Topic 1: Stoichiometric Relationships:

1.1 Introduction to the particle nature of matter and chemical change

States of matter
➔ Everything is made up of matter. The characteristics of matter are:
➔ Made up of particles – atoms, molecules or ions
➔ Particles are in constant motion
➔ Occupies a volume in space
➔ Has a mass

Properties of three states of matter

Changes of State
Take water for example:

Change of State Water graph:

➔ As temperature increases, kinetic energy in particles increase, causing change of state

➔ Melting and boiling are endothermic reactions – energy is transferred from environment
➔ As temperature decreases, kinetic energy decreases, causing reversal of state
 ➔ Condensation and freezing are exothermic reactions – energy is transferred to environment
➔ There is no change in temperature while melting, boiling, condensing or freezing,
➔ energy is used to break/create attractive forces so change of state can occur

Changes of state can be described using the following terms:

Classification of Matter
➔ Matter- Any substance that takes up/ occupies space or and has a mass
➔ Mixture- a combination of 2 or more pure substances that retain their individual properties.
➔ Pure substance- have a definite and constant composition
➔ Element - Made up of atoms with the same atomic number
➔ Compound- Made up of a combination of atoms or ions in a fixed ratio and having different
properties from the constituent elements.
➔ Ion: A charged species
➔ Anion: Negatively charged ion
➔ Cation: Positively charged ion

Temperature
➔ The vibration and movement of particles depend on temperature
➔ As temperature increases, KEavg increases
➔ The SI unit for temperature is the kelvin (K)
➔ Absolute zero is 0 on the kelvin scale (-273° on Celsius scale), and is the temperature at which all
movement of particles stops
➔ Temperature (K) = Temperature (°C) + 273.15

Polyatomic ions
➔ Ions are atoms with a positive (cations) or negative (anions) charge.
➔ Polyatomic ions are covalent molecules with a charge that act as a unit in ionic compounds.

List of Polyatomic ions:

➔ Ammonium ➔ Phosphite
➔ Carbonate ➔ Phosphate
 ➔ Hydroxide ➔ Nitrous acid
➔ Nitrite ➔ Nitric acid
➔ Nitrate ➔ Sulphurous acid
➔ Sulphite ➔ Sulphuric acid
➔ Sulphate ➔ Phosphorous acid
➔ Phosphoric acid

Naming covalent compounds

Prefix Mono- Di- Tri- Treta- Penta- Hexa- Hepta Octa- Nona- Deca-
-

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

➔ Covalent compounds are formed by sharing electrons.

➔ To name these compounds you must add prefixes to show how many atoms are in the formula.
➔ You know it is covalent because it will be a non-metal combined with a non-metal.
➔ Add prefixes to all atoms, but omit mono- for the first element. Add –ide to the last element.

Eg. CO = carbon + oxygen = carbon monoxide

Naming ionic compounds

➔ Ionic compounds are formed from the attraction of positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions).
➔ To name these compounds, find the charges and balance the charges.
➔ You know it is ionic because it will be metal combined with a non-metal.
➔ The cation comes first the anion comes second.

Eg. NaCl sodium chloride

Charges are already balanced (+1 + -1 = 0)

Balancing equations
1. Make a table to list out the elements on the left and right hand side of the equation
2. Begin with the most complicated compound and balance the equation for this.
3. Finish by balancing the least complicated compound.
4. Get rid of any fractions by multiplying by the denominator.

4 types of chemical reactions

➔ Synthesis
➔ Decomposition
➔ Single Displacement
➔ Double Displacement
➔ Complete Combustion
➔ Incomplete Combustion

State symbols
➔ (s) – solid
➔ (l) – liquid
➔ (g) – gas
➔ (aq) – aqueous

1.2 The mole concept

➔ Particles are classified as either: Atoms, ions, molecules or formula units

➔ To perform chemistry, moles of substance are used, and this allows us to make comparisons between
chemical species.
Stoichiometry
➔ The study of the ratios in which chemical substances combine.

The Mole
➔ Mole: a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance
➔ Molar mass: mass of 1 mole of a substance (g mol-1)

Converting between units:

Cross multiply ratios

➔ Scale
−9
Convert 9nm to cm, given that 1nm is 1 × 10 𝑐𝑚

−9 −9
1𝑛𝑚 : 1 × 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 × 1𝑛𝑚 = 9𝑛𝑚 × 1 × 10 𝑐𝑚
−9
9𝑛𝑚 : 𝑥 𝑥 = 9 × 10 𝑐𝑚

➔ Unit change
Convert 530 calories to joules, given that 1 cal = 4.18 J

1 𝑐𝑎𝑙: 4. 18 𝐽 𝑥 × 1𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 530 × 4. 18𝐽

530 : 𝑥 𝑥 = 2215. 4 𝐽 (2200𝐽)

