Compilation of Reference Texts

Community Safety
and Security Sector
Governance

Human Rights & Geneva Centre for the

Democracy Media DCAF Democratic Control of
Centre Armed Forces (DCAF)
Compilation of Reference Texts

Community Safety
and Security Sector
Governance

Human Rights & Geneva Centre for the

Democracy Media Democratic Control of
DCAF
Center Armed Forces (DCAF)
About DCAF Editorial Board
The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Roland Friedrich
Armed Forces (DCAF) promotes good governance Regula Kaufmann
and reform of the security sector. The Centre Jonas Loetscher
conducts research on good practices, encourages Abdallah Mahmoud
the development of appropriate norms at the Nicolas Masson
national and international levels, makes policy Omar Rahhal
recommendations and provides in-country advice
and assistance programmes. DCAF’s partners
include governments, parliaments, civil society, Design and Layout
international organisations and security sector Wael Dwaik
actors such as police, judiciary, intelligence
agencies, border security services and the military.
Translation support
DCAF has worked in the Palestinian Territories
Yassin Al-Sayyed
since 2005. It assists a wide range of Palestinian
Intissar Abu Khalaf
actors such as ministries, the Palestinian Legislative
Council, civil society organisations and the media
in their efforts to make Palestinian security Publisher
sector governance democratic, transparent and
Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of
accountable.
Armed Forces (DCAF)
Rue de Chantepoulet 11
About SHAMS P.O. Box 1360
1211 Geneva 1
The Human Rights & Democracy Media Center Switzerland
(SHAMS) is an independent, non-profit, non-
governmental organisation. It was established Tel: +41 (22) 741 77 00
in 2003 in Ramallah, Palestine, by a group of Fax: +41 (22) 741 77 05
Palestinian academics, teachers, journalists, www.dcaf.ch
lawyers and human rights activists. SHAMS
believes that human rights are protected by, Cover Picture:
and disseminated through the interdependence © Human Rights and Democracy Media Center
between civil, political, economic, social and (SHAMS)
cultural rights. SHAMS seeks to enhance the
role of women and youth within the Palestinian ISBN: 978-92-9222-143-0
society, and to consolidate the culture of human
rights and tolerance in the framework of the rule © DCAF 2010. All rights reserved.
of law.

Acknowledgment
DCAF would like to express its sincere gratitude
for the generous support it received for this
publication from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
the Federal Republic of Germany.

Disclaimer
The contents of this publication are the exclusive
responsibility of the Geneva Centre for the
Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF)
and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the
government of the Federal Republic of Germany.
 Table of contents

Introduction 5

Reference Texts 9

United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Crime (2002) 11

I. Introduction 11
II. Conceptual Frame of Reference 11
III. Basic Principles 12
IV. Organization, Methods and Approaches 12
A. Organization  12
B. Methods 13
C. Approaches 14
V. International Cooperation 14

Good Governance at the Core of Prevention (ICPC, 2010) 17

1. Defining Good Governance 17
1.1 An Important Concept for International Organizations 17
1.2 The Governance of Security in Developing and Post-conflict States 19
1.3 Nodal Governance 19
2. Devolution and Local Coordination for Crime Prevention 19
2.2. Where Powers and Resources Have Been Decentralized to Municipalities,
Cities Have Been Able to Play a Particularly Strong Role in Crime Prevention. 20
3. Building Legitimacy: New (and Old) Challenges to Be Faced 20
3.1 The Legitimacy of Penal Responses 20
3.2 Community-Police Relations 21
5. Developing the Role of Civil Society in Crime Prevention 22
5.1 Variety of Purposes 22
5.2 Participatory Approaches 22
 Compilation of Reference Texts

Introduction

The Palestinian authorities have implemented a What is the rule of law?

number of measures to improve the adherence to
the rule of law in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Improving the rule of law is one of the key
Additionally, Palestinian officials have approached objectives of security sector governance (SSG)
and reform (SSR). Yet, depending on the context,
the Geneva Center for the Democratic Control of
practitioners use different, sometimes competing
Armed Forces (DCAF) with requests for assistance definitions1 and approaches when referring to
in this field. They asked DCAF to provide practical the rule of law and to its implications for security
training material with examples of good sector reform.
international practice on how to implement
principles of the rule of law. In particular, they The rule of law can be considered from an
expressed an interest in international reference institution building perspective. This approach
focuses on the institutions that are necessary
documents in the fields of community safety and
to achieve the rule of law. Such institutional
crime prevention. DCAF and the Human Rights & attributes include:
Democracy Media Center (SHAMS) responded to
these requests by developing the present reader • A complete and coherent legal
on international standards for community safety framework;
and crime prevention. • An effective, efficient and trained
judiciary;
What does this reader include? • Professional law enforcement agencies.
This reader includes extracts of two reference However, a mere focus on the institutional
documents from the field of crime prevention and dimension of the rule of law may not serve
community safety: development practitioners. For example, such
an approach says little about the governance
• The United Nations Guidelines for the objectives and underlying values of the rule of
Prevention of Crime (2002). The Guidelines law.
present a framework for promoting
community safety as an essential element Thus, it is useful to complement this approach
of sustainable development. with an ends-based definition of the rule of law.
• Chapter 6 of the 2010 International According to this definition, five main objectives
Report of the International Centre for the should be achieved under the umbrella of ‘rule of
Prevention of Crime (ICPC), entitled ‘Crime law’:
Prevention and Community Safety. Trends • Authorities are bound by law
and Perspectives’. This chapter focuses on
the importance of good governance for • Equality before the law is ensured
sustainable development and safer and • Law and order is maintained
more secure societies.
• Court rulings are efficient and fair
• Human rights are protected.
Who is this reader for?
The reader is a practical tool for those involved
in the development of legislative and policy
frameworks related to community safety and 1
The following is adapted from Rachel Kleinfeld Belton,
crime prevention. This includes legislators, Competing Definitions of the Rule of Law. Implications for
executive officials, civil servants, security officers, Practitioners, Carnegie Endowment for International
researchers and members of civil society. Peace, Nr. 55, 2005.

