Syllabus: Introduction, Symmetrical Component Transformation, Phase Shift in Star-Delta Transformers,

Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines, Sequence Impedances and Sequence Network of Power System,
Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous Machine, Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines,
Sequence Impedances and Networks of Transformers, Construction of Sequence Networks of a Power System.

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Symmetrical Component Transformation

3.3 Phase Shift in Star-Delta Transformers

3.4 Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines

3.5 Sequence Impedances and Sequence Network of Power System

3.6 Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous Machine

3.7 Sequence Impedances and Networks of Transformers

3.8 Construction of Sequence Networks of a Power System

3.9 Worked Examples

3.1 Introduction

Power systems are large and complex three-phase systems. In the normal operating conditions, these
systems are in balanced condition and hence can be represented as an equivalent single phase system. However,
a fault can cause the system to become unbalanced. Specifically, the unsymmetrical faults: open circuit, LG,
LL, and LLG faults cause the system to become unsymmetrical. The single-phase equivalent system method of
analysis (using SLD and the reactance diagram) cannot be applied to such unsymmetrical systems. Now the
question is how to analyze power systems under unsymmetrical conditions? There are two methods available

The method of symmetrical components developed by C.L. Fortescue in 1918 is a powerful technique
for analyzing unbalanced three phase systems. Fortescue defined a linear transformation from phase components
to a new set of components called symmetrical components. This transformation represents an unbalanced three-
phase system by a set of three balanced three-phase systems. The symmetrical component method is a modeling
technique that permits systematic analysis and design of three-phase systems. Decoupling a complex three-
phase network into three simpler networks reveals complicated phenomena in more simplistic terms.

Consider a set of three-phase unbalanced voltages designated as Va, Vb, and Vc. According to Fortescue
theorem, these phase voltages can be resolved into following three sets of components.

1. Positive-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other
by 1200 in phase, and having the same phase sequence as the original phasors, designated as Va1, Vb1, and
Vc1
2. Negative-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other
by 1200 in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors, designated as Va2,
Vb2, and Vc2
3. Zero-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, and with zero phase
displacement from each other, designated as Va0, Vb0, and Vc0

Since each of the original unbalanced phasors is the sum of its components, the original phasors expressed
in terms of their components are

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0

 Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0

The synthesis of a set of three unbalanced phasors from the three sets of symmetrical components is shown in
Figure 3.1.

Fig 3.1: Graphical addition of symmetrical components to obtain unbalanced phasors.

3.2 Symmetrical Component Transformation

A set of three balanced voltages (phasors) Va, Vb, Vc is characterized by equal magnitudes and interphase
differences of 1200. The set is said to have a phase sequence abc (positive sequence) if, Vb lags Va by l200 and
Vc lags Vb by I200. The three phasors can then be expressed in terms of the reference phasor Va as
2
Va = Va, Vb Va, Vc Va
where the complex number operator is defined as
=ej120
It has the following properties
If the phase sequence is acb (negative sequence), then

Suffix 1 is commonly used to indicate positive sequence. A set of (balanced) positive sequence phasors is written
as

Similarly, suffix 2 is used to indicate negative sequence. A set of (balanced) negative sequence phasors is written
as

A set of three voltages (phasors) equal in magnitude and having the same phase is said to have zero sequence.
Thus a set of zero sequence phasors is written as
Va0, Vb0 = Va0 , Vc0 = Va0

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0

Let us now express above expression in terms of reference phasors, thus

These equations can be expressed in matrix form

Or,

We can write Vp=AVs as

Computing A-1, we get

In the expanded form,

The above equations give the relationship for obtaining original phasors from symmetrical components.

The symmetrical component transformations though given above in terms of voltages hold for any set of phasors
and therefore automatically apply for a set of currents. Thus,

Of course A and A-1 are same as given earlier.

In the expanded form the current relations are given by

Certain observations can now be made regarding a three-phase system with neutral return as shown in Fig 3.2

Fig 3.2: Three phase system with neutral return

The sum of the three line voltages will always be zero. Therefore, the zero sequence component of line voltages
is always zero, i.e.

