KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

ETB 2151: CURRICULUM STUDIES NOTES

STUDENTS’ STUDY MATERIAL FOR BACHELOR OF EDUCATION PRIMARY EXTERNAL (BEPE)

AND BACHELOR OF BACHELOR OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION EXTERNAL (BSNEE)

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THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM

The word "curriculum" began as a Latin word which means "a race" or "the course of a race"
(which in turn derives from the verb currere meaning "to run/to proceed").

The first known use in an educational context is in the Professio Regia, a work by University of
Paris which Professor Petrus Ramus published posthumously in 1576.The term subsequently
appears in University of Leiden records in 1582.

By the seventeenth century, the University of Glasgow also referred to its "course" of study as a
"curriculum", producing the first known use of the term in English in 1633. By the nineteenth
century, European universities routinely referred to their curriculum to describe both the
complete course of study (as for a degree in surgery) and particular courses and their content.

Todd (1965), defined curriculum as the planned educational experiences offered by a school
which can take place anywhere at any time in the multiple context of the school

Wilson (1990), defines the curriculum as ―Anything and everything that teaches a lesson,
planned or otherwise. He argues that humans are born learning, and therefore the curriculum
must encompass a combination of the hidden, informal, formal, political and societal curricula as
students learn continuously through experiences and modeled behaviours from their teachers and
other members of staff whether administrative, ancillary or otherwise.

Ralph Tyler (1949) also defined curriculum as all the learning of students which is planned by
and directed by the school to attain its educational goals.

While Taba (1962) and Wheeler (1978) conclude that these are planned experiences offered to
the learner under the guidance of the school.‟

Kerr (1968), defines curriculum as all the learning, which is planned and guided by school
whether it is carried on in groups or individually.‟

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In addition, Cecilia, ( ), argues that curriculum is the sequencing of educational foundations and
content, in relation to the amount of time available for the learning experiences, the
characteristics of the teaching institutions, the characteristics of the learning experiences, in
particular from the point of view of methods to be used, the resources for learning and teaching
(e.g. textbooks and new technologies), evaluation and teachers‘ profiles.

In fact, the term curriculum is mostly used to refer to the existing contract between society, the
State and educational professionals with regard to the educational experiences that learners
should undergo during a certain phase of their lives.

It defines:

(i) why;

(ii) what;

(iii) when;

(iv) where;

(v) how;

and (vi) with whom to learn.

Now, after analyzing these different but related definitions, we can conclude by saying that;
Curriculum is the totality of students / learners experiences that occur in the educational
process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of
the student‘s experiences in terms of the educator‘s or schools instructional goal.

DIMENSIONS OF SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Curriculum Dimensions can also be referred to as Curriculum facets. There are four major
dimensions of curriculum. These are Informal, Non – formal, Formal and Guidance and
Counselling.

Informal Curriculum

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This curriculum is not officially recognized. It is a type of curriculum which is not written
down. It is common in homes, religious institutions and the community. At home, an individual
undergoes an informal curriculum to learn bathing, brushing of teeth, eating, greeting, and
respect to elders, how to work and live with peers, toilet habits and many more. This curriculum
also involves training in some work like preparing different dishes for the family, washing
clothes, house cleaning and many others.

At school learners/ pupils learn these activities informally. Examples include; community work
periods, break, Lunch time, games and sports time, club and society‘s time

Characteristics of Informal Education

1. It‘s not officially organized

2. Assessment is not systematically done

3. No written certificates are awarded.

4. Learning is spontaneous

5. It is difficult to quantify especially at national level,

Non – Formal Curriculum

This is a type of curriculum which is written down and conducted in organized institutions but
those institutions are not directly supervised by Government. Most of these institutions tend to
provide basic skills like nursery teaching, tailoring, cosmetology and hair saloon.

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Formal Curriculum

This is sometimes known as the official curriculum. It is conducted in recognized institutions

common known as schools. It is based on an officially recognised syllabus. Usually national
examinations are conducted to evaluate the teaching. On completion of a particular level of
curriculum one attains a certificate. It is also a basis of promotion from one level to another and
also a basis for employment.

In Uganda, the Formal Curriculum for primary and secondary education is designed by the
National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC).

Aspects of the Formal Curriculum

Any appropriate school curriculum should have three major aspects of below:

Core-
Curriculum
(Academics)

Co- Hidden
Curriculu Curriculu
m m

This type of curriculum enables the curriculum implementers to address the three domains of an
individual

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The Core-Curriculum

It refers to the area of study, courses or subjects that students must understand in order to be
recognised as educated in the area. In other words, ‗core‘ refers to the ‗heart‘ of experiences
every learner must go through. The learner has no option but to study the prescribed course or
subjects.

In schools, this aspect is composed of the academic subjects. It caters for one particular part of
the learner, and that is the head. This is known as the Cognitive Domain. All subjects under this
category promote mainly the brain of the learner. This aspect of the curriculum is characterized
by tests and examinations. They form the major part of every school curriculum. Some examples
of the academics/Core curriculum include Mathematics, Sciences, and Languages.

Co-Curriculum

This aspect of the curriculum is conducted mostly outside the four walls of the classroom.
However it is an aspect which supplements the Core aspect of the curriculum. This particular
aspect of the curriculum promotes the development of skills in an individual by use of limbs.
Some examples include Games & Sports, Music Dance and Drama, Brick laying and Carpentry.
These activities address another part of an individual known as the Psychomotor Domain

Hidden Curriculum

This is another aspect of the curriculum which must be addressed in order to address the third
aspect of the individual known as the Affective Domain. It caters for values and discipline in an
individual. It is rarely examined but it makes a permanent impact on an individual.

Urevbu (1985), describes the hidden curriculum as the non-academic but educationally
significant component of schooling.

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CURRICULUM DETERMINANTS

The Term ―Curriculum Determinants‖ refers to factors that influence curriculum designing,
development and implementation.

Below are some of the factors:

1. Political factors /National Ideology and Policies

2. Economic factors
3. Social factors
4. Technological factors
5. Learner related factors

Political Factors
National ideology and philosophy have a tremendous influence on the education system.
Politics determines and defines the goals, content, learning experiences and evaluation strategies
in education. Curricular materials and their interpretation are usually heavily influenced by
political considerations and ambitions. Political considerations may play a part in the hiring of
personnel, funding, examination systems and the general impact on the learners. For example, if
the politicians emphasizes science as a key element for National development, then every major
curriculum activity will be geared towards sciences. Therefore National policies and National
Philosophy directs influences the curriculum.