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Community Safety and Security Sector Governance

What is the relation between the rule

Box 1: The Security Sector of law and good governance of the
security sector?
Legal & Policy Framework One of the preconditions for improving the
rule of law is the existence of security sector
institutions that are accountable and have a clear
Civil Society and Media
legal basis. In other words, efforts to strengthen
the rule of law cannot be limited to providing
technical training and equipment to police and
Legislative Oversight Bodies security forces (see Box 1). They must include
the development of effective formal oversight
and management bodies on the executive,
Executive Authorities legislative and judicial levels (e.g. ministries,
parliaments and courts). Furthermore,
Core
Security improving the rule of law also requires effective
& informal oversight of police and security forces
Justice by civil society organisations and the media.
Providers

What are the links between the rule

The security sector consists of the core of law, community safety and crime
security and justice providers and their
prevention?
management and oversight institutions. The
legal and policy framework regulates their Strengthening the criminal justice system is
tasks, authorities and structures. only one of many aspects of the rule of law.
The focus on improving governance in order
Core security and justice providers: to strengthen the legitimacy of security sector
institutions is far more important, in particular in
• Security forces (armed forces, police, transitional contexts. This focus on governance
intelligence and security services, but entails going beyond the establishment of
also liberation armies and insurgency formal security sector institutions.
groups)
Informal community safety mechanisms
• Justice and law enforcement can help ensure that security and justice are
institutions (courts, prosecution provided in a fair, responsive and effective way
services, prisons, traditional justice to all citizens. Such a broad approach to the rule
systems) of law includes community-level partnerships
and so-called ‘governance nodes’ between
Management and oversight institutions: citizens and law enforcement institutions. These
partnerships serve to elaborate joint strategies
• Executive management and oversight to address the community’s key safety and
bodies (Presidency, Council of security concerns. Furthermore, they:
Ministers, ministries of defence,
interior, justice and finance) • Promote the delivery of professional,
people-centred law-enforcement services;
• Legislative management and • Promote citizens’ knowledge of what law-
oversight bodies (Parliament and its enforcement institutions are doing at
committees, ombudspersons) community level;
• Informal oversight institutions (civil • Encourage a dialogue between citizens
society organisations, media, research and core security and justice providers;
and advocacy organisations) • Strengthen the legitimacy and credibility
of public authorities;

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 Compilation of Reference Texts

• Help develop “community safety plans” to

address risks and threats to community
safety;
• Encourage proactive initiatives by local
residents to solve safety and security
problems;
• Ensure equity of access to decision-
making processes, especially for
marginalised social groups.

7
Reference Texts
Community Safety and Security Sector Governance

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 Compilation of Reference Texts

United Nations Guidelines for the

Prevention of Crime (2002)
The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Resolution 2002/13,
Annex2
24 July 2002

I. Introduction2 4. The present Guidelines address crime and its

effects on victims and society and take into
1. There is clear evidence that well-planned account the growing internationalization of
crime prevention strategies not only criminal activities.
prevent crime and victimization, but also
promote community safety and contribute 5. Community involvement and cooperation/
to the sustainable development of countries. partnerships represent important elements
Effective, responsible crime prevention of the concept of crime prevention set out
enhances the quality of life of all citizens. It herein. While the term “community” may be
has long-term benefits in terms of reducing defined in different ways, its essence in this
the costs associated with the formal criminal context is the involvement of civil society at
justice system, as well as other social costs the local level.
that result from crime. Crime prevention
offers opportunities for a humane and more 6. Crime prevention encompasses a wide range
cost-effective approach to the problems of approaches, including those which:
of crime. The present Guidelines outline (a) Promote the well-being of people
the necessary elements for effective crime and encourage pro-social behaviour
prevention. through social, economic, health and
educational measures, with a particular
emphasis on children and youth,
II. Conceptual Frame of Reference and focus on the risk and protective
2. It is the responsibility of all levels of factors associated with crime and
government to create, maintain and victimization (prevention through
promote a context within which relevant social development or social crime
governmental institutions and all segments prevention);
of civil society, including the corporate (b) Change the conditions in
sector, can better play their part in neighbourhoods that influence
preventing crime. offending, victimization and the
3. For the purposes of the present Guidelines, insecurity that results from crime by
“crime prevention” comprises strategies and building on the initiatives, expertise and
measures that seek to reduce the risk of commitment of community members
crimes occurring, and their potential harmful (locally based crime prevention);
effects on individuals and society, including (c) Prevent the occurrence of crimes by
fear of crime, by intervening to influence reducing opportunities, increasing
their multiple causes. The enforcement risks of being apprehended and
of laws, sentences and corrections, while minimizing benefits, including through
also performing preventive functions, falls environmental design, and by providing
outside the scope of the Guidelines, given assistance and information to potential
the comprehensive coverage of the subject and actual victims (situational crime
in other United Nations instruments. prevention);
(d) Prevent recidivism by assisting in
2
The ECOSOC Resolution 2002/13 was adopted on the social reintegration of offenders
24.07.2002. Its full text can be accessed at: http://www. and other preventive mechanisms
un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/2002/resolution%202002-13.pdf (reintegration programmes).