On the other hand, the sum of phase voltages (line to neutral)'may not be zero so that their zero sequence
component Vn, may exist. Since the sum of the three line currents equals the current in the neutral wire. We
have

i.e. the current in the neutral is three times the zero sequence line current. If the neutral connection is severed,

i.e. in the absence of a neutral connection the zero sequence line current is always zero.

3.2.2 Power Invariance

We shall now show that the symmetrical component transformation is power invariant, which means
that the sum of powers of the three symmetrical components equals the three-phase power.
Total complex power in a three-phase circuit is given by

Therefore,
S= 3VsT U Is*=3VsT Is*= 3Va1 I*a1 + 3Va2 I*a2 + 3Va0 I*a0 = sum of symmetrical component powers
3.3 Phase Shift of Components in Y-

The dot convention is used to designate the terminals of transformers. The dots are placed at one end of
each of the winding on the same iron core of a transformer to indicate that the currents flowing from the dotted
terminal to the unmarked terminal of each winding produces an mmf acting in the same direction in the magnetic
circuit. In that case, the voltage drops from dotted terminal to unmarked terminal in each side of the windings
are in phase.

The HT terminals of three-phase transformers are marked as H1, H2 and H3 and the corresponding LT
side terminals are marked X1, X2 and X3. In Y- -
neutral from terminals H1, H2, and H3 are in phase with the voltages to neutral from terminals X1, X2, and X3,
respectively. But, there will be a phase shift (of 300) between the corresponding quantities of the primary and
secondary sides of a star-delta (or delta-star) transformer. The standard for connection and designation of
transformer banks is as follows:

1. The HT side terminals are marked as H1, H2 and H3 and the corresponding LT side terminals are marked
X1, X2 and X3.
2. The phases in the HT side are marked in uppercase letters as A, B, and C. Thus for the sequence abc, A is
connected to H1, B to H2 and C to H3. Similarly, the phases in the LT side are marked in lowercase letters
as a, b and c.
3. The standard for designating the terminals H1 and X1 on transformer banks requires that the positive-
sequence voltage drop from H1 to neutral lead the positive sequence voltage drop from X1 to neutral by 300
regardless of the type of connection in the HT and LT sides. Similarly, the voltage drops from H2 to neutral
and H3 to neutral lead their corresponding values, X2 to neutral and X3 to neutral by 300.

Consider a Y- 3.3(a). The HT side terminals H1, H2, and H3 are connected
to phases A, B, and C, respectively and the phase sequence is ABC. The windings that are drawn in parallel
directions are those linked magnetically (by being wound on the same core). In Figure a winding AN is the
phase on the Y-side which is linked magnetically with the phase wi
the dots on the windings VAN is in phase with Vbc. Following the standards for the phase shift, the phasor
diagrams for the sequence components of voltages are shown in Figure 3.3(b). The sequence component of
VAN1 is represented as VA1 N ) and all other voltages to neutral are similarly
represented. The phasor diagram reveals that VA1 leads Vb1 by 300. This will enable to designate the terminal to
which b is connected as X1. Inspection of the positive-sequence and negative-sequence phasor diagrams revels
that Va1 leads VA1 by 900 and Va2 lags VA2 by 900.

Fig 3.3: Wiring diagram and voltage phasors of a Y- With Y connection on HT side.

Fig 3.4: Current phasors of Y-

From the dot convention and the current directions assumed in Figure a, the phasor diagram for the
sequence components of currents can be drawn as shown in Figure c. Since the direction specified for IA in
Figure a is away from the dot in the winding and the direction of Ibc is also away from the dot in its winding, IA
and Ibc are 1800
From this diagram, it can be seen that Ia1 leads IA1 by 900 and Ia2 lags IA2 by 900. Summarizing these relations
between the symmetrical components on the two sides of the transformer gives:

Va1 = +j VA1 Ia1 = +j IA1

Va2 = -j VA2 Ia1 = -j IA2

Where each voltage and current is expressed in per unit. Although, these relations are obtained for Y-

LT side in Y.

