S u r v e y i n g II

Chapter-2: Curves

1
Chapter-2: Curves
Lecture outline

2
Chapter-2: Curves

Where CURVES???

Highway Building

Dam Railway 3
Chapter-2: Curves

Where CURVES???
• Whenever the direction of a road or railway line is
to be changed, curves are provided between the
intersecting straights. This is necessary for smooth
and safe movement of the vehicles and for the
comfort of passengers.
• The curves required may be in the horizontal planes
or in the vertical planes.
• Accordingly the curves are classified as horizontal
curves and vertical curves.
4
Chapter-2: Curves

NEED OF PROVIDING CURVES

Curves are needed on Highways, railways and canals for
bringing about gradual change of direction of motion.
They are provided for following reasons:-
i) To bring about gradual change in direction
of motion.
ii) To bring about gradual change in grade and for good
visibility.
iii)To alert the driver so that he may not fall asleep.
iv)To layout Canal alignment.
v) To control erosion of canal banks by the thrust of
flowing water in a canal.
5
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Curves
Curves

Horizontal Vertical
Curve Curve

Circular Transition Combined Summit

Curve Curve Curve Curve

Simple Cubic Valley

Curve Parabola Curve

Compound Spiral
Curve Curve

Reverse Lamniscate
Curve
6
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Curves

Horizontal Curves 7
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Curves

Horizontal Curves 8
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Curves

Horizontal Curves 9
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Curves

Vertical Curves 10
Chapter-2: Curves

HORIZONTAL CURVES
Introduction
 As a highway changes horizontal direction, turning to
change the vehicle direction at the point of intersection
between the two straight lines is not feasible. The change
indirection would be too abrupt and too risky for the safety
of modern, high-speed vehicles, the driver and its
passengers. It is therefore necessary to interpose a curve
between the straight lines.
 Horizontal curves occur at locations where two roadways
intersect, providing a gradual transition between the two.
 The straight lines of a road are called tangents because the
lines are tangent to the curves used to change direction.
11
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Circular Curves

Simple Curve:
A simple arc provided in the road to impose a curve
between the two straight lines.
Compound Curve:
Combination of two simple curves combined together to
curve in the same direction.
Reverse Curve:
Combination of two simple curves combined together to
curve in the same direction.

12
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Horizontal Curves

Circular Curve
Simple Curve
A simple curve consists
of a single arc of circle
connecting two straights.
It has radius of the same
magnitude throughout.

Simple Circular Curve

13
Chapter-2: Curves

Reverse Curve
• A reverse curve is made up of
two arcs having equal or
different radii bending in
opposite direction with a
common tangent at their
junction.
• Their centres lie on opposite
sides of the curve.
• Reverse curves are used when
the straights are parallel or
Reverse Curve
intersect at a very small angle.
14
Chapter-2: Curves

Reverse Curve
• They are commonly used in
railway sidings and sometimes
on railway tracks and roads
meant for low speeds.
• They should be avoided as far
as possible on main lines and
highways where speeds are Reverse Curve
necessarily high.

15
Chapter-2: Curves

Compound Curves
•A compound Curve
consists of two or more
simple curves having
different ra`dii bending in
the same direction and
lying on the same side of
the common tangent.
• Their centres lie on the Compound Curve
same side of the curve.

16
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Horizontal Curves

Transition Curves 17
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of Curves
Horizontal Vertical Curve Transition Curve
Curve
Curves of The curves are The curves are
constant radius designed and designed and built
required to made to join two to connect the
connect two different straight straight lines with
straights set out slope. circular curves
on the ground.

18
Chapter-2: Curves

Simple Circular Curves

• The simple curve is an arc of a circle. The radius of
the circle determines the sharpness or flatness of the
curve. The sharpness of a curve increases as the
radius is decrease which makes it risky and
dangerous.
• The main design criterion of a horizontal curve is
the provision of an adequate safe stopping sight
distance.
• Horizontal, circular or simple curves are curves of
constant radius required to connect two straights set
out on the ground.
• Since it is in circular shape, it is called Simple
Circular Curve. 19
Chapter-2: Curves

Degree of a Curve: (Designation of a curve)

The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by an
arc (arc basis) or chord (chord basis) of one station. It will
define the sharpness of the curve.