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Community Safety and Security Sector Governance

III. Basic Principles should be actively promoted in crime

prevention.
Government leadership
Interdependency
7. All levels of government should play a
leadership role in developing effective and 13. National crime prevention diagnoses and
humane crime prevention strategies and strategies should, where appropriate, take
in creating and maintaining institutional account of links between local criminal
frameworks for their implementation and problems and international organized crime.
review.
Differentiation
Socio-economic development and inclusion
14. Crime prevention strategies should, when
8. Crime prevention considerations should appropriate, pay due regard to the different
be integrated into all relevant social and needs of men and women and consider the
economic policies and programmes, special needs of vulnerable members of
including those addressing employment, society.
education, health, housing and urban
planning, poverty, social marginalization
and exclusion. Particular emphasis should IV. Organization, Methods and
be placed on communities, families, children Approaches
and youth at risk.
15. Recognizing that all States have unique
Cooperation/partnerships governmental structures, this section sets out
tools and methodologies that Governments
9. Cooperation/partnerships should be an and all segments of civil society should
integral part of effective crime prevention, consider in developing strategies to prevent
given the wide-ranging nature of the causes crime and reduce victimization. It draws on
of crime and the skills and responsibilities international good practice.
required to address them. This includes
partnerships working across ministries Community involvement
and between authorities, community
organizations, non-governmental 16. In some of the areas listed below,
organizations, the business sector and Governments bear the primary
private citizens. responsibility. However, the active
participation of communities and other
Sustainability/accountability segments of civil society is an essential part
of effective crime prevention. Communities,
10. Crime prevention requires adequate in particular, should play an important part
resources, including funding for structures in identifying crime prevention priorities,
and activities, in order to be sustained. There in implementation and evaluation, and
should be clear accountability for funding, in helping identify a sustainable resource
implementation and evaluation and for the base.
achievement of planned results.
A. Organization
Knowledge base
Government structures
11. Crime prevention strategies, policies,
programmes and actions should be based 17. Governments should include prevention
on a broad, multidisciplinary foundation as a permanent part of their structures and
of knowledge about crime problems, their programmes for controlling crime, ensuring
multiple causes and promising and proven that clear responsibilities and goals exist
practices. within government for the organization of
crime prevention, by, inter alia:
Human rights/rule of law/culture of lawfulness
(a) Establishing centres or focal points with
12. The rule of law and those human rights expertise and resources;
which are recognized in international
instruments to which Member States are (b) Establishing a crime prevention plan
parties must be respected in all aspects of with clear priorities and targets;
crime prevention. A culture of lawfulness

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 Compilation of Reference Texts

(c) Establishing linkages and coordination balance between crime prevention and
between relevant government agencies the criminal justice and other systems,
or departments; to be more effective in preventing crime
and victimization;
(d) Fostering partnerships with non-
governmental organizations, the (b) Establishing clear accountability
business, private and professional for funding, programming and
sectors and the community; coordinating crime prevention
initiatives;
(e) Seeking the active participation of the
public in crime prevention by informing (c) Encouraging community involvement
it of the need for and means of action in sustainability.
and its role.
B. Methods
Training and capacity-building
Knowledge base
18. Governments should support the
development of crime prevention skills by: 21. As appropriate, Governments and/or civil
society should facilitate knowledge-based
(a) Providing professional development for crime prevention by, inter alia:
senior officials in relevant agencies;
(a) Providing the information necessary
(b) Encouraging universities, colleges and for communities to address crime
other relevant educational agencies problems;
to offer basic and advanced courses,
including in collaboration with (b) Supporting the generation of useful and
practitioners; practically applicable knowledge that is
scientifically reliable and valid;
(c) Working with the educational and
professional sectors to develop (c) Supporting the organization and
certification and professional synthesis of knowledge and identifying
qualifications; and addressing gaps in the knowledge
base;
(d) Promoting the capacity of communities
to develop and respond to their needs. (d) Sharing that knowledge, as appropriate,
among, inter alia, researchers, policy
Supporting partnerships makers, educators, practitioners from
other relevant sectors and the wider
19. Governments and all segments of civil community;
society should support the principle of
partnership, where appropriate, including: (e) Applying this knowledge in replicating
successful interventions, developing
(a) Advancing knowledge of the new initiatives and anticipating new
importance of this principle and the crime problems and prevention
components of successful partnerships, opportunities;
including the need for all of the partners
to have clear and transparent roles; (f ) Establishing data systems to help
manage crime prevention more cost-
(b) Fostering their formation at different effectively, including by conducting
levels and across sectors; regular surveys of victimization and
(c) Facilitating their efficient operation. offending;

Sustainability (g) Promoting the application of those data

in order to reduce repeat victimization,
20. Governments and other funding bodies persistent offending and areas with a
should strive to achieve sustainability of high level of crime.
demonstrably effective crime prevention
programmes and initiatives through, inter Planning interventions
alia: 22. Those planning interventions should
(a) Reviewing resource allocation to promote a process that includes:
establish and maintain an appropriate

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Community Safety and Security Sector Governance

(a) A systematic analysis of crime (b) Promoting activities that redress

problems, their causes, risk factors and marginalization and exclusion;
consequences, in particular at the local
level; (c) Promoting positive conflict resolution;

(b) A plan that draws on the most (d) Using education and public awareness
appropriate approach and adapts strategies to foster a culture of
interventions to the specific local lawfulness and tolerance while
problem and context; respecting cultural identities.