3.4 Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines

The circuit of a fully transposed line carrying unbalanced currents is shown in Fig 3.5. The return path
for In, is sufficiently away for the mutual effect to be ignored. Let
Xs = self-reactance of each line
Xm = mutual reactance of any line pair

Fig 3.5: Circuit of a fully transposed line

The following KVL equations can be written down from Fig 3.5.
Or in matric form,

Thus, above equation can be written as

We conclude that a fully transposed transmission has:
i. Equal positive and negative sequence impedances
ii. zero sequence impedance much larger than the positive or negative sequence impedances (it is
approximately 2.5 times)
It is further observed that the sequence circuit equations are in decoupled form, i.e. there are no mutual sequence
inductances. Equations can be represented in network form as in Fig.3.6.

Fig 3.6: Transmission line Sequence circuits

The decoupling between sequence networks of a fully transposed transmission holds also in 3-phase
synchronous machines and 3-phase transformers. This fact leads to considerable simplifications in the use of
symmetrical components method in unsymmetrical fault analysis.

3.5 Sequence Impedances and Sequence Network of Power System

Power system elements-transmission lines, transformers and Synchronous machines have a three-phase
symmetry because of which when currents of a particular sequence are passed through these elements, voltage
drops of the same sequence appear, i.e. the elements possess only self-impedances to sequence currents. Each
element can therefore be represented by three decoupled sequence networks (on single-phase basis) pertaining
to positive, negative and zero sequences respectively. EMFs are involved only in a positive sequence network
of synchronous machines. For finding a particular sequence impedance the element in question is subjected to
currents and voltages of that sequence only. With the elements operating under these conditions the sequence
impedance can be determined analytically or through experimental test results.
With the knowledge of sequence networks of elements, complete positive, negative and zero sequence
networks of any power system can be assembled. As this will be explained in the unsymmetrical fault analysis,
these networks are suitably interconnected to simulate different unsymmetrical faults. The sequence currents
and voltages during the fault are then calculated from which actual fault currents and voltages can be found.
3.6 Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous Machine
 Unloaded synchronous machine (generator or motor) is shown in Fig 3.7 grounded through a reactor
(impedance Zn). Ea, Eb and Ec are the induced emfs of the three phases. When a fault (not shown in the figure)
takes place at machine terminals, currents Ia, Ib and Ic flow in the lines. Whenever the fault involves ground,
current In= Ia + Ib + Ic flows to neutral from ground via Zn .
Unbalanced line currents can be resolved into their symmetrical components Ia1, Ia2 and Ia0. Before
proceeding with fault analysis, we must know the equivalent circuits presented by the machine to the flow of
positive, negative and zero sequence currents, respectively.

Fig 3.7: Three phase synchronous generator with grounded neutral

3.6.1 Positive Sequence Impedance and Network

Since a synchronous machine is designed with symmetrical windings, it induces emfs of positive
sequence only, i.e. no negative or zero sequence voltages are induced in it. Hence positive sequence network
consists of an emf source Ea and positive sequence impedance Z1 and the current flowing is Ia1.

Fig 3.8: Positive sequence network of a synchronous machine

 The positive sequence network is balanced network and hence In=0. Therefore, Zn does not appear in it.
As it is a balanced network, it is represented by a single phase equivalent circuit, taking neutral as reference as
shown in Fig 3.8.
From single phase equivalent circuit, Va1 = Ea Z1 Ia1

3.6.2 Negative Sequence Impedance and Network

The negative sequence network does not contain any emf but contains impedance Z2 in which a current
Ia2 flows. It also does not include Zn as it is a balanced network and In=0. It is shown in Fig 3.9. The
reference for this network is also neutral.

Fig 3.9: Negative sequence network of a synchronous machine

From the Fig 3.9(b), Va2 = -Z2 Ia2

3.6.3 Zero Sequence Impedance and Network

The zero sequence network also does not contain any emf but includes impedance Z0. It is shown in
Fig 3.10. The current flowing through Zn is In=3Ia0 { Ia0 =(1/3)(Ia + Ib + Ic ) = (1/3) In }.