Fixed length of an arc: (Arc Definition)

The degree of curve may be defined as the central angle of
the curve that is subtended by an arc of 30 meters (or
100ft) length. This definition is generally adopted for
railways curves.
20
Chapter-2: Curves

Fixed length of a chord: (Arc Definition)

The degree of curve may be defined as the fixed central
angle of the curve that is subtended by chord of 30 meters
(or 100ft) length. This definition is generally adopted for
road curves.

21
Chapter-2: Curves

Fixed length of an arc: (Arc Definition)

Let D0 be the angle subtended by an arc of 30 m length of a
circle whose radius is R.
The total circumference of a circle = 2R
 central angle made by 2R = 3600
Or, central angle made by 30m arc of the circle = 30
 D0 = 30
m
.
 = D0
For 10 of a curve, the radius (R) = 1718.9 meters
D0

O 22
Chapter-2: Curves
Fixed length of a chord: ( Chord Definition)
Let PQ be the chord of length 30m. D0 is the angle
subtended by the chord at the centre O.
From △OPM,
 = =

 R= = =

=
O
=
.
 = (Approximate)
This relation holds good up to 50 curves. For higher degree curves the
exact relation should be used. 2
3
Chapter-2: Curves

Basic Terminologies of Simple Circular

Curve

24
Chapter-2: Curves

Basic Terminologies of Simple Circular

Curve
∆

25
Chapter-2: Curves

Terminologies in Simple Curves

• PC = Point of commencement. It is the beginning of curve.
• PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
• PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called
vertex
• T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It
is known as sub tangent.
• R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
• L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown
below is the midpoint of L. Long chord
• l = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the the
figure is the midpoint of curve.
• E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the
curve. Apex distance
26
Chapter-2: Curves

Terminologies in Simple Curves

• M = Mid ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to
midpoint of long chord.
• ∆ = Deflection angle (also called angle of
intersection and central angle). It is the angle of
intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended
by PC and PT at O is also equal to I, where O is the center
of the circular curve from the above figure.
• θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point
in the curve
• Sub chord = chord shorter than normal chord.
• Normal Chord = Chord with the length equal to full peg
interval.

27
Chapter-2: Curves

Basic Elements of Simple Curves

V 
1. Length of Curve (l ) E
The = ∆, C
M
∆ T T
1 D 2
∆
 = ,
A R ∆ ∆ R B
∆ 2 2

2. Length of tangent (T )
O
• It is distance T1V = VT2 =

28
Chapter-2: Curves

Basic Elements of Simple Curves

V 
3. Length of Long Chord (L)
E
• It is length between T1 and T2 C
M
T T
1 D 2

4. External distance (E) A R ∆ ∆ R B

2 2

29
Chapter-2: Curves

Basic Elements of Simple Curves

5. Mid ordinate (M) V 

• Middle ordinate is the distance E

C
from the midpoint of the curve
M
T T
to the midpoint of the long D
1 2
chord.
A R ∆ ∆ R B
• CD as shown in figure. 2 2

∆
 = (1 − )
O

30
Chapter-2: Curves

Basic Elements of Simple Curves

6. Chainages
• Chainage of PC, T1 = Chainage of PI(V) – Tangent length (T).
• Chainage of T2= Chainage of T1 + length of curve

31
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical: A circular curve has 300 m radius and 60°
deflection angle. What is its degree by (a) arc definition and
(b) chord definition of standard length 30 m. Also calculate (i)
length of curve, (ii) tangent length, (iii) length of long chord,
(iv) mid-ordinate and (v`) apex distance.
Solution:
R = 300 m ,  = 60°
(a) Arc definition:

32
Chapter-2: Curves

33
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical:(Agor 15.1)
Two straights intersect at a chainage of 2056.44m and the
angle of intersection is 1200. If the radius of the simple curve
to be introduced is 600m, find the following:
i. Tangent distances
ii. Apex distance
iii. Mid ordinate
iv. Length of the long chord.
v. Chainage of point of commencement
vi. Chainage of the point of tangency.
Solution:
( Here is given angle of intersection in spite of deflection angle. Think it 
)

Given, R = 600 m ,  = 60°

(i) T= 346.41m, (ii)E=92.82 (iii)M=80.38 (iv)L=600m
(v) Chainage of PC=1710.03m 3
4
(vi)Chainage of PT= 2338.35m
Chapter-2: Curves

Setting out of simple circular curve

• Marking of points on the ground is considered as setting out of
curves.