(c) An implementation plan to deliver Situational

appropriate interventions that are 26. Governments and civil society, including
efficient, effective and sustainable; where appropriate the corporate sector,
(d) Mobilizing entities that are able to tackle should support the development of
causes; situational crime prevention programmes by,
inter alia:
(e) Monitoring and evaluation.
(a) Improved environmental design;
Support evaluation
(b) Appropriate methods of surveillance
23. Governments, other funding bodies and that are sensitive to the right to privacy;
those involved in programme development
and delivery should: (c) Encouraging the design of consumer
goods to make them more resistant to
(a) Undertake short- and longer-term crime;
evaluation to test rigorously what
works, where and why; (d) Target “hardening” without impinging
upon the quality of the built
(b) Undertake cost-benefit analyses; environment or limiting free access to
public space;
(c) Assess the extent to which action
results in a reduction in levels of crime (e) Implementing strategies to prevent
and victimization, in the seriousness of repeat victimization.
crime and in fear of crime;
Prevention of organized crime
(d) Systematically assess the outcomes
and unintended consequences, both 27. Governments and civil society should
positive and negative, of action, such endeavour to analyse and address the links
as a decrease in crime rates or the between transnational organized crime and
stigmatization of individuals and/or national and local crime problems by, inter
communities. alia:

C. Approaches (a) Reducing existing and future

opportunities for organized criminal
24. This section expands upon the social groups to participate in lawful markets
developmental and situational crime with the proceeds of crime, through
prevention approaches. It also outlines appropriate legislative, administrative
approaches that Governments and civil or other measures;
society should endeavour to follow in order
to prevent organized crime. (b) Developing measures to prevent the
misuse by organized criminal groups
Social development of tender procedures conducted by
public authorities and of subsidies and
25. Governments should address the risk factors licences granted by public authorities
of crime and victimization by: for commercial activity;
(a) Promoting protective factors through (c) Designing crime prevention strategies,
comprehensive and non-stigmatizing where appropriate, to protect socially
social and economic development marginalized groups, especially women
programmes, including health, and children, who are vulnerable to the
education, housing and employment; action of organized criminal groups,

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 Compilation of Reference Texts

including trafficking in persons and Links between transnational and local crime
smuggling of migrants.
31. Member States should collaborate to analyse
and address the links between transnational
V. International Cooperation organized crime and national and local crime
problems.
Standards and norms
Prioritizing crime prevention
28. In promoting international action in crime
prevention, Member States are invited to 32. The Centre for International Crime
take into account the main international Prevention, the United Nations Crime
instruments related to human rights and Prevention and Criminal Justice
crime prevention to which they are parties, Programme network of affiliated and
such as the Convention on the Rights of the associated institutes and other relevant
Child (General Assembly resolution 44/25, United Nations entities should include in
annex), the Declaration on the Elimination their priorities crime prevention as set out
of Violence against Women (resolution in these Guidelines, set up a coordination
48/104), the United Nations Guidelines for mechanism and establish a roster of
the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (the experts to undertake needs assessment
Riyadh Guidelines) (resolution 45/112, annex), and to provide technical advice.
the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice
Dissemination
for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power
(resolution 40/34, annex), the Guidelines for 33. Relevant United Nations bodies and other
Cooperation and Technical Assistance in the organizations should cooperate to produce
Field of Urban Crime Prevention (Economic crime prevention information in as many
and Social Council resolution 1995/9, annex), languages as possible, using both print and
as well as the Vienna Declaration on Crime electronic media.
and Justice: Meeting the Challenges of the
Twenty-first Century (General Assembly
resolution 55/59, annex) and the United
Nations Convention against Transnational
Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto
(resolutions 55/25, annexes I-III, and 55/255,
annex).
Technical assistance
29. Member States and relevant international
funding organizations should provide
financial and technical assistance, including
capacity-building and training, to developing
countries and countries with economies in
transition, communities and other relevant
organizations for the implementation of
effective crime prevention and community
safety strategies at the regional, national
and local levels. In that context, special
attention should be given to research and
action on crime prevention through social
development.
Networking
30. Member States should strengthen or
establish international, regional and national
crime prevention networks with a view to
exchanging proven and promising practices,
identifying elements of their transferability
and making such knowledge available to
communities throughout the world.

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Good Governance at the Core of

Prevention3
International Centre for the Prevention of Crime (ICPC)
Chapter 6 of the International Report ‘Crime Prevention and Community Safety:
Trends and Perspectives’, 2010