Economic Factors
One of the reasons why education is financed by governments is to improve the country‘s
economy. Therefore, the national curriculum should concern itself with the requirements of the
economy. Perhaps you are wondering how the economy of the country affects the curriculum.
The children you teach will need to be employed. The skills needed by industry should be
translated into the content and learning experiences of these children. The skills, knowledge base
and attitudes required by industry should be developed in the classroom. You might have noticed
some advertisements for vacant posts in your local media. Employers have basic requirements.
Educational institutions find themselves working to meet these basic requirements academically
and professionally. As you are reading this, you might be thinking of acquiring a higher

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academic or professional qualification. This would enhance your upward social mobility. The
market forces dictate what should be included in the national curriculum. It also subtly
determines the quantity of learners at different levels.
As a teacher, you require classroom supplies such as: textbooks, charts, equipment, and
chemicals for science experiments. These are determined by Government budgets in line with
Government national income. When the national Income is high, then schools are likely to get
more funding, it is low, then little funding. More teachers are likely to be employed by
Government if National income increases. Schools are likely to get more Government support in
terms of text books, construction of libraries and laboratories and supply of other teaching
resources.
Individual family income also affects school budgets. When parents have high they are likely to
meet school needs, but when family incomes are low, parents are likely not pay fees and
therefore schools cannot meet their financial obligations like buying necessary materials and
other expenses like feeding teachers, paying the non-teaching staff and also paying for water and
electricity bills.

Social Factors
When you examine the curriculum being offered in your country, one question you may need to
deal with is the extent to which social factors or social considerations influenced the design of
the curriculum.

Society has its own expectations about the aims and objectives that should be considered when
designing a curriculum. It also has a perception of what the product of the school system should
look like. If the curriculum does not meet their expectations, then it is likely to fail. It is therefore
necessary for curriculum designers to consider sub - groups and sub – cultures in the society
which are found in a particular area and have their interests taken care of.

In Zimbabwe, for example, subjects such as sex education and political economy have proved
difficult to include in the curriculum because of the resistance from some religious groups. These
groups feel that including these subjects in the curriculum will undermine their belief systems.
The same groups of people would not tolerate a curriculum that does not include religious and

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moral education. Even in Uganda and other parts of Africa parents and other elders do not accept
the idea of talking about issues of growing up and sex openly.

The design of curricular materials and their presentation should accommodate the culture of the
society and the people of a particular religion that the curriculum is seeking to serve. You should,
however, be sensitive to the fact that the curriculum can be used to perpetuate inequities. You
may have a curriculum that is gender biased against female children because it includes
instructional materials that portray negative attitudes towards women and girls. It is therefore
possible for culture to have both positive and negative influences on the curriculum.

There are a number of groupings in the society in which you live. These can be professional
associations, cultural groups and religious organizations. The list is endless. These groups can
bring their views to bear on curriculum design. This is so because any curriculum of value must
result from the broad consultation of a wide range of stakeholders.

Technological Factors
Currently, technology is the order of the day. Most people these days use Automatic Teller
Machines (ATMs) to withdraw money from the bank. This requires some basic computer
knowledge. The best source of new content is the Internet. This also requires computer
knowledge. Phones are being used to conduct business. This also requires computer literacy.
It requires that if any teacher or learner is to get up-to-date content, he or she must be computer
literate. Many jobs today require computer knowledge to operate them. This calls for a
curriculum review to include Information and Communication Technology (ICT).

Learner Related Factors / Psychology

Psychology helps us to study Child growth and development. When we design a

curriculum, we must set the content, identify suitable methods and also develop
instructional materials which are in line with the age- bracket of the learners. In a
Learner- centered curriculum, learners interest take priority in deciding what to teach,
this calls for application of Psychology knowledge.

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MODELS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
Models of Curriculum Design can be compared to various fashions that tailors make.
Curriculum patterns might be designed following either the Objective Model or the Process
Model.

The Objectives Model

The objectives model of curriculum design contains content that is based on specific objectives.
These objectives should specify expected learning outcomes in terms of specific measurable
behaviors. This model comprises four main steps:
1. Agreeing on broad aims which are analyzed into objectives,
2. Constructing a curriculum to achieve these objectives,
3. Refining the curriculum in practice by testing its capacity to achieve its objectives,
4. Communicating the curriculum to the teachers through the conceptual framework of the
objectives.
Most curriculum designers like Tyler, Taba, Wheeler, Kerr followed this major model in forming
their curriculum designing models.

Tyler’s Model of Curriculum

The Tyler Model was developed by Ralph Tyler in the 1940‘s. It was the first model and it forms
the basis of other models of curriculum designing. It is the traditional approach for educational
planning and continues to be predominant in most African education systems. Ralph Tyler made
four considerations in curriculum development:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experiences
This is the simplest model of curriculum design. It takes a linear form. It is therefore
sometimes referred to as the Linear Model of Curriculum. Its format is indicated below.

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Tyler’s Linear Model

Objectives

Selection of Learning Experiences

Organisation of Learning Experiences

Evaluation

Tyler stated his curriculum rationale in terms of four questions which must be answered in
developing any curriculum and plan of instruction:
 What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
 What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
 How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
 How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

According to Tyler, educational objectives are a description of sources derived from the studies
of the learners‘ contemporary life and suggestions from subject matter specialists. He says that
once the statement of objectives is completed, the model proceeds to the selection of learning
experience and then organization of these learning experiences. After this, Tyler‘s model

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proceeds to the development of content / subject matter / knowledge to be passed on or stored, in
order to achieve the stated objectives. It then proceeds to learning experiences, which is the
interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment in which he or she
reacts while learning.

Tylers says that a learning experience should provide the learner with the opportunity to learn
actively as well as practice the kind of behavior intended by the objectives. Achievement of
learning objectives should be tested through evaluation of learners.
Its major characteristic is the belief which Tyler had, that the curriculum design process is in
straight form and once you reach evaluation, then the curriculum design process has ended.

Hilda Taba came up with a similar model but with a slightly different approach tus improving
Tyler‘s Model. Taba believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should
participate in developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the "grassroots approach" where
teachers could have a major input.
She presented seven major steps:
1. Diagnosis of needs.
The teacher (curriculum designer) starts the process by identifying the needs of the
students for whom the curriculum is to be planned
2. Formulation of learning objectives.
After the teacher has identified the needs that require attention, he or she specifies
objectives to be accomplished.
3. Selection of learning content.
The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum.
Not only should objectives and content match but also the validity and significance of the
content chosen needs to be determined.
4. Organization of learning content.
A teacher cannot just select content, but must organize it in some type of sequence,
taking into consideration the maturity of the learners, their academic achievement, and
their interests.
5. Selection of learning experiences.

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 According to Hilda, content must be presented to pupils and pupils must engage the
content. At this point, the teachers
select instructional methods that
will involve FORMULATION OF LEARNING students with the content.
OBJECTIVES 6. Organization of
learning activities.
Hilda further says that just as
content must be sequenced and organized, so must the learning activities. Often the
sequence of the learning activities is determined by the content. However , she says, the
teacher needs to keep in mind the particular students whom he or she will be teaching.