35
Chapter-2: Curves

Methods of setting out of a curve

Linear Methods Angular Methods

Successive Offsets from

Offset from Offset from bisection of the chord Rankine‟s Method
long chord tangents chords produced

Perpendicular offsets Two Theodolite Method

Radial Offsets
Tacheometric Method

36
Chapter-2: Curves

Linear Methods
Linear Methods are used in small
works.
1. Offsets from Long Chord
⁓ In this method, long chord is
divided into an even number of
equal parts.
⁓ Taking centre of long chord as origin,
for various values of x, the
perpendicular offsets are calculated
to the curve and the curve is set in
the field by driving pegs at those
3
offsets. 7
Chapter-2: Curves

1. Offsets from Long Chord

R – radius of the curve
L – length of long chord
O0 – mid-ordinate
Ox – ordinate at distance x from the
mid-point of long chord.
Ordinate at distance x = Ox
= E‟O – DO

= − − −

 = − − −
38
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -1: (Offsets from Long Chord)
Calculate the offsets at 20m intervals to locate a curve
having a radius of 600m ,the deflection angle being
18024’. The offsets are to be taken from long chord.
Solution:

39
Chapter-2: Curves
Chapter-2: Curves
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -1a: (Offsets from Long Chord)
Calculate the ordinates at 10m distances for a circular
curve having a long chord of 80 meters and a versed
sine of 4 meters.
Solution:
Given:
Mid ordinate,O0 = 4 m,
Length of long chord, L = 80 m,
Interval = 4 m.

We know, = − −
4 = − − 40
 R = 202 m
 R-O0 = 202 – 4 = 198 m 4
2
Chapter-2: Curves
Chapter-2: Curves

Field Procedure for setting out circular curve by

OFFSETS FROM LONG CHORD
1. Find out the point of commencement (T1), point of
tangency (T2) which are two ends of long chord.
2. Mark poind D on ground at mid of T1T2.
3. Erect ranging rods at T1, D and T2.
4. Divide the Long chord T1T2 in equal parts of suitable
lengths.
5. Calculate the length of the offsets corresponding to
distances from the mid point of the long chord.
6. Erect the perpendiculars with the help of optical square
or using 3-4-5 method and measure the calculated offset
lengths along the perpendicular.
4
4
Chapter-2: Curves

Linear Methods
2. Offsets from Tangents
• The offsets from tangents may
be calculated and set to get the
required curve.
• The offsets can be either radial
or perpendicular to tangents.

(i) Radial offsets:

Referring to Figure, if the centre of
curve O is accessible from the Figure: Radial offsets
points on tangent, this method of
4
curve setting is possible. 5
Chapter-2: Curves
(i) Radial offsets:
Let D be a point at distance x from T1.
Now it is required to find radial
ordinate Ox = DE, so that the point C on the
curve is located.
From OT1D, we get
 = 1 + 1
Or, ( + ) = +
Or, + = +
 = + − Figure: Radial offsets
From the above expression, radial offsets at any distance
from T1 from tangent can be found out.

46
Chapter-2: Curves
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical-1: (Offsets from Tangent)
Calculate the offsets at 20m intervals along the
tangents to locate a curve having a radius of 400m ,the
deflection angle being 600.
Solution:
Given:
Radius of the curve ,R = 400m
Deflection angle,  = 600
Therefore tangent length = Rtan ∆
= 400 x tan
= 230.94 m

48
 O180
230.94

O160
220
m
m

O140
200
m

O120
180
m

O100
160
m
140

O80
m
120

O60
m
100
m
80
m
60
m
40
m

20
m
C
Figure: Radial offsets
5
1
 C. By the approximate Formula
(Both radial and perpendicular offsets)
= ……….. (3)
This is the approximate method for both the radial and
perpendicular offsets.
= =0.5m
= =2m
Similarly other offsets can be calculated. Data are tabulated
below.