At the international level there is a consensus This reflects the recognition of the finite capacity
that good governance is central to achieving of the public sector to meet the popular demand
sustainable development and safe, secure for security, and a search to involve other sectors
societies. Many international organizations in the governance of security, including citizens,
have emphasized the importance of through a process of ‘responsibilization’. The
strengthening and reforming institutions, to public police can no longer be expected to provide
ensure access to justice and the rule of law. omnipresent security. The private security sector
They have often seen good governance largely and other types of private and semi-private civil
in terms of strengthening criminal justice society arrangements are increasingly involved
systems, for example, and the reform of state in the provision of security. Thus governance is a
structures, particularly to reduce corruption concept which helps to make sense of new and
and aid transparency. The increasing capacity existing arrangements and acknowledge other
of state structures is only one aspect of actors in security, both in policy development
good governance. It is also important to and in implementation.
build capacity for governance beyond the
institutions of the state, particularly where
they are weak and lack resources and/or 1. Defining Good Governance
legitimacy. 3
1.1 An Important Concept for International
The United Nations ‘Guidelines for the Prevention Organizations
of Crime’, have emphasized what has been
called the ‘steering’ role of governments in Among international agencies, there is a diversity
leading crime prevention partnerships. The of emphasis in promoting good governance,
guidelines recommend working at all levels and reflecting their different objectives. This ranges
in connection with a variety of actors, especially from promoting transparent and honest
civil society. In our 2008 edition, we examined government, to emphasizing the importance
the role of institutional and local actors, and the of good governance for socio-economic
community. This chapter will focus on governance development and democracy-building.
arrangements in relation to crime prevention. The World Bank defines governance as:
The term governance is increasingly used to “..the traditions and institutions by which authority
talk about governing arrangements (instead of in a country is exercised for the common good. This
government) in recognition that responsibility includes (i) the process by which those in authority are
and capacity for governing is often situated selected, monitored and replaced, (ii) the capacity of
beyond governmental or public sector bodies. In the government to effectively manage its resources
developed countries the term is frequently used to and implement sound policies, and (iii) the respect of
refer to the shift from a public sector monopoly citizens and the state for the institutions that govern
in the provision of security, and the growth of economic and social interactions among them.”
the private security industry, and to refer to the
involvement of local authorities and civil society UN-HABITAT has developed a more
in the design and implementation of everyday comprehensive understanding of governance,
security measures. related to urban settlements (see box below):
3
Source: ICPC: International Report. Crime Prevention and “Urban governance is the sum of the many ways
Community Safety: Trends and Perspectives, 2010, Ch. 6, individuals and institutions, public and private,
pp. 103-128. The report can be downloaded from ICPC’s
plan and manage the common affairs of the city. It
website: http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org/uploads/
media/International_Report_2010.pdf
is a continuing process through which conflicting

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Community Safety and Security Sector Governance

or diverse interests may be accommodated and rates of violence and crime. They argue that
cooperative action can be taken. It includes formal accountable and effective services and capacity
institutions as well as informal arrangements and for crime prevention at the local level, is not only
the social capital of citizens.” a matter of equitable governance, but of pursuing
greater equality.
UN HABITAT’s ‘Campaign for Good Governance’
has also attempted to develop universally relevant Their emphasis on subsidiarity, efficiency,
norms of good governance (see below) that can transparency and accountability echoes the
be operationalized, or translated from principle UN Guidelines’ emphasis on the key role of local
into practice. These principles of good governance or municipal authorities in building sustainable
are particularly applicable to crime prevention. strategies for crime prevention, particularly where
Inequality of access to resources, and to decision- they have legal and fiscal responsibility and
making processes, helps to contribute to high resources.

BOX 1: UN-Habitat Principles of Good Urban Governance

The Campaign for Good Governance aims to Efficiency in the delivery of public services and
develop universally relevant norms that can in promoting local economic development
be operationalized - that is, translated from Cities must be financially sound and
principle to practice. The Campaign proposes cost-effective in their management of
that good urban governance is characterized revenue sources and expenditures, the
by sustainability, subsidiarity, equity, efficiency, administration and delivery of services, and
transparency and accountability, civic in the enablement, based on comparative
engagement and citizenship, and security, advantage of government, the private sector
and that these norms are interdependent and and communities to contribute formally or
mutually reinforcing. These proposed norms are informally to the urban economy.
introduced below.
Transparency and Accountability of decision-
Sustainability in all dimensions of urban
makers and all stakeholders
development
The accountability of local authorities to
Cities must balance the social, economic and their citizens is a fundamental tenet of good
environmental needs of present and future governance. Similarly, there should be no place
generations. This should include a clear for corruption in cities.
commitment to urban poverty reduction.
Civic Engagement and Citizenship
Subsidiarity of authority and resources to the
closest appropriate level People are the principal wealth of cities; they are
both the object and the means of sustainable
Responsibility for service provision should human development. Citizens, especially women,
be allocated on the basis of the principle of must be empowered to participate effectively in
subsidiarity, that is, at the closest appropriate decision-making processes. The civic capital of
level consistent with efficient and cost-effective the poor must be recognized and supported.
delivery of services. This will maximize the
potential for inclusion of the citizenry in the Security of individuals and their living
process of urban governance. Decentralization environment
and local democracy should improve the
Every individual has the inalienable right
responsiveness of policies and initiatives to the
to life, liberty and the security of person.
priorities and needs of citizens. Cities should
Insecurity has a disproportionate impact
be empowered with sufficient resources and
in further marginalising poor communities.
autonomy to meet their responsibilities.
Cities must strive to avoid human conflicts and
Equity of access to decision-making processes natural disasters by involving all stakeholders
and the basic necessities of urban life in crime and conflict prevention and disaster
preparedness. Security also implies freedom
The sharing of power leads to equity in the from persecution, forced evictions and provides
access to and use of resources. Women and men for security of tenure. Cities should also work with
must participate as equals in all urban decision- social mediation and conflict reduction agencies
making, priority-setting and resource allocation and encourage the cooperation between
processes. enforcement agencies and other social service
providers (health, education and housing).

