycnometer. The usual laboratory procedure for specific gravity
determination of dry soil is done on the wet soil.
Following are the observations:
Mass of pycnometer (M1) = 545 g
Mass of pycnometer with moist soil (M2) = 790 g
Mass of pycnometer with soil and water (M3) = 1540 g
Mass of pycnometer and water (M4) = 1415 g
Specific gravity of soil grains = 2.67
Determine the water content of the soil from the first principles
Solution: Consider the two-phase diagrams shown in Fig. 2.5 representing the observations.

Water Water

Mw Water

Ms Soil solids Water Vw = V s

(a) Mass M1 (b) Mass M4

Fig. 2.5

Thus,
M3 – M4 = Ms – (mass of an equal volume of water)
Ms
( )
= Ms – ____ rw
Grw ( Ms
Vs = ___ = Vw
rs )
)
G–1
(
= Ms _____
G

M = (M – M ) ( _____ )
G
\ s 3 4
G–1
(M2 – M1) – Ms
and w = _____________ × 100
Ms
Substituting the respective values
2.67
Ms = (1540 – 1415) _________ = 199.85 g
(2.67 – 1)
 Basic Terminology and Interrelations 27

(790 – 545) – 199.85

and w = __________________ × 100 = 22.6%
199.85
Example 2.5 The bulk unit weight of a soil is 19.10 kN/m3, the water content is 12.5% and
the specific gravity of soil solids 2.67. Determine the dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity and
degree of saturation.
g 19.1
Solution: gd = _____ = _______ = 16.98 kN/m3
1+w 12.5
1 + ____
100
G gw
gd = _____
1+e
G gw 2.67 × 9.81
\ e = ____ – 1 = __________ – 1 = 0.54
gd 16.98
e 0.54
\ n = _____ × 100 = _______ × 100 = 35.07%
1+e 1 + 0.54
wG 2.67
12.5 ____
and Sr = ___ ____
e × 100 = 100 × 0.54 × 100 = 61.8%
Example 2.6 How many cubic metres of fill can be constructed at a void ratio of 0.65 from
2,21,000 m3 of borrow material that has a void ratio of 1.25?
Solution: Let eb and ef be the void ratios of the borrow material and the fill, respectively. Also
let Vvb and Vvf be the volume of voids in the borrow and the fill, respectively. As the same number
of soil grains obtained from the borrow are used in the fill, the volume of soil solids is same in
both the cases.
From Fig. 2.6

Voids Vvb
Voids Vvf
Vb
Vf
Soil solids Vs Soil solids Vs

(a) Borrow (b) Fill

Fig. 2.6

Vvb Vvf
eb = ___ and ef = ___
Vs Vs

\ Vvb = eb Vs and Vvf = ef Vs

28 Geotechnical Engineering

Total volume of soil in the borrow = Vb = Vvb + Vs

i.e., Vb = eb Vs + Vs = (1 + eb) Vs
Vb
Vs = _____
1 + eb

Total volume of soil in the fill = Vf = (1 + ef) Vs

Substituting for Vs
Vb 1 + 0.65
Vf = (1 + ef) _____ = _______ × 221000 = 162066.7 m3
1 + eb 1 + 1.25
Example 2.7 For a stable packing of regular spheres at the minimum
density, find the void ratio and the dry unit weight. Unit weight of soil
solids is 25 kN/m3.
Solution: Let D be the diameter of each sphere.
pD3
Volume of each sphere = ____
6
For the arrangement in Fig. 2.7 the density will be minimum
Total volume = 2D × 2D × D = 4 D3 Fig. 2.7

4D3 – 4 × p D3/6 1______ –p

– p/6 6_____
\ e = ______________ = = p = 0.91
3
4 × p D /6 p/6

Ms Vs gs 4 × p D3/6 × gs ___
p gs p______
× 25
Also gd = ___ g = ____ = ____________ = =
V V 4D 3 6 6
or gd = 13.09 kN/m3

Example 2.8 In order to determine the in-place density of a highway subgrade, the sand bottle
method was adopted. The mass of soil extracted from a hole at the surface was 4.87 kg. The
hole was then filled with sand from the sand bottle and found to have a mass of 3.86 kg. While
calibrating the sand bottle, to fill a container of volume 0.0048 m3 a mass of 6.82 kg of sand
was needed. In moisture content determination, 28.26 g of the moist soil weighed 22.2 g after
oven drying. If the specific gravity of the soil was 2.67, determine the bulk and dry densities of
the soil and the degree of saturation of the soil.

6.82
Solution: Density of sand in sand bottle = ______ = 1420.8 kg/m3
0.0048

= 1.42 Mg/m3

3.86
Volume of the hole = ______ = 0.00272 m3
1420.8
 Basic Terminology and Interrelations 29

4.87
Bulk density = _______ = 1790.4 kg/m3 = 1.79 mg/m3
0.00272
28.26 – 22.2
Water content = ___________ × 100 = 27.3%
22.2
1790.4
Dry density = _______ = 1406.4 kg/m3 = 1.41 mg/m3
27.3
1 + ____
100
Grw 2.67 × 1000
e = ____ –1 = __________ – 1 = 0.899
rd 1406.4
wG 2.67
27.3 _____
Sr = ___ ____
e × 100 = 100 × 0.899 × 100 = 81.08%
Example 2.9 A fully saturated soil sample was extracted during an oil well drilling. The wet
mass of the sample was 3.15 kg and the volume of the sampling tube was 0.001664 m3. After
analysis the soil sample was found to contain 28.2% of the liquid as kerosene and the dry mass
as 2.67 kg. The specific gravity of soil grains was 2.68. Determine the bulk density, void ratio,
and water content of the sample.
3.15
Solution: Bulk density = ________ = 1893 kg/m3 = 1.89 mg/m3
0.001664
2.67
Volume of soil grains = __________ = 0.000996 m3
2.68 × 1000
Volume of voids = 0.001664 – 0.000996 = 0.000668 m3
0.000668
\ e = ________ = 0.67
0.000996
As the soil was fully saturated,
Volume of liquid = volume of voids = 0.000668 m3
Volume of water = (1 – 0.282) × 0.000668 = 0.00048 m3
Mass of water = 0.48 kg
0.48
Water content = ____ × 100 = 17.98%
2.67

Exercise

1. A soil sample whose water content is 20% has a bulk density of 2.16 gm/cc. The sample
undergoes air drying with significant change in void ratio. What is the water content of
this sample when its bulk density is reduced to 2.0 gm/cc. (Ans. = 11.11%)
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