0.50m 2.0m 4.50m 8.08m 12.50m

Similarly other side of the curve can be setout by taking tangent at other side52.
Chapter-2: Curves
3. By successive Bisection of Chords
In this method, points on a curve are located by
bisecting the chords and erecting the perpendiculars
at the mid-point.
Perpendicular offset at middle of long
chord (D) is
∆
 = 1−
Let D1 be the middle of T1C. Then
Perpendicular offset:
∆
 1 1= 1−
∆
& 2 2= 1−
Using symmetry points on either side may
be set. Figure: Successive Bisection of
Chords 5
3
Chapter-2: Curves

Field Procedure for setting out circular curve by

Successive Bisection of Chords
1. Find out the point of commencement (T1), point of
tangency (T2) and locate it on ground.
2. Measure T1T2 and mark mid point D on ground.
3. With the help of optical square, set out the perpendicular
∆
offset DC equal to 1− .
4. Measure chord T1C and T2C and find the mid point
D1on either chord.
5. On either side, set out the perpendicular offsets D1C1
∆
equal to 1− with an optical square.
6. Similarly, the process may be continued till the
sufficient number of points are obtained. 54
Chapter-2: Curves
4. By Offsets from Chords Produced
This method is very much useful for setting long curves.
In this method, a point on the curve is fixed by taking
offset from the tangent taken at the rear point of a chord.

Figure: Offsets from Chords

Produced 55
Chapter-2: Curves
4. By Offsets from Chords
Produced
Thus, point A of chord T1A
is fixed by taking offset O1
= AA1 where T1A1 is tangent
at T1.
Similarly B is fixed by
taking offset O2 = BB1
where AB1 is tangent at A.

Let T1A = C1 be length of first sub-chord

AB = C2 be length of full chord
1 = deflection angle A1T1A
 2 = deflection angle B1AB Figure: Offsets from Chords
5
Produced 6
Chapter-2: Curves
Chapter-2: Curves
Chapter-2: Curves
4. By Offsets from Chords
Produced
Thus, upto last full chord i.e. (n–1)th
chord,

 − 1 =
If last sub chord has length Cn, then:
=
2 − 1+
Figure: Offsets from Chords
Produced

59
Chapter-2: Curves
4. By Offsets from Chords Produced

Thus, upto last full chord i.e. (n–1)th

chord,

If last sub chord has length Cn, then:

Figure: Offsets from Chords

Produced

60
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -1: Offsets from chords produced (Agor 15.3)

Two roads meet at an angle of 127030’. Calculate all the
data necessary for setting out a circular curve with 15
chains raius to connect two straight portions of the road if it
is intended to set out the curve by chain and offsets only.
Assume the length of chain as 20 meters.
(  H e r e is given angle of intersection in spite of deflection
angle. Think i t  )

61
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -2: Offsets from chords produced (Punmia 1.3)
Two tangents intersect at chainage 59+60, the deflection
angle being 50030’. Calculate the necessary data for
setting out for a curve of 15 chains radius to connect two
tangents if it is intended to set out the curve by offsets
from chords. Take peg interval equal to 100 links, length
of the chain being equal to 20 meters.
Solution:
Given:
Length of chain =20 meters
Chainage of PI, V =59+60 = 59 * 20 + ∗ 20
=1192 m
Radius of the curve ,R = 15 chains = (15X20) meters
=300 m 6
2
64
Chapter-2: Curves
Angular methods
Terminologies to be known
• Tangential angle
• Deflection angle
• Total Tangential or deflection angle
• Full peg interval
• Chainages
• Normal Chord
• Sub chord
66
Chapter-2: Curves
1. Rankine’s Method of Deflection angle
“A deflection angle to any point on the curve is the
angle at p.c. between the back tangent and the chord
from p.c. to that point.”
This method also known as Tape and Theodolite
method

A
P.C
T2
1.
T

Figure: Deflection angle to any point on the curve

67
Chapter-2: Curves

1. Rankine’s Method of Deflection angle

Figure:Rankine’s Method of Deflection angle 6

8
Chapter-2: Curves
1. Rankine’s Method of Deflection angle
Let points a, b, c, d, e are to be
identified in the field to layout a
curve between T1 and T2 to
change direction from the straight
alignment AV to VB.