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UNDP highlights the impact of good money, arms, wildlife and timber products...
governance on development, and achieving National legislative frameworks to fight organized
the Millennium Development Goals, and crime, corruption, money-laundering and the
promotes democratic models of governance. financing of terrorism are weak in most countries
of the region.’
“Democratic governance is central to the
achievement of the MDGs, as it provides the 1.3 Nodal Governance
‘enabling environment’ for the realization of the
MDGs and, in particular, the elimination of poverty. The concept of governance networks, involving
The critical importance of democratic governance clusters of linkages between civil society and
in the developing world was highlighted at the the state, and the multiplicity of ways in which
Millennium Summit of 2000, where the world’s the governance of security is structured, is what
leaders resolved to “spare no effort to promote Shearing and Wood (2000) describe as ‘nodal
democracy and strengthen the rule of law, as well governance’.
as respect for all internationally recognized human
rights and fundamental freedoms, including the Nodal Governance ‘envisions criminal justice
right to development.” agencies and actors as part of a broader web of
governmental and non-governmental institutions
1.2 The Governance of Security in Developing involved in the promotion of safety, security
and Post-conflict States and justice’ at local, regional, national, and
international levels.
Although the shift in thinking about the
provision of security has come mainly from This understanding of the governance of security
developed countries with relatively strong and allows for an examination of the role, knowledge
established governmental structures and public and capacity of non-governmental actors in
service provision, researchers in the South civil society (such as voluntary and community
and international organizations have noted its groups, private security providers, young people
relevance for security in developing countries, and women) in shaping and producing security.
and weak or failing states. A key element of this emphasis on analyzing
the contribution of ‘nodes’ within networks of
State resources in such countries can governance has been its capacity to describe
be extremely limited or non-existent, or collaborative partnerships, and participative
undermined by corruption. Other arrangements, approaches to the production of security.
both legitimate and illegitimate, are often in
place to provide security and other services This concept is particularly useful for an
to fill the gap. Strengthening governance examination of trends in the development of
structures, and building capacity for crime crime prevention, since it acknowledges the
prevention or control, is as much a process of contribution of networks beyond the traditional
building legitimacy as of increasing resources. criminal justice agencies, and activities that were
Civil society organizations often have strong not previously considered crime prevention. It
legitimacy, but lack resources. Networks of civil refocuses attention away from the state as the
society and international organizations provide primary deliverer of safety and security.
potential ‘nodes’ for governance alongside
state bodies, or in place of them during periods
of transition, where such structures have 2. Devolution and Local Coordination
disintegrated or lack legitimacy. for Crime Prevention
Apart from its role in crime prevention, As the 2008 International Report underlined,
UNODC also promotes the importance of good the involvement of municipalities in crime
governance for strengthening institutions to prevention has continued to increase since
counter organized crime. the 1980’s and in line with the UN Guidelines
Eg. the Regional Program to Promote the for the prevention of crime (1995 and 2002).
Rule of Law and Human Security in Eastern That report also discussed the importance and
Africa 2009-11 describes the impact of ‘poor variety of partnerships in crime prevention,
governance, insecurity, conflicts, poverty and but highlighted the discrepancy between the
economic disparities among and within countries expectations of municipal actors, and their lack
of the region’ as ‘providing opportunities for of resources, both financial and legal, to address
transnational organized crime, as is evidenced by local concerns about crime.
the widespread illicit trafficking in drugs, persons, (…)

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Community Safety and Security Sector Governance

2.2 Where Powers and Resources Have Been Drug Abuse Control programme, working with
Decentralized to Municipalities, Cities street children and commercial sex workers, is an
Have Been Able to Play a Particularly example of such a short-term greater attention to
Strong Role in Crime Prevention. the importance of building capacity and project-
limited partnership. This emphasizes the need
Some cities have been given responsibility for government-civil society links to sustain
for local policing and a more explicit role in partnership working.
prevention (eg. cities in Colombia, France, Italy
and Ecuador, and the city of Madrid) and/or tax (…)
resources to be spent on prevention initiatives
developed at the local level (France, Belgium,
Chile) (...). In France, central government has 3. Building Legitimacy: New (and Old)
supported local initiatives through a contract Challenges to Be Faced
system since 1991: city contracts, local safety
contracts and urban social cohesion contracts As discussed in Chapter 1, recent research
(…). However, funds can be limited resulting in and experience suggests that levels of fear of
a reluctance of local authorities and mayors to crime and sense of insecurity can increase
take on these prevention functions. when there is a decline in confidence in public
bodies. This applies to all agencies with coercive
A well known example of decentralization powers, such as social services, schools using
has been in Colombia where the national their disciplinary powers, local government and
parliament passed legislation giving powers housing authorities with their powers to evict,
to cities, enabling them to take greater control but especially to agencies such as the police
of the use of their resources and make local and the judicial system. Police in countries with
bylaws, for example, to control arms and alcohol a recent history of military dictatorship, or ex-
consumption in public spaces (…). colonial or ex-apartheid policing are likely to lack
legitimacy with many sectors of the population.
The increasing role of cities in crime prevention
Confidence cannot be built by asserting the
has often taken place in the context of the
effectiveness of services. Legitimacy needs to
development of broader urban policies.
be built through structures of accountability
(…) and the participation of civil society in the
governance of security.
Some national strategies in developing
countries have demonstrated approaches 3.1 The Legitimacy of Penal Responses
which both strengthen institutions and build
A key concern among international
partnerships with civil society organizations.
organizations in recent years has been the
The Kenya Governance, Justice, Law and Order
effectiveness of criminal justice responses to
Sector (GJLOS) Reform Program (2004-2009), for
high rates of violence. In particular a low rate
example, included crime prevention and police
of prosecution of homicide cases undermines
and law reform, as key policy components of its
public confidence in criminal justice and the
programme on Public Safety and Security. This
rule of law, contributing to a sense of impunity.
included partnerships between a broad range
In Africa, for example, the chances of a murder
of government security and welfare services, as
resulting in a conviction are only around 11%
well as civil society organizations, and the Kenya
(18% in South Africa) compared to 56% in the
Private Sector Alliance (KEPSA). Others have
US, and 61% in the UK. Issues of immunity and
developed crime prevention strategies with a
impunity to punishment are particularly stark
particular focus on the development of capacity
where homicides involve the murder of women
amongst civil society organizations (Uganda Taxi
and “honour killings”. In some parts of the
Operators and Drivers Association).
world police may not investigate when crimes
In some cases, particularly in countries lacking are described as ‘crimes of passion’. Elsewhere
resources, establishing specific bodies or there is concern that the deaths of women
partnership structures remains uncertain. Many have not received attention from the police, as
partnerships are formed for specific projects, in the case of femicides in cities in Mexico and
often between civil society organizations, Central America, or missing Aboriginal women
government bodies and international in Canada, which highlights a lack of attention
organizations to undertake work on a national by the police and local authorities in these
level or on specific policy issues. The Nigeria cases. High levels of corruption and incidents of
extrajudicial punishment and killing obviously