7. Evaluation and means of evaluation. The curriculum planner must determine just what
objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be considered by the
students and teachers.
The illustration follows below:

Hilda Taba’s Model

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 SELECTION OF CONTENT

SELECTION OF LEARNING
EXPERIENCES

ORGANISATION OF LEARNING
EXPERIENCES

EVALUATION

DIAGNOSIS OF NEEDS

These approaches under this model were

criticized by Wheeler. According to Wheeler, curriculum is a continuous process and should not

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abruptly stop at evaluation. Secondly he says, objectives should be derived from goals and aims
and not just objectives. Thirdly, Wheeler says that evaluation does not need to come at the end; it
can be carried out at any stage.
Wheeler further criticized Tyler‘s model as being simple and linear. He suggested a cyclic form
of curriculum planning. He offered a five stage model where he regarded evaluation not as a
terminal point, but a process that should take place at every stage of curriculum design, linked
with information from objectives goals and aims. He therefore came up with a cyclic model
known as the Wheeler‘s Model of Curriculum Design as shown below.
Wheeler’s Cyclic Model

Aims, Goals
Objectives
Selection of Learning
Experiences

Evaluation
Selection of Content

Organization and Integration

of Learning Experiences

Wheeler stresses the importance of the first step i.e. the formulation of objectives, however, he
highlighted the different levels of aims from the general to a specific ones, in planning the

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curriculum. He argued that the first step is the most important part of curriculum planning. He
differentiated between content and learning experiences.

However, critics of Wheeler like Kerr observe that it is similar to Tyler‘s model because,
Evaluation in Wheeler‘s model comes last, and although the model stresses a continuous process.
He therefore came up with a new model where Kerr asserts that everything influences everything
else and that it is possible to start an analysis at any point.

Kerr’s Model

Objectives Evaluation

Knowledge School Learning

Experiences

Most of the features in Kerr‘s model resemble those in Wheeler‘s and Tyler‘s models. However,
Kerr divided the domains into four areas namely;
 objectives,
 knowledge,
 evaluation, and
 School learning experiences.
What we should note about the model is that the four domains are interrelated directly or
indirectly, and that objectives are derived from school, learning experiences and knowledge.

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 In Kerr‘s model, objectives are divided into three groups; that is affective, cognitive and
psychomotor. The model further indicates that knowledge should be organized, integrated,
sequenced, and reinforced. In his model, Kerr asserts that everything influences everything
else and that it is possible to start an analysis at any point. He continues to say that in
designing a curriculum, we need to do the following
 Establish or obtain general goals of education.
 Reduce the general goals to specific instructional objectives, including objectives that
cover different domains and levels.
 Assess prior student knowledge and/or abilities.
 Break learning into small, sequential steps.
 Identify teacher behavior.
 Identify student behavior.
 Write a description of the lesson.
 Evaluate to see if the intended outcomes have been achieved.

The Process Model

Unlike the objectives model, this model does not consider objectives to be important. Using this
model presupposes that: Content has its own value. Therefore, it should not be selected on the
basis of the achievement of objectives.
The curriculum under this is planned basing on ten steps as shown below:

The Ten-step Curriculum Planning Process Model

1. Identify Curricular Need

2. Develop Goals and Objectives
3. Identify Resources and Restraints
4. Organize Curriculum Committees
5. Establish Roles of Personnel
6. Identify New Curriculum
7. Select New Curriculum
8. Design New Curriculum

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 9. Implement New Curriculum

10. Evaluate Curriculum

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Definition of Curriculum development ranges from any form of educational change to systematic
approach developing curriculum materials. Owen defines curriculum development as any form
of organization and instruction as any form of organization such as micro-teaching, team
teaching and vertical grouping Johnson defines it as a process whereby a set of planning learning
outcomes are derived at an educational institution. Therefore, curriculum development is
considered those deliberately planned activities through which courses of study or patterns of
educational activity are designed as a proposal for those in educational institutions. They are
steps we go through come out with a new curriculum.

Purposes of Curriculum Development

Curriculum Development is conducted in order to:

- improve the teaching and instructional materials.

- meet changing people‘s needs and interests

- detect weaknesses in the existing curriculum.

- accommodating new changes in the educational sector.

- reach market demands locally and internationally

Processes Involved in Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is a comprehensive, ongoing process that involves a series of stages.
Different scholars propose varied steps for the process. A number of steps have been identified,
but I have identified 12 different steps of curriculum development to make the entire process
exhaustive.

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Curriculum Development involves the following steps:

Step 1: Feasibility studies (Needs Assessment) to establish the existing gaps that necessitate a
need for improving, changing the existing curriculum or developing completely a new
curriculum.
These needs might be in relation to social, economic, political Technological and
environmental factors and changes which influence and affect education. In Chapter
three, we termed as Curriculum Determinants.

Activities under this step include:

 Examining Government documents such as development plans, International
Conventions and Declarations such as the Sustainable Development Goals. National
Examinations Results.
 Interviewing members of the community to the curriculum targets.
 Holding discussions with teachers.

Step 2: Determine and analyzing the data collected.

Step 3: Formulation of Aims, Goals and Objectives

Step 4: Content/ Program Building

This includes the identification of learning experiences; including decisions on content
building, methods to be used, then selection and development of instructional materials
and learning resources for both teachers and learners. It also includes identification of
institutional support facilities e.g. classrooms, workshops, laboratories, not forgetting
the qualifications of personnel (teachers, laboratory attendants, computer trained
personnel) to implement the curriculum.

Step 5: Try out / Pilot testing

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 This involves sampling some schools to test the content and samples of materials
developed before printing many copies.
Step 6: Review content and materials basing teachers‘ comments and observations made by
the curriculum designing team during the Pre- testing period.

Step 7: Develop / Print adequate materials ready for distribution.

Step 8: Launch the new curriculum and hand over the new curriculum and other materials
developed to the relevant officials who are to supervise the implementation of the
curriculum at lower levels. Disseminate information to other relevant stakeholders like
members the school governing bodies, foundation bodies and local leaders.

Step 9: Curriculum Implementation

This is conducted in schools by the teachers supported by school managers, parents and
other stake holders.

Step 10: Monitor to give support supervision to the curriculum implementers. This should take
place in the formative period of the curriculum implementation cycle.

Step 11: Evaluate the entire curriculum implementation process

Step 12: Report to different stakeholders leading to a review of the curriculum.

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TOPIC 4: CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION

As the environment changes and societies portray new needs, so does the curriculum keep
changing to address these needs. A change in the society will provoke changes in the school
curriculum since the school is a social institution serving the society. In this Topic we shall
examine the meaning of the terms change and innovation; explore the types of change including
minor, medium and major changes and discuss agencies of change. We shall also highlight the
importance of change and criteria for judging the value of change. Some of the criteria include
relative advantage of the change, compatibility (with previous curriculum) and trial ability of the
curriculum. Models of curriculum innovation are also presented.

Definition of concepts

Curriculum Change
Curriculum Change means a shift in position of a curriculum due to perceived need or
unforeseen circumstances.