Fig 3.10: Zero sequence network of a synchronous machine

 The zero sequence voltage drop from Fig 3.10(b) is given by
Va0 = -3Zn Ia0 - Z0g Ia0 = - ( 3Zn + Z0g ) Ia0 = -Z0 Ia0
Where, Z0 = 3Zn + Z0g

3.7 Sequence Impedances and Networks of Transformers

It is well known that almost all present day installations have three-phase transformers since they entail
lower initial cost, have smaller space requirements and higher efficiency. The positive sequence series
impedance of a transformer equals its leakage impedance. Since a transformer is a static device, the leakage
impedance does not change with alteration of phase sequence of balanced applied voltages. The transformer
negative sequence impedance is also therefore equal to its leakage reactance.
Thus, for a transformer
Z1= Z2= Zleakage
Assuming such transformer connections that zero sequence currents can flow on both sides, a transformer offers
a zero sequence impedance which may differ slightly from the corresponding positive and negative sequence
values.

3.7.1 Zero Sequence Networks of Transformer

The zero-sequence equivalent circuits of 3-phase transformers deserve special attention. The different
zero-sequence network.
The 5 possible connections of two-winding transformers and their equivalent zero-sequence networks are shown
in below. The networks are drawn recalling that there will be no primary current when there is no secondary
current, neglecting the no-load component. The arrows on the diagram show the possible paths for the zero-
sequence current. Absence of an arrow indicates that the connection is such that zero-sequence currents cannot
flow. Fig 3.11 shows flow of zero sequence currents in star and delta connections.

Fig. 3.11: Flow of zero sequence currents in star and delta connections
1. Case 1: Y-Y Transformer Bank with one neutral grounded: If either one of the neutrals of a Y-Y bank
is ungrounded, zero-sequence current cannot flow in either winding (as the absence of a path through one
winding prevents current in the other). An open circuit exists for zero-sequence current between two parts
of the system connected by the transformer bank. Which is shown in Fig 3.12.

Fig. 3.12: Y-Y Transformer Bank with one neutral grounded and its Zero sequence network

2. Case 2: Y-Y Transformer Bank with both neutral grounded: In this case, a path through transformer
exists for the zero-sequence current. Hence zero-sequence current can flow in both sides of the transformer
provided there is complete outside closed path for it to flow. Hence the points on the two sides of the
transformer are connected by the zero-sequence impedance of the transformer as shown in Fig 3.13.

Fig. 3.13: Y-Y Transformer Bank with both neutral grounded and its Zero sequence network

3. Case 3: Y- Transformer Bank with grounded Y: In this case, there is path for zero-sequence current to

must provide for a path from lines on the Y side through zero-sequence impedance of the transformer to the

is an impedance Zn between neutral and ground, then the zero-sequence impedance must include 3Zn along
with zero-sequence impedance of the transformer. Fig 3.14 shows the connection and zero sequence
network.
 Fig. 3.14: Y- Transformer Bank with grounded star neutral and its Zero sequence network

4. Case 4: Y- Transformer Bank with ungrounded Y: In this case, there is no path for zero-sequence
current. The zero-sequence impedance is infinite and is shown by an open circuit, is shown in Fig 3.15.

Fig. 3.15: Y- Transformer Bank with ungrounded star and its Zero sequence network

5. Case 5: - Transformer Bank: In this case, there is no return path for zero-sequence current. The zero-

Fig. 3.16: - Transformer Bank and its Zero sequence network

The zero-sequence equivalent circuits determined for the individual parts separately are connected according
to the SLD to form the complete zero-sequence network.
3.8 Construction of Sequence Networks of a Power System
The sequence networks are three separate networks which are the single-phase equivalent of the
corresponding symmetrical sequence systems. These networks can be drawn as follows:

1. For the given condition (steady state, transient, or subtransient), draw the reactance diagram (selecting
proper base values and converting all the per unit values to the selected base, if necessary). This will
correspond to the positive-sequence network.
2. Determine the per unit negative-sequence impedances of all elements (if the values of negative sequence is
not given to any element, it can approximately be taken as equal to the positive-sequence impedance). Draw
the negative-sequence network by replacing all emf sources by short circuit and all impedances by
corresponding negative-sequence impedances in the positive-sequence network.
3. Determine the per unit zero-sequence impedances of all the elements and draw the zero-sequence network
corresponding to the grounding conditions of different elements.