6
9
Chapter-2: Curves
1. Rankine’s Method of Deflection angle
• In this method, curves are staked out by use of deflection
angles turned at the point of curvature from the tangent to
points along the curve.
• The curve is set out by driving pegs at regular interval equal
to the length of the normal chord.
• Usually, the sub-chords are provided at the beginning and
end of the curve to adjust the actual length of the curve.
• The method is based on the assumption that there is no
difference between length of the arcs and their corresponding
chords of normal length or less.
• The underlying principle of this method is that the deflection
angle to any point on the circular curve is measured by the
one-half the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the
arc from the P.C. to that point 70
Chapter-2: Curves

let the tangential angles for

points a, b, c,… be 1, 2,…,
n and their deflection angles
(from the tangent at P.C.) be
a,  b, ….. ,  n.

Now, for the first tangential

angle 1, from the property
of a circle
Arc T1 a = R x 21 radians

71
Chapter-2: Curves

Assuming the length of the arc is

same as that of its chord, if C1 is
the length of the first chord i.e.,
chord T1a, then:

72
Chapter-2: Curves

Similarly, tangential angles for chords of nominal length, say C,

And for last chord of length, say Cn

The deflection angles for the different points a, b, c, etc. can be

obtained from the tangential angles.
For the first point a, the deflection angle a is equal to the
tangential angle of the chord to this point i.e., 1.
 a =  1
73
Chapter-2: Curves

The deflection angle to the next point i.e., b is b for which the
chord length is T1b.
Thus, the deflection angle for any point on the curve is the
deflection angle upto previous point plus the tangential angle at
the previous point.

74
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -1: Deflection Angle Method

Two tangents intersect at a chainage 1190 m, the
deflection angle being 36°. Calculate all the data
necessary for setting out a circular curve with radius of
300 m by deflection angle method. The peg interval is 30
m.
Solution:
Chainage of apex, V = 1190 m
Deflection angle,  = 36°
Radius, R = 300 m
Peg interval = 30 m.
Length of tangent = R tan ( /2)
= 300 tan (360/2)
= 97.48 m 75
Chapter-2: Curves .
Chainage of T1 = 1190 – 97.48 = 1092.52 m
= R = x300x360
Length of curve
1800 1800
= 188.50 m
Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1+length of curve
= 1092.52 + 188.50
= 1281.02 m
Chainage of first peg on the curve = 1110 m
Chainage of last peg on the curve = 1260 m
Number of normal chords = (1260-1110)/30 = 5nos.
Total number of chords = 5+2 = 7 nos.
Length of first sub chord, C1 =1110-1092.52 = 17.48m
Length of last sub chord, C7 =1281.02-1260 = 21.02m
Length of normal chords, C = 30 m 76
Chapter-2: Curves

Now, Tangential angles:

d1 =
. .
1minutes = 17.48 = 1040’9.27”

d2to d6 =
. .
minutes = 30 = 2051’53.4”
. .
d7 = 7 minutes = 21.02 = 200’26.26”
Now, Deflection angles:
1 = d1 = 1040‟9.27”
2 = 1 + d2 = 1040‟9.27” +2051‟53.4” = 4032‟67”
3 = 2 + d3 = 4032‟67” +2051‟53.4” = 7023‟56.01”
4 = 3 + d4 = 7023‟56.01” +2051‟53.4” =
5 = 4 + d5 = +2051‟53.4” =
6 = 5 + d6 =+2051‟53.4” =
7 = 6 + d7 = +200‟26.26” =

Check: 7 =1/2( ) = 7
7
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -2: Deflection Angle Method (Agor 15.2)