Curriculum Innovation
Innovation means the introduction of something new that deviates from the standard practice.
Innovations are systematic and planned for. Innovations in education have specific and defined
characteristics.

Harris et al. (1995), describes innovation as an intentional and deliberate process to bring out
desired effects and change in addition, Harris says that curriculum innovation refers to ideas or
practices that are new and different from those that exist in the formal prescribed curriculum.

Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) identified basic criteria on the basis of which the value of an
innovation can be judged.

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Agencies of Curriculum Change

Agencies of change are institutions that contribute to various curriculum innovations. Some of
these institutions include Education institutions like Curriculum Development Centres, Research
Institutes, Schools, Colleges, Universities, Ministries of Education (all sections and
departments), Publishing firms, Examination bodies, Local Education Authorities, Teachers‘
Unions and Religious bodies, Opinion leaders, Community leaders and the entire public.

This involves the rearrangement of the curriculum in order to implement desired changes. It may
also involve the sharing of resources among a group of schools or institutions

Various determinants of curriculum innovation

Changes occur in the curriculum so that it can adjust to the economic, technological, social,
political, and ideological needs in the society.
Importance of Change
Curriculum change is inevitable in any society. This is because: There is no perfect curriculum
for all ages since society keeps on changing; hence, there is need for curriculum to change to
meet societal needs. Change links societal needs to school needs in order to bring out dynamic
personalities that can address societal needs effectively. Change leads to more effective and
efficient use of resources.
 outdated content that is irrelevant
 New technologies invented
 New approaches and methods of teaching to match with the changing learning styles
 Community challenges like HIV, floods, hunger, environmental degradation.
 Contemporary needs of the society
 Social factors such as beliefs, values, norms thus making the curriculum more relevant.
 Changes in the labor market
 Globalization
 Regional integration like the EAC making East African countries to adopt Kiswahili

Describe curriculum innovation process

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Curriculum Innovation Process involves the following stages:
(a) Initial disturbance
This is the pressure exerted to a system either from within or without. This disturbance
constitutes the problem to be dealt with.
(b) Feeling of need and decision to act on it;
(c) Diagnosis of problem;
(d) Search for solution to the problem
(e) Application of possible solution to solve the problem
(f ) Evaluation of the strategies applied to see whether it will successfully solve the problem
aligned with the philosophy of the society and the school, and rooted in sound educational
theory.

Models of curriculum innovation

Various scholars have proposed different models of innovation. For instance, Ronald Havelock
(1969) identified three main models of innovation as follows:
1. The Research, Development and Diffusion Model (R, D and D)
2. The Social Interaction Model (SI).
3. The Problem – Solving Method (P – S)

1. The Research, Development and Diffusion Model

In this model an idea or practice is conceived at the central planning unit and then fed into the
system. RD & D is effective where curriculum development is done on a large scale and ideas
have to reach wide geographical areas and isolated users. It is a highly organized, rational
approach to innovation. Following is a logical sequence of activities in using the RD & D model.
• Basic research by a central project team which develops a new curriculum, devises and designs
prototype materials.
• Field trials of the prototype materials and redesign them where necessary
• Mass production of the modified prototype materials
• Mass dissemination or diffusion of the innovation through courses, conferences, and
workshops.

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• Implementation of the innovation by the users (school, teachers and pupils)
The model can be summarized as follows:-

This model is used in countries which have centralized systems of education under Ministries of
Education. Many African countries fall under this category.
The model can be summarized as follows:-

Research Mass Mass

Development Production Diffusion User
of prototype

This model is used in countries which have centralized systems of education under Ministries of
Education. Many African countries fall under this category.
2. The Social Interaction Model (Periphery to Periphery Model)
This model operates through social interaction and emphasizes diffusion of messages from
person to person. It stresses the importance of interpersonal networks of information, of opinion
leadership, personal contacts and social integration.
The strategy takes the form of convincing administrators and teachers of the usefulness of a new
device or practice and enabling them to see for themselves the new practitioner using the
innovation. Individuals involved are the ones to implement the innovations. The process involves
individuals rather than groups and organizations. It is unplanned and informal hence slow in
development.
This unplanned process can be made more systematic by structuring and
Coordinating the contacts between groups and individuals interested in curriculum development.
This can be done through courses, conferences, visitations. In social interaction model, the
central agency acts merely as a coordinator or communicator of ideas rather than being the
generator of ideas. Ideas are generated at the periphery and communicated via the center
to other points on the periphery.

3. The Problem Solving Model (Periphery – Centre approach)

This model is based on the assumption that an innovation is part of a problem solving process.

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The following steps are characteristic of the problem solving model:
• A need is identified
• Need is translated into a problem which is then diagnosed
• Diagnosis leads to search for solutions
• Possible solutions are evaluated – the innovation which provides the best solution is then tested
for its effectiveness
• Implementation of innovation.
Source: Bishop (1985) p. 182

The problem – solving method is referred to as a periphery – centre approach to

innovation. The innovations are initiated, generated and applied by the teachers and schools on
the basis of their needs. Such innovation has strong user commitment and the best chance for
long term survival.
In this model the receiver is actively involved in finding an innovation to solve his/her own
unique problem. This model is flexible enough to encompass all types of innovations, including
materials, methods, and groupings of learners.
Thus the problem – solving model is local in nature, usually limited in size, and
may not be of high quality compared with more centralized approaches to curriculum
development.

LEARNING: MEANING, NATURE, TYPES AND THEORIES OF

LEARNING!

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Learning

Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If we compare the simple,
crude ways in which a child feels and beahaves, with the complex modes of adult behaviour, his
skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we will know what difference learning has made
to the individual.

Theory;

Learning theory (education)Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how
information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning.

Three learning theories:

Behaviorism.

Cognitive Information Processing (Cognitivism)

Constructivism.

Cognitive Learning" as the function based on how a person processes and reasons information. It
revolves around many factors, including problem-solving skills, memory retention, thinking
skills and the perception of learned material.

Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and
discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing
more than the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions.

The theory suggests that humans construct knowledge and meaning from their
experiences. Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy. Piaget's theory ofConstructivist
learning has had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods
in education and is an underlying theme of many educationreform movements.

Constructivist teaching is based on constructivist learning theory.Constructivist teaching is based

on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning and
knowledge construction as opposed to passively receiving information. Learners are the makers
of meaning and knowledge.

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The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment. This experience
makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively with it. Therefore,
learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour. As stated above the skills,
knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests and other personality characteristics are all the result of
learning.

Learning is defined as ―any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
practice and experience‖. This definition has three important elements.

a. Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.

b. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due to growth or
maturation are not learning.

c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly long time.

All learning involves activities. These activities involve either physical or mental activities. They
may be simple mental activities or complex, involving various muscles, bones, etc. So also the
mental activities may be very simple involving one or two activities of mind or complex which
involve higher mental activities.