Mole
➔ The mole is a large number: 6.02 x 1023
➔ This number is called Avogadro’s number
➔ We use this number to count things in chemistry
➔ The word mole is abbreviated to mol
➔ n is the symbol used to represent the number of moles
➔ N is the number of particles ie. ions, atoms, molecules, formula units, electrons

Atoms (N)
23 𝑁
𝑁 = 𝑛 × 6. 02 × 10 𝑛 = 23
6.02 ×10
E.g. How many atoms are there in 1 mol of H2O? 23
E.g. How many moles are in 12. 04 × 10 atoms?
H2O has 3 atoms
 23 𝑁
𝑁 = 3 × 6. 02 × 10 𝑛 = 23
24 6.02 ×10
𝑁 = 1. 806 × 10 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
23
12.04 × 10
𝑛 = 23
6.02 ×10
𝑛 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

Molecules (N)

23 𝑁
𝑁 = 𝑛 × 6. 02 × 10 𝑛 = 23
6.02 ×10
E.g.How many molecules are there in 4 moles of 23
E.g. How many moles are in 12. 04 × 10 molecules
H20? of H2O?
23
𝑁 = 4 × 6. 02 × 10 𝑁
24
𝑛 = 23
𝑁 = 2. 408 × 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 6.02 ×10
23
12.04 × 10
𝑛 = 23
6.02 ×10
𝑛 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

Ions (N)

23 𝑁
𝑁 = 𝑛 × 6. 02 × 10 𝑛 = 23
6.02 ×10
E.g.How many H+ ions are there in 2.5 moles of HCl E.g. How many moles are there in 14 × 10
23
H+
solution? ions??
𝑁
HCl completely dissociates to H+ in water 𝑛 = 23
23
6.02 ×10
𝑁 = 2. 5 × 6. 02 × 10 23
24
14 × 10
𝑁 = 1. 505 × 10 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛 = 23
6.02 ×10
𝑛 = 2. 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

Electrons (N)

23 𝑁
𝑁 = 𝑛 × 6. 02 × 10 𝑛 = 23
6.02 ×10
E.g. How many electrons are there in 1 mole of E.g. How many moles are there in 14 × 10
30

helium? electrons?
30
14 × 10
Helium contains 2 electrons 𝑛 = 23
23 6.02 ×10
𝑁 = 2 × 6. 02 × 10 7
23 𝑛 = 2. 3 × 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁 = 12. 04 × 10 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

Formula units (N)

23 𝑁
𝑁 = 𝑛 × 6. 02 × 10 𝑛 = 23
6.02 ×10
 E.g. How many formula units are there in 1 mole of 30
E.g. How many moles are there in 1. 0 × 10 formula
NaCl? units of NaCl?
30
1.0 × 10
NaCl is a formula unit 𝑛 = 23
23 6.02 ×10
𝑁 = 1 × 6. 02 × 10
6
23 𝑛 = 1. 7 × 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁 = 16. 02 × 10 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Relative Masses
➔ Relative Atomic Mass: (Ar) - Weighted average of the atomic masses of its isotopes and their relative
abundances
➔ Relative because compared to 1 atom of carbon-12 (12C) which is 12 units
➔ Relative Molecular Mass: (Mr)- Combining individuals Ar values of atoms in molecule or formula unit

Rate of chemical reaction

● Rate of reaction is the change of concentration of reactants or products with time (mol dm-3 s-1)
● The nature of a chemical reaction: A chemical reaction is a process in which a new substance or
substances is/are formed
● During the course of a chemical reaction the starting materials chemically change to become the
products.
● Reactants Products
● This process is not instantaneous, the new substances created are formed at a specific rate.

Factors affecting the rate of reaction

● What factors will determine rate?
○ Surface area (usually refers to solid)
○ Concentration or pressure (if gas)
○ Temperature
○ Catalyst
● How is it found?
○ Through experimentation only
○ Rate of decreasing reactants
−Δ[Concentration]/ Δ[time]
○ Rate of increasing products
Δ[Concentration]/ Δ[time

● Gas collection -Syringe: This set up is good for hydrogen as it is lighter than air
● Gas collection – over water: Not good for water soluble chemicals, Warmer water will decrease
solubility
● Change in mass: Not good for light gases such as hydrogen
● Change in color is called colorimetry/spectrophotometry
○ Absorbance and transmittance
○ Measures concentration
●

Collision Theory
● Particles must collide.
● Particles must have enough kinetic energy to overcome electron cloud repulsion to react. This is
called activation energy (Ea) and is directly proportional to the temperature in Kelvin.
● Particles must collide in the correct geometrical alignment (steric factor).

Sketch Maxwell-Bolzman energy distribution curves

-Activation Energy
-Enthalpy level diagram
-Exothermic and Endothermic reactions
-Average bond enthalpy & Calculations
-Hess law & Calculations
- Heat content(enthalpy of combustion calculation as per lab report)
- Empirical formula Calculations
-Order of reactions
-Rate constant
-Reaction mechanism