20
 Compilation of Reference Texts

exacerbate a lack of confidence and fear of Watch UK; Citizens on Patrol, Belize; Vecinos en
security services, undermining the legitimacy of Plan Alerta, Partido de Morón, Buenos Aires,
services and exposing victims to further abuse, Argentina). As discussed in the contribution by
without recourse to justice. Victims are often Berg and van der Spuy, citizen patrols can be of
unable to find justice for these abuses. concern if they become aligned with extra-legal
enforcement.
For this reason, to deal with issues of impunity,
international organizations have tended to There is more evidence of the effectiveness of
focus on criminal justice reform to increase citizen interventions to resolve and prevent
effectiveness, and reduce corruption within violent conflict through conflict mediation
criminal justice agencies. approaches (…) than through surveillance and
citizen patrols. A more positive development
This is in the context of wider democratic reform in many countries is the establishment of
and deep distrust of law enforcement agencies. permanent units/forums for community
An emphasis on democratic accountability in participation to foster police-community
Latin America has also been coupled with a focus relations and undertake prevention activities
on human rights. This is echoed in other contexts (Crime Police Advisory Services Austria;
in which law enforcement bodies have been and/ Community Policing Forums (CPFs), South
or remain human rights abusers, such as in Brazil, Africa; Police Citizen Liaison Committees,
South Africa, India and Northern Ireland. Belize). Some participatory governance
These and other international initiatives have structures have been implemented in a way
tended to emphasize developing training that promotes the inclusion of young people in
and accountability structures, although it is decision- making (…).
questionable how far such measures alone In Australia, New Zealand and Canada,
can produce institutional cultural change. improving relationships between indigenous
Transforming policing practice and addressing peoples and the police has been supported
corruption also needs to address issues of poor through collaborative approaches that sensitize
resourcing, poor pay and poor conditions of police to injustice, issues of colonization,
employment. Reform requires major structural discrimination and social exclusion. Indigenous
and organizational change, adequate resources culture, alongside the promotion of traditional
and good management (…). dispute resolution, has been a key focus for
3.2 Community-Police Relations crime prevention policy.

Establishing community-based policing and Responding to urban unrest has been a particular
building collaborative relationships between incentive for the development of projects to
agencies providing security to local communities rebuild poor relationships between police and
has been central to a number of national local communities, especially young people
strategies worldwide. This includes Poland and ethno-cultural groups. Some of these
and the Warsaw Safety Map programme; the have emphasized participatory approaches
Policing Plan 2006-10 in Belize, Vision 2020 to opening a dialogue (…), and an emphasis
and Policing for People in Trinidad and Tobago; on cultural exchange to overcome prejudice
Neighbourhood/Community Policing in the and increase understanding between different
UK; Policía de Proximidad in Spain; the Sector groups (…).
Policing programme in South Africa, which Good governance in crime prevention rests
emphasize strengthening the capacity of the heavily on the legitimacy of public institutions,
police to enforce and improve public confidence including the penal system. However, while the
in policing, and rates of reporting, rather than public institutional framework remains central,
increasing local capacity for crime prevention or an increasing number of private institutions
more long lasting participation. are emerging as new players in security. This
The positive involvement of citizens with the raises questions concerning the regulation and
police has traditionally been limited to a role supervision of their activities.
as informants, or as victims reporting offences. (…)
In many countries citizen patrols have been
encouraged as a form of citizen participation
in surveillance and deterrence, reducing
opportunities for crime (e.g. Neighbourhood