What activities are learned by the individual refer to types of learning. For example, habits,
skills, facts, etc. There are different types of learning. Some of the important and common
learning activities are explained here.

Types of Learning:

1. Motor learning:

Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn
them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving,
climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination.

2. Verbal learning:

This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs,
pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words
for communication.

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3. Concept learning:

It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning,
intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog
and attach the term ‗dog‘, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept
learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful
in recognising, identifying things.

4. Discrimination learning:

Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is
called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car,
ambulance, etc.

5. Learning of principles:

Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to
manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or
more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.

6. Problem solving:

This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such
as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to
overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.

7. Attitude learning:

Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different
attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour
may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards
her profession, patients, etc.

Theories of Learning:

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Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they learn. They have conducted
many experiments on animals and children and come to certain definite conclusions which
explain the modes of learning.

These are called as theories of learning. In many books, these explanations are treated as kinds of
learning. In a sense it is true. But the term learning is very comprehensive. It covers a wide range
of activities which cannot be explained within a limited framework. There are many theories
explaining modes of learning. Important among them are:

Trial and Error Learning Theory:

This theory was developed by an American psychologist EL Thorndike (1874-1949). He argues

that learning takes place through trial and error method. According to him learning is a gradual
process where the individual will make many attempts to learn. The essence of this theory is-as
the trials increase, the errors decrease.

This is possible because of association formed between sense impressions and impulses to
action. Such an association comes to be known as a ‗bond‘ or a ‗connection, because it is these
bonds or connections which become strengthened or weakened in making and breaking of habits.
According to this theory when an individual is placed in a new situation, he makes a number of
random movements. Among them, those which are unsuccessful are eliminated and the
successful ones are fixed.

These random movements are not eliminated at once. In the first attempt their number is very
large, in the second attempt the number of errors diminishes and the range of activity becomes
narrower. Gradually the individual learns to avoid unnecessary movements and reaches the goal.
Improvement takes place through repetition.

Thorndike studies the character of trial and error learning in a number of experiments on cats-
using a box which he called ‗puzzle box‘. In one of the experiments a hungry cat was placed in
the box and the door was closed which could be opened by pressing a Latch. A fish was placed
outside the box in a plate.

The cat could see this fish. The cat was given 100 trials-ten in the morning and ten in each
afternoon for five days. The cat was fed at the end of each experimental period and then was

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given nothing more to eat until after the next session. If, succeeded in opening the door in any
trial by chance, he went to eat food (fish). A complete record was made of the cat‘s behaviour
during each trial.

In the beginning the cat made a number of random movements like biting, clawing, dashing, etc.
gradually in subsequent trials the cat reduced the incorrect responses (errors), as it was in a
position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box.

This experiment revealed that the random movements were decreased gradually, that is-as the
trials increased the errors decreased. As the trials increased the solution to open the door
(pressing the latch) was discovered and at the end, the cat could open the door with zero error.
The time taken in each trial was eventually reduced.

Thorndike conducted many experiments with maze and puzzle box learning in which cats and
rats were used. He has demonstrated that through numerous trials the animal learns much and
gradually improves his effort.

We all learn many skills like swimming, cycling, riding, etc., through this method. Children learn
to sit, stand, walk, and run by this method only. However, this method involves considerable
waste of time and effort.

Learning by Conditioning:

In literal sense, conditioning means ‗getting used‘ to, or ‗adjusted ‗to a new situation, or a
stimulus. It is a process of substituting the original stimulus by a new one and connecting the
response with it. There are two types of conditioning theories:

1. Classical conditioning:

This method of conditioning got its name from the fact that, it is a kind of learning situation that
existed in the early classical experiments of Ivan P Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist
who was awarded Nobel Prize, in 1904 for his experiments.

Pavlov designed an apparatus to measure the quantity of saliva produced in response to food
(meat power). At the beginning of his experiment Pavlov noted that no saliva flowed when he
rang the bell. He then trained the dog by sounding the bell, and shortly afterwards presenting
food.

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After the sound of the bell had been paired with food a few times, he tested the effects of the
training by measuring the amount of saliva that flowed when he rang the bell and did not present
food. He found that some saliva was produced in response to the sound of the bell alone. He then
resumed the training-paired presentation of bell and food a few times and then tested again with
the bell alone.

As the training continued, the amount of saliva on tests with the bell alone increased. Thus, after
training the dog‘s mouth watered-salivated- whenever the bell was sounded. This is what was
learned; it is the conditioned response.

This theory states that CS (bell) becomes a substitute after pairing with UCS (food) and acquires
the capacity to elicit a response. It is because the association (conditioning) is formed between
CS and UCS. This may be symbolically presented as follows:

UCS<———————————à UCR

(Food) (Saliva)

↓ (Conditioning)

CS<————————————-à CR

(Bell) (Saliva)

Sub-principles of Classical Conditioning:

There are certain sub-principles which explain the different phenomena of this experiment.

a. Extinction and spontaneous recovery:

Extinction means cessation of a response. The strength of the CS gradually decreases when it is
presented alone and not followed by UCS for a number of trails. This process is called
‗extinction‘. In this experiment when only bell is presented without food for a number of trials,
the dog stopped salivation gradually.

But when the CS (bell) was paired again with UCS (food) for some trials, the CR (salivation)
recovered. This is known as ‗spontaneous recovery‘. In spontaneous recovery the dog required
less number of trials than the first time, because the association between CS and UCS still
existed in the brain of the animal.

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b. Stimulus generalization:

A tendency to respond to a stimulus which is similar to original one is called stimulus

generalization, the greater the similarity, the more the generalization. In this experiment, the dog
started salivating even for the sound of a buzzer which was similar to bell.

c. Stimulus discrimination:

When there is much difference between two stimuli, the animal can discriminate between the
two. For example, if the dog is conditioned to salivate at the signal of red light, it will not
salivate when green light is presented.

d. Higher order conditioning:

If a ‗light‘ is presented followed by bell and then by food for a number of trials, the dog will start
salivating to light itself. This phenomenon is called higher order condition.

All these principles are very useful in behaviour therapy. Conditioning is not confined only to the
laboratory.

In our day-to- day‘s life we come across many instances of such learning. For example, a small
child who does not know, touches a burning candle, it gives him a painful experience and
withdraws his hand. Later this experience will make him withdraw from burning objects and
avoid them all together.

Conditioning is used as psychotherapeutic technique very effectively in the treatment of

abnormal behaviours such as phobias, alcoholism, enuresis, etc. These are called behaviour
modification techniques. Watson and others have conducted many experiments to prove the
usefulness of this method.

2. Operant Conditioning:

This method of conditioning was developed by an American psychologist BF Skinner. This

theory is also known as ‗Instrumental conditioning‘, because the animals use certain operations
or actions as instruments to find solution.