Two roads meet at an angle of 127030’. Calculate all the
data necessary for setting out a circular curve with 15
chains radius to connect two straight portions of the road
if it is intended to set out the curve by chain and offsets
only. Assume the length of chain as 20 meters.
(  H e r e is given angle of intersection
in spite of deflection angle. Think i t  )

7
8
Chapter-2: Curves

Field Procedure for setting out circular curve by

Rankine’s Method of Deflection Angle
1. Determine tangent length and find out point of
commencement of curve along the straight.
2. Determine chainage of T1.
3. A theodolite is set up at the point of commencement
and get it temporary adjusted.
4. With the help predefined peg interval, calculate length
of first sub chord, last sub chord and number of normal
chords.
5. Calculate tangential angles for the first sub chord,
normal chord and last sub chord using formula:
.
δ= , where R=radius of curve, C= length of
chord. 7
9
Chapter-2: Curves

Field Procedure for setting out circular curve by

Rankine’s Method of Deflection Angle Continued..

6. Calculate deflection angles from back tangent to all

the points on the curve (1 , 2, 3….)and tabulate it.
7. Set horizontal angle on theodolite to zero by sighting
to point of intersection V.
8. Unclamp the horizontal clamp of theodolite and swing
it making horizontal angle reading equal to 1 and
clamp it properly.
9. With T1 as centre and C1 as radius, swing the tape and
intersect by line of sight of theodolite and fix the first
peg at point a.
8
0
Chapter-2:
Curves
Field Procedure for setting out circular curve by
Rankine’s Method of Deflection Angle Continued..
10. Again unclamp the horizontal clamp of theodolite and
swing it making horizontal angle reading equal to 2
and clamp it properly.
11. the zero end of the tape at a, and an arrow at a mark
on the tape equal to the normal chord length C, swing
the tape around b until the arrow is bisected along the
line of sight. Fix the second peg at the point b at the
arrow point.
12. Repeat steps (10) and (11) till the last point is reached.
The last point so located must coincide with the
tangent point T2 already fixed from the point of
intersection. 8
1
Chapter-2: Curves

Field Procedure for setting out circular curve by

Rankine’s Method of Deflection Angle Continued..

It may be noted that the deflection angles are measured

from the tangent point T1 but the chord lengths are
measured from the preceding point.
Thus, deflection angles observed are cumulative in nature
but chord lengths swung are individual in nature.

82
Chapter-2: Curves

Two Theodolite method

In this method, two theodolites are used, one at the
point of curve (PC i.e. at T1) and another at the point of
tangency (PT i.e. at T2).
• Let V be the vertex
(Point of intersection)
and O is the centre of the
circular curve.
• T1A be the first sub chord
of length C1 and 1 be its
deflection angle.

83
Two Theodolite method
From the properties of a
circle, we know:
VT1A= T1OA
But,
T1T2A = T1OA
VT1A = T1T2A = 1
Similarly, it can be shown
that:
VT1B = T1T2B and so on.

The method of finding 1 is already explained in the

previous Method.
84
Chapter-2: Curves

Field Procedure for setting out circular curve by

Two Theodolite Method
1. Determine tangent length and find out point of
commencement and point of tangency of curve along the
straights
2. Two theodolites are placed, one at the point of
commencement T1 and the other at the point of tangency
T2. Get temporary adjustment in both.
3. set horizontal angle to zero in both the theodolite by
bisecting the point of intersection, V from theodolite at T1
and T1 from the theodolite at T2.. Tighten the horizontal
clamps.
85
Chapter-2: Curves
Field Procedure for setting out circular curve by
Two Theodolite Method Continued…
4. Now unclamp the horizontal screw and swing it making the
horizontal angle reading equal to 1 in both the theodolites.
At this time,theodolite at T1 is directing towards T1A and
theodolite at T2 is directing towards T2A. Thus the lines of
sight of both the theodolites are directed towards the point „A'.
5. Now, move a ranging rod or an arrow near the expected
point „A' until it is bisected simultaneously by the cross-
hairs of both the theodolites. Locate the point „A' on the
ground at the arrow point and fix a peg at that point.
6. To locate the second point „B', set the horizontal angles
equal to deflection angle at B in both the theodolites and
repeat step (4) to find point on the ground.
7. Locate all other points in the same manner. 8
6
Transition
Curve

87
Chapter-2: Curves

Transition Curve
• A transition curve may be defined as a curve of
varying radius of infinity at tangent point to a design
circular curve radius provided in between the straight
and circular path.
• It is provided between straight and circular arc,
between two branches of a compound curve or
reverse curve.
• This is also known as easement curve.