Note:

Example 1 : The line currents in a 3-ph 4 wire system are Ia = 100<300; Ib = 50<3000; Ic = 30<1800. Find
the symmetrical components and the neutral current.

Solution:

Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 27.29 < 4.70 A

Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 57.98 < 43.30 A

Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) = 18.96 < 24.90 A

In = Ia + Ib + Ic = 3 Ia0 = 81.87 <4.70 A

Example 2: The sequence component voltages of phase voltages of a 3-ph system are: Va0 = 100
<00 V; Va1 = 223.6 < -26.60 V ; Va2 = 100 <1800 V. Determine the phase voltages.
Solution:

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = 223.6 <-26.60 V

Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + a Va2 = 213 < -99.90 V

Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a2 Va2 = 338.6 < 66.20 V

Example 3: The two seq. components and the corresponding phase voltage of a 3-ph system are Va0 =1<-600
V; Va1=2<00 V ; & Va = 3 <00 V. Determine the other phase voltages.
Solution:

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Va2 = Va Va0 Va1 = 1 <600 V

Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + a Va2 = 3 < -1200 V

Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a2 Va2 = 0 V

Example 4: Three identical resistors are Y-connected to the LT Y-side of a delta-star transformer. The voltages
at the resistor loads are |Vab| = 0.8 pu., |Vbc|=1.2 pu., and |Vca|=1.0 pu. Assume that the neutral of the load is
not connected to the neutral of the transformer secondary. Find the line voltages on the HT side of the
transformer.

Solution:

Assuming an angle of 1800 for Vca, find the angles of other voltages

Vab = 0.8<82.80 pu

Vbc = 1.2<-41.40 pu
Vca = 1.0<1800 pu

The symmetrical components of line voltages are

Vab0 = 1/3 (Vab +Vbc + Vca) = 0

Vab1 = 1/3 (Vab +aVbc + a2Vca) = 0.985<73.60 V

Vab1 = 1/3 (Vab +a2Vbc + aVca) = 0.235<220.30 V

Since Van1 = Vab1<-300 and Van2 = Vab2<300

Van1 = 0.985<73.60-300

= 0.985<43.60 pu (L-L base)

Van2 = 0.235<220.30+300

= 0.235<250.30 pu(L-L base)

Since each resistor is of 1.0<0 pu. Impedance,

Ian1 = (Van1/Z) = 0.985<43.60 pu.

Ian2 = (Van2/Z) = 0.235<250.30 pu.

The directions are +ve for currents from supply toward the delta primary and away from the Y-side toward the
load. The HT side line to neutral voltages are

VA1 = - j Va1 = 0.985<-46.40

VA2 = +j Va2 = 0.235<-19.70

VA = VA1 +VA2 = 1.2<-41.30 pu.

VB1 = a2VA1 and VB2 = a VA2

VB = VB1 + VB2 = 1<1800 pu.

VC1 = a VA1 and VC2 = a2VA2

VC = VC1 + VC2 = 0.8<82.90 pu.

The HT side line voltages are

VAB = VA VB = 2.06<-22.60 pu. (L-N base)

= (1/3) VAB = 1.19<-22.60 pu. (L-L base)

VBC = VB Vc = 1.355<215.80 pu. (L-N base)

= (1/3) VBC = 0.782<215.80 pu. (L-L base)

VCA = VC VA = 1.78<116.90 pu. (L-N base)

= (1/3) VCA = 1.028<116.90 pu. (L-L base)

References
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1. edition
2.
st
3. edition