Behaviorist Learning Theory in the Classroom

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In the behaviorist learning theory, the idea is to create specific behaviors through rewards for
wanted behaviors and consequences for unwanted behaviors. When it is applied to a classroom
setting, it becomes a method of operant conditioning. It is used to not to help children understand
the benefits of following the rules through a logical debate, but through the use of positive and
negative reinforcement.

With the behaviorist learning theory in the classroom, there are four basic types of reinforcement
that can be used.

Positive Reinforcement. This is an immediate reinforcement of a wanted behavior when it is

observed. Giving a student verbal praise for a wanted behavior is a common form of positive
reinforcement that teachers offer to students.

Negative Reinforcement. Instead of offering a student a compliment, this type of reinforcement

tells a student that their behavior is not wanted. The goal isn‘t to embarrass the student, but to
offer an alternative behavior that could bring about a desired reward.

Presentation Punishment. This option is often used as a form of showing an entire class what will
create a negative reinforcement response. If Johnny keeps yelling during story time, a teacher
might bring the student up to the front of the class and then tell Johnny that his behavior is
inappropriate at that moment. The goal here is to embarrass the student, but to also encourage
other students not to be embarrassed by not replicating Johnny‘s behavior.

Removal Reinforcement. This may be used by removing a disruptive student with negative
behaviors from the classroom. It may also be used through a period of negotiation so that a
teacher gets what they want, but a student can also have something that they want.

Each reinforcement opportunity has specific benefits and disadvantages that must be considered
before it is implemented in a classroom setting.

Pros and Cons of Positive Reinforcement

Pros
It offers an immediate reinforcement of a wanted behavior. Specific statements of praise help to

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reinforce the compliment being offered. Specific actions, such as ―clipping up‖ or ―earning a
star,‖ can also be included to initiate rewards.

Cons
Some students aren‘t motivated by rewards. They don‘t care about the classroom setting and will
not respond to the positive reinforcement opportunities.

Pros and Cons of Negative Reinforcement

Pros
It creates an immediate ―consequence‖ for an unwanted behavior. Some students may hear this
consequence and not want to have it themselves, which will modify their behavior. It can create
immediate change within a student who is motivated by rewards.

Cons
Some students are not motivated by a negative reinforcement either. ―Who cares what you
think?‖ Their behaviors are more about their individual needs and those needs don‘t involve the
classroom setting.

Pros and Cons of Presentation Punishment

Pros
It impacts the entire classroom. You‘re able to modify the behavior of a large group by using an
unwanted behavior from one individual. It can address a specific and potentially dangerous
unwanted behavior immediately.

Cons
It causes the student being used as a presentation to be targeted by other students. They may
make fun of that student or not want to be associated with them. Some students are sensitive and
may resent being used as an example toward other students, which increases the number and the
aggressiveness of their unwanted individuals.

Pros and Cons of Removal Reinforcement

Pros
It is a way to meet the needs of a specific student without disrupting the entire class. It may

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remove an unwanted behavior from the classroom immediately. Removal minimizes impact
while allowing learning progression. It takes away something that a student sees as ―good,‖
which encourages them to ―earn it back‖ with wanted behaviors.

Cons
It may encourage a student to continue offering unwanted behaviors so they can get their way.
They learn that there is a direct connection between behaving ―badly‖ and getting what they
want. It may cause other students in the classroom setting to behave in the same way so they can
receive ―special treatment‖ as well.

Which Option Is Right for Teachers Today?

Teachers should be using all of these options when appropriate to address wanted and unwanted
behaviors in the classroom. The goal should always be to avoid an unpleasant consequence, but
sometimes a punishment is necessary to remove an unwanted behavior. Teachers should never
belittle a student. They should always be looking for a way to generate a positive outcome.

And behaviorist learning theory in the classroom works best when an individualized approach is
taken. A group consequence creates resentment in students who weren‘t involved. Group
rewards only reinforce unwanted behaviors in those who weren‘t meeting expectations. By
finding the middle ground, the classroom can really become a good learning environment.

What is Constructivism?

Constructivism is a view of learning based on the belief that knowledge isn't a thing that can be
simply given by the teacher at the front of the room to students in their desks. Rather, knowledge
is constructed by learners through an active, mental process of development; learners are the
builders and creators of meaning and knowledge. Constructivism draws on the develomental
work of Piaget (1977) and Kelly (1991). Twomey Fosnot (1989) defines constructivism by
reference to four principles: learning, in an important way, depends on what we already know;
new ideas occur as we adapt and change our old ideas; learning involves inventing ideas rather
than mechanically accumulating facts; meaningful learning occurs through rethinking old ideas
and coming to new conclusions about new ideas which conflict with our old ideas. A productive,
constructivist classroom, then, consists of learner-centered, active instruction. In such a

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classroom, the teacher provides students with experiences that allow them to hypothesize,
predict, manipulate objects, pose questions, research, investigate, imagine, and invent. The
teacher's role is to facilitate this process.

Piaget (1977) asserts that learning occurs by an active construction of meaning, rather than by
passive recipience. He explains that when we, as learners, encounter an experience or a situation
that conflicts with our current way of thinking, a state of disequilibrium or imbalance is created.
We must then alter our thinking to restore equilibrium or balance. To do this, we make sense of
the new information by associating it with what we already know, that is, by attempting to
assimilate it into our existing knowledge. When we are unable to do this, we accommodate the
new information to our old way of thinking by restructuring our present knowledge to a higher
level of thinking.

Similar to this is Kelly's theory of personal constructs (Kelly, 1991). Kelly proposes that we look
at the world through mental constructs or patterns which we create. We develop ways of
construing or understanding the world based on our experiences. When we encounter a new
experience, we attempt to fit these patterns over the new experience. For example, we know from
experience that when we see a red traffic light, we are supposed to stop. The point is that we
create our own ways of seeing the world in which we live; the world does not create them for us.

Constructivist beliefs have recently been applied to teaching and learning in the classroom.

Why Is Constructivism Important?

Educational curricula and teaching methods are changing. One component of the current
redevelopment of all subject area curricula is the change in focus of instruction from the
transmission curriculum to a transactional curriculum. In a traditional curriculum, a teacher
transmits information to students who passively listen and acquire facts. In a transactional
curriculum, students are actively involved in their learning to reach new understandings.

Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners.
Zemelman, Daniels, and Hyde (1993) tell us that learning in all subject areas involves inventing
and constructing new ideas. They suggest that constructivist theory be incorporated into the
curriculum, and advocate that teachers create environments in which children can construct their

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own understandings . Twomey Fosnot (1989) recommends that a constructivist approach be used
to create learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers who question, investigate, and
reason. A constructivist approach frees teachers to make decisions that will enhance and enrich
students' development" in these areas. These are goals that are consistent with those stated by
Saskatchewan Education in the the 1984 government report, Directions, that launched the
restructuring of Saskatchewan's curricula. This demonstrates that constructivism is evident in
current educational change.