21
Community Safety and Security Sector Governance

5. Developing the Role of Civil Society In both developed and developing countries, civil
in Crime Prevention society organisations play a key role in holding
local and national governments to account and
5.1 Variety of Purposes in influencing debates on policy. Civil society
organizations have, for example, played a central
In our 2008 report, we outlined some of the ways role in the promotion of citizen security in Latin
in which civil society can be involved in crime America, and in promoting a human rights
prevention, one of the key recommendations perspective in the region. Internationally, civil
of the UN Guidelines. Two goals were outlined: society organizations have played a central role
public participation in defining local needs, in promoting children’s rights (…).
including through local diagnoses of security,
and public participation in implementing Increasing the capacity of communities to self-
strategies. govern, to resolve local problems and conflicts,
and to engage in local decision-making has also
Building capacity for crime prevention become widely promoted in sustainable crime
within civil society, often in conjunction with prevention. Initiatives to increase social capital
international NGOs, has become a recognized and increase capacity for local conflict resolution
aspect of approaches to security sector reform and problem solving have been a particular
in developing countries or in post-conflict feature of urban policy and development
situations. The Trinidad and Tobago Citizen approaches, aiming to reduce social exclusion
Security Programme, a six-year programme and insecurity. (…)
sponsored jointly by the Government and the
Inter-American Development Bank, for example, 5.2 Participatory Approaches
includes support to strengthen NGOs and fund
small-scale crime prevention initiatives. (…) Decentralization and devolution can provide
new opportunities for participation of citizens
Where institutions are weak, civil society in decision-making, and in influencing an
organizations can play a pivotal role in building understanding of local issues and the way in which
crime prevention capacity amongst other smaller they should be addressed. Many such schemes
community organizations. have been developed with wider aims of urban
governance, but including a crime prevention
The Crime Prevention Coalition of Nigeria component (…).
(CPCN), for example, modelled on the Crime
Prevention Coalition of America, works with Public participation can also open the door
schools, community organizations and law to, or unwittingly encourage, punitive and
enforcement agencies to promote grass roots exclusionary views. It is the challenge of
crime prevention in Nigeria, particularly through participatory crime prevention to reduce
youth diversion and education/training, and tendencies to blame or propose exclusionary
working with schools to reduce violence approaches, and promote inclusionary
and gang activity. It provides training and approaches able to reinforce democracy and
information and undertakes awareness-raising social inclusion. Developing inclusive and
campaigns. Similarly, Action for a Safe South transformatory participatory methods and
Africa attempts to mobilise grass roots action to processes which avoid stigmatizing, blaming
prevent crime in South Africa. The involvement and encouraging vigilante punitive responses
of the private sector in crime prevention has to crime, is a challenge for practitioners.
also been particularly promoted in South Africa This was recognized at a conference on
(e.g. Business against Crime). ‘Decentralisation, Local Power and Women’s
Rights: Global Trends in Participation,
In developed countries, civil society Representation and Access to Public Services’
organizations are also increasingly recognized (November 2008) (…).
as having greater capacity to work with some of
the most excluded members of the population. A number of successful participatory approaches
In the UK, for example, the State’s Pupil Referral work from the bottom-up. One of the most
Units were established to work with children influential for crime prevention has been the
at risk of exclusion, or excluded from school, development of women’s safety audits, which
yet were abandoned in favour of schemes were initially developed in Toronto Canada(…).
run by a number of charities (The Prince’s
Trust, Barnardo’s, Nacro, Rathbone and Kids These involve the identification of safety concerns
Company). by local groups of women, enabling them to

22
 Compilation of Reference Texts

propose responses and engage with municipal underlying the UN guidelines, including human
governments in developing solutions. rights, democracy and inclusion. Reducing crime
and improving the quality of life of communities,
(…) means taking into account the needs and
There has also been an increasing emphasis aspirations of all segments of the population,
on the inclusion of young people’s voices in including the most marginalized.
decision-making at all levels of policy making Good governance and the ability to develop
and implementation. The Child Friendly Cities measures or methods that promote good
movement, promoted by UNICEF, and UNESCO’s governance vary considerably across countries,
Growing up in Cities Project, and UN-HABITAT’s but also from one community to another, and
work on the role of children and youth in urban over time. There is increasing international
governance, have been particularly influential in attention to the situation in post-conflict
this regard, stressing the role of wider society in countries, in weak or authoritarian states, and low
ensuring the developmental rights of children. income countries. In such cases state and non-
They have stressed the importance of youth state partnerships for security may be the most
participation in ensuring that children’s needs feasible, while reconstruction or restoration
and rights are considered and met. UNICEF has of peace, and the reduction of corruption and
produced a guide to youth participation (‘UNICEF development of trust between the state sector
(2009) ‘We’ve Got Something to Say - Promoting and the population, require a greater focus on
Child and Youth Agency: A Facilitator’s Guide’ – supporting and building the capacities of local
Manual for programming). community resources.
At the local level this can mean community
level projects to include young people in
crime prevention initiatives. The Peace Squares
SulAmerica initiative in Brazil, for example,
promotes the participation of young people,
and the wider adult community, in transforming
public spaces into sites for peaceful coexistence.
Youth participation has also been promoted at
the international level through initiatives such
as the worldwide Glocal Youth Parliament.
Established to create a network of urban
youth partnering with local governments and
organizations, international institutions and the
private sector it aims to include young people’s
views in the improvement of urban quality of
life. UN-HABITAT and ICPC have published the
first edition of the Youth Resource Guide in
2010, which focuses on youth-led and youth
participatory resources. The Guide brings
together practical knowledge and initiatives
on youth and violence and crime prevention
from around the world to promote safer
communities.
Good governance is a large concept but a vital
aspect of effective and resources are available,
through diagnosing problems, identifying
potential partners, and mobilizing them.
Moreover, good governance helps ensure
that different points of view (governments
and institutions, private sector, community
organizations etc....) and different components
of the community (the public) are all considered.
Good governance also relates to some of
the core principles and values of prevention

23
Community Safety and Security Sector Governance

24
 Compilation of Reference Texts
‫مركز جنيف للرقابة الدميوقراطية على القوات املسلحة‬
34 ‫شارع املعارف‬
‫ البيرة‬/ ‫رام الله‬
‫الضفة الغربية‬
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