The Constructivist Classroom

A constructivist teacher and a constructivist classroom exhibit a number of discernable qualities

markedly different from a traditional or direct instruction classroom. A constructivist teacher is
able to flexibly and creatively incorporate ongoing experiences in the classroom into the
negotiation and construction of lessons with small groups and individuals. The environment is
democratic, the activites are interactive and student centered, and the students are empowered by
a teacher who operates as a facilitator/consultant.

Constructivist classrooms are structured so that learners are immersed in experiences within
which they may engage in meaning-making inquiry, action, imagination, invention, interaction,
hypothesizing and personal reflection. Teachers need to recognize how people use their own
experiences, prior knowledge and perceptions, as well as their physical and interpersonal
environments to construct knowledge and meaning. The goal is to produce a democratic
classroom environment that provides meaningful learning experiences for autonomous learners.

This perspective of learning presents an alternative view of what is regarded as knowledge,

suggesting that there may be many ways of interpreting or understanding the world. No longer is
the teacher is seen as an expert, who knows the answers to the questions she or he has
constructed, while the students are asked to identify their teacher's constructions rather than to
construct their own meanings. In a constructivist classroom, students are encouraged to use prior
experiences to help them form and reform interpretations. This may be illustrated by reference to
a personal response approach to literature, a constructivist strategy first articulated by Rosenblatt
(1938). Rosenblatt (1978) argues for a personal and constructive response to literature whereby
students' own experiences and perceptions are brought to the reading task so that in transacting

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with that text, the realities and interpretations which the students construct are their own. A
reader response approach to literature rejects the idea that all students should necessarily come to
the same interpretation of a selection of literature, that single interpretation being the teacher's or
someone else's. A reader response approach allows students to explore variant interpretations,
the teacher's own interpretation being only one possible interpretation in the classroom.

In a traditional classroom, an invisible and imposing, at times, impenetrable, barrier between

student and teacher exists through power and practice. In a constructivist classroom, by contrast,
the teacher and the student share responsibility and decision making and demonstrate mutual
respect. The democratic and interactive process of a constructivist classroom allows students to
be active and autonomous learners. Using constructivist strategies, teachers are more effective.
They are able to promote communication and create flexibility so that the needs of all students
can be met. The learning relationship in a constructivist classroom is mutually beneficial to both
students and teachers.

A Construcivist Classroom is Student-Centered

A Construcivist Classroom is a Student-Centered Classroom. The student-centeredness of a

constructivist classroom is clearly apparent in a reader response approach to literature.
Recognizing the significance of the unique experiences that each reader brings to the reading of a
selection of literature, the teacher in a response-centered approach seeks to explore the
transaction between the student and the text to promote or extract a meaningful response
(Rosenblatt, 1978). This places the student in a central position in the classroom since exploring
this transaction seems unlikely to occur unless the teacher is willing to relinquish the traditional
position of sole authority, thereby legitimating the unique experiences that all members of the
class bring to the reading rather than just those experiences the teacher brings. The resulting
perception and effect in the classroom is evident in students' recognition that the discussion is a
legitimate one involving questions to which nobody knows the answer. It isn't a treasure hunting
game where they are trying to guess what is in their teacher's head, but a process that creates
meaning and knowledge.

From a constructivist perspective, where the student is perceived as meaning-maker, teacher-

centered, text-centered and skills-oriented approaches to literature instruction are replaced by

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more student-centered approaches where processes of understanding are emphasized. In a
discussion of language arts instruction based on constructivist theories of language use and
language development, Applebee (1993) suggests that

[r]ather than treating the subject of English as subject matter to be memorized, a constructivist
approach treats it as a body of knowledge, skills, and strategies that must be constructed by the
learner out of experiences and interactions within the social context of the classroom. In such a
tradition, understanding a work of literature does not mean memorizing someone else's
interpretations, but constructing and elaborating upon one's own within the constraints of the text
and the conventions of the classroom discourse community. (p. 200)

A constructivist student-centered approach places more focus on students learning than on

teachers teaching. A traditional perspective focuses more on teaching. From a constructivist
view, knowing occurs by a process of construction by the knower. Lindfors (1984) advises that
how we teach should originate from how students learn.

CHILD CENTRED METHODOLOGIES.

Think-pair-shere.

Learning is a collaborative venture. The more we can provide opportunities for our students to
think, collaborate and learn from each other – the more we are preparing them for their futures!

Do you use the strategy Think-Pair-Share in your classroom? The Think-Pair-Share strategy is
a three-step collaborative learning structure developed by Dr. Frank Lyman in 1981. It is a
relatively low-risk and is ideally suited for instructors and students who are new to collaborative
learning. Each component is equally important in the process and shouldn‘t be short-changed.

The General Strategy: Think-Pair-Share –

Teacher asks a question or provides a prompt.

Students are given time to THINK about their responses.

Students PAIR up and discuss their responses.

Student pairs SHARE their ideas with a larger group.

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Do you want to spice it up with additional variations?

The strategy Think-Pair-Share, along with a variety of twists, is a versatile strategy that can be
used before, during or after a reading, viewing or listening activity. It incorporates elements of
strategies that are known to increase learning (summarizing, comparing/contrasting, restating an
idea, collaboration, think time, and using different learning modalities).

Fran McVeigh challenged me in my last blog post, Check for Understanding, to think in terms of
no-tech and tech variations. I have included some tech variations at the end of this blog. I would
love to hear other ideas in the comment section!

NO-TECH VARIATIONS

Think-Pair-Share (Listen) – When student are sharing ideas with their partner remind them to
listen to their partner‘s ideas. When groups are asked to share, students share the idea of their
partner – not their own.

Think-Pair-Square – Students share with two other students after they have completed Think-
Pair-Share (4-square).

Think-Pair-Pod-Share – A ―Pod‖ is a sharing with a small group (a table group) – prior to

sharing with the whole group. Students first share with a partner. Then bring all thoughts
together as a table (pod) prior to sharing out with whole group.

Think-Write/Draw-Share – Students write or draw their own ideas before they pair up to
discuss them with a partner. This allows students to more fully develop their own ideas before
sharing.

Think-Pair-Share (reading strategies) – During ―think‖ part students are asked to think in
terms of summarizing, questioning, predicting, visualizing.

Once students understand all four of these areas, groups can be asked to use a variety in a single
―think-pair-share‖. (One (or more) groups summarize, one (or more) groups visualize, etc…)

Think-Pair-Share (various perspectives) – After posing a question, ask pairs to ―think‖ in

terms of a different perspective.

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A character in a story, a career, a historical figure. Etc…

Formulate-Share-Listen-Create –

Formulate your answer to the question individually.

Share your answer with your partner.

Listen carefully to your partner‘s answer. Note similarities and differences in your answers.

Create a new answer that incorporates the best of the ideas.

Be prepared to present your answer if called upon.

Mix-Pair-Share –

Students silently mix around the room. NO TALKING!

Teacher calls ―pair.‖

Students pair up with the person closest to them and shake hands.

Students who haven‘t found a partner raise their hand to find each other.

Teacher asks a question and gives think time.

Students share with their partner per teacher instructions.

Round robin

Round Robin Brainstorming or Rally Robin are a strategies when the class is divided into
small groups of 4 to 6 students per group with one person appointed as the recorder. A question
is posed by the teacher with many possible answers and students are given time to think about
answers.

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How to Use the Round Robin Discussion Teaching Strategies

Brainstorming is a process teachers use as part of their teaching strategies to help students
generate ideas. It is a great educational tool that encourages critical thinking and student
participation. Many teachers use these brainstorming teaching strategies to facilitate
cooperative learning. In a traditional brainstorming session, students may be in a whole-group
setting, where the teacher encourages students to raise their hands to share their ideas.
Unfortunately, in this type of setting, not all students get the opportunity to share their opinions.
However, when using the Round Robin discussion teaching strategies, all students in the group
get an equal chance to share.

Here we will take a brief look at what the Round Robin discussion strategy is and how you can
effectively use it in your classroom.

Teaching Strategies: The Round Robin

The Round Robin strategy is a brainstorming strategy where students are situated around a table
in an academic discussion. Like other brainstorming sessions, students generate ideas on a
specific topic or question. However, with this strategy, there is equal participation among
students as well as multiple discussions taking place.

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Equal Participation – The most effective thing about this strategy is that each student within the
group has an equal opportunity to participate in the discussion. One student leads the discussion,
then each student takes her turn voicing their opinion on the topic. In some cases, one student
will be assigned the recorder where their job is to record everything that each student says. If the
teacher finds that students are talking out of turn then sometimes they will use ―Talking chips,‖
where students must turn in one chip each time they voice their opinion.

Group Discussions – Tables are arranged around the classroom and positioned so that there are
multiple brainstorming discussions taking place at one time. When the timer goes off or when the
teachers says, each group moves to another table where the topic is different. Once groups have
rotated to all tables, the Round Robin discussion strategy is over.

How to Use it

Follow these steps to effectively use the Round Robin Discussion strategy in your classroom.

Steps:

The best way to implement this strategy into your classroom is to first think of the topic that you
want students to discuss.

Next, decide on the amount of questions or topics you would like to be discussed so you know
how many tables/groups you will need.

Arrange the desks or tables so that discussion flows nicely and students can move about easily.
Also, consider the placement so that groups won‘t be distracted by other groups.

Give each table one discussion sheet (preferably a different color) along with a variety of
different-colored pens (this will help distinguish groups from one another). Assign one person
the leader of the group and another the recorder.

Set a timer for each group. Also, give groups tokens so when it‘s each student‘s turn to talk, they
must turn in a token. This helps the groups move along.

Once each group has gone (and before they move to the next group), have the leader present their
group‘s ideas.

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Tips to Making it Effective

Follow these tips to ensure that you are implementing an effective brainstorming discussion
strategy.

Try to make groups as diverse as you can. Do not make them too small or too large. The ideal
size is about four students to a group, two boys and two girls.

After posing the question or topic idea, make sure that you give students a few minutes to think
about it versus having them answer right away. The ideal think time is about one to three
minutes.

Use the three-step method when implanting this strategy: 1. Pose the question (What are the
planets are in our solar system). 2. Have students take turns brainstorming the answers (mars,
earth, etc.). 3. Have the recorder write down the answers then the leader read them back to the
group.

Use the Round Robin Discussion teaching strategies to ensure equal participation by all students
as well as a means to enhance a collaborative group learning environment.

Child to child approach

The Child-to Child Approach refers to a style of child empowerment where children are
active participants in their own development and the development of other children. This
approach is based on the belief that children, from whatever circumstances, are capable
of helping themselves. The approach assumes that children will gain more from their
development if they are active participants in the development process rather than passive
recipients.

Consequently, programs employing the Child-to-Child Approach aim to empower

children with skills, knowledge and attitude to enhance not only themselves but to give
them the ability to reach out to other children. Children who have acquired the
appropriate skills, knowledge and attitude though various training programs are then able
to share those assets with other children, in a variety of venues and using a variety of

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mediums. Children who are able to effectively share their skills with other children
generally are good leaders, role models, and facilitators.

INCLUSIVE LEARNING AND USE OF PARTICIPATORY TEACHING APPROACHES

Inclusive teaching refers to the ways in which pedagogy, curricular and assessment are designed
and delivered to engage students in learning that is meaningful, relevant and accessible to all.
Inclusive learning and teaching recognizes all students‘ entitlement to a learning experience that
respects, diversity, enables participation, removes barrier and anticipates and considers a variety
of learning needs and preferences. It is the design and delivery of teaching and assessment
methods that allows all students to engage meaningfully with the curriculum and achieve their
full potential.

‗If you have a one size fit-all and expect everyone to be able to do the same thing and talk to
them in the same language and not think about different peoples‘ needs ten some people are
going to find it a struggle.‘

Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that address the needs
of students with a variety of backgrounds, learning modalities and abilities. Inclusive teaching-
learning practices are instrumental in creating and maintaining a learning environment in which
all participants are fully engaged and respected and in which all participants are open to ideas,
perspectives and ways of thinking that are distinct from their own. Inclusive teaching takes into
consideration cultural diversity or differences related to identity and experiences. These are
considered crucial in learning. The practice of inclusive teaching involves consciously working
to foster learning across differences by acknowledging biases that can undermine a student‘s
sense of belonging. It involves designing courses and learning activities while being are of power
differences within the classroom and psycho-social factors that can affect learning

Everyone has his or her own learning habits. Some people learn fast with books, others learn
better from peers, others by seeing, others learn better through group work and others through
demonstrations. Because different people have different learning habits, there is need to develop
flexible teaching-learning methods to cater for these unique differences. It is believed that there

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is no single best way. To cater for different needs of learners, you need to adopt active
participation for all learners.

Participatory approaches to learning

Participatory approaches are active methods that encourage people to think for themselves.
Participants actively contribute to teaching and learning rather than passively receiving
information from outside experts. Active learning helps to satisfy the learning needs of learners.
Learning is not just a teacher giving information, learning is an active process where a learner
goes through an experience and learns from it.

Physical environment- includes facilities, space, provisions for learners with disabilities

Psychological environment- considers the atmosphere that enables learner participation, this is
dependent on whether a learner is respected, listened to and whether he or she is relaxed. It also
includes expressing opinion freely. It also involves peer learning where fast learners can help
others.

Participatory methods

 Demonstration
 Group discussions
 Field visits
 Role play
 Simulations
 Drama

Techniques of participatory learning

 Brainstorming
 Story telling
 Think, pair and share
 Use of audio-visuals eg projectors, Television
 Use of learners everyday experience and skills
 Small group discussions

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 Games
 Use of different types of questions: open and closed questions
 Use of questions that probe thinking and understanding
 Use of pair work to promote dialogue

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