88
Chapter-2: Curves

Functions/Necessity of Transition Curve

• To gradually introduce the centrifugal force
between the tangent point and the beginning of the
circular curve thereby avoiding sudden jerk on the
vehicle.
• To increase the comfort of passengers.
• To introduce designed superelevation at a desirable
rate
• To enable the driver to turn the steering gradually for
his own comfort and security

89
Chapter-2: Curves

Functions/Necessity of Transition Curve

• To introduce designed extra widening at a desirable
rate
• To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road
• To fit the road alignment in a given alignment
• To minimize the effects of centrifugal force, the
speed of the vehicle should be gradually reduced or
a path should be negotiated with the gradual change
of trajectory so that the radius of curvature is
gradually reduced from infinity to R or to get the
combined effect of both.

90
Chapter-2: Curves .

Conditions to be fulfilled by Transition Curve

(Properties)
• It should be tangential to the straight.
• It should meet the circular curve tangentially.
• Its curvature should be zero at the origin on straight.
• Its curvature at the junction with the circular curve
should be the same as that of the circular curve.
• The rate of increase of curvature along the transition
should be the same as that of increase of cant or super-
elevation.
• Its length should be such that full cant or super-
elevation is attained at the junction with the circular
curve. 9
1
Chapter-2: Curves

Super-elevation
Super-elevation is the transverse slope provided to
counteract the effect of centrifugal force and reduce the
tendency of vehicle to overturn and to skid laterally
outwards by raising the pavement outer edge with respect to
inner edge. superelevation is represented by “ e ”.

92
Chapter-2: Curves

Super-elevation
When a vehicle moves on a curve, there are two forces
acting (Both the forces are acting through CG of the
vehicle):
i) Weight of the vehicle –vertical downward direction
ii) The centrifugal force – horizontal direction acting away
from the centre of the curve.

93
Chapter-2: Curves

Super-elevation
W = Weight of the vehicle.
P = Centrifugal force.
P
v = Speed of the vehicle.
g = Acceleration due to 
gravity.
B = Width of the road 
F = Distance between the W R
centre of the rails. B

R = Radius of the curve.

 = Inclination of the road
or rail surface.
94
Chapter-2:
Curves
Super-elevation
From Mechanics:
= P

 = ------------(1)

If the resultant R is to be
normal to the surface, its 
inclination with W will be W R
the same as the inclination B
of the surface with the
horizontal, i.e. .
Hence: tan = = ----------------- 95
(2)
Chapter-2: Curves

Super-elevation
If „e‟ be the cant or super-
elevation, we have:
P
= = -----(3)
Equation (3) gives the value 
e
of super-elevation if the

force is to be balanced by
W R
super-elevation alone. B

But friction also acts towards the centre simultaneously to

balance the force tending to bring vehicle away from centre.
So Cosideration of side friction factor (f) also need to 96
be done.
Chapter-2: Curves

Centrifugal Ratio
The ratio of the centrifugal force and the weight of vehicle is the
centrifugal ratio.

 = = .=
Maximum value for centrifugal ratio is taken
equal to on roads and on railways. P

 = ------(a) (For Roads)



 = -------(b) (For Railways)


W R
Equations (a) and (b) decide the minimum radius of the
curve for the vehicle pass safely with given velocity v. 102
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of transition curve

There are mainly three types of transition curves:
(1) Cubic Spiral
(2) Cubic Parabola
(3) The lemniscate curve
1. Cubic Spiral
T1
x
x= l
Where, L
L = Total length of the transition curve.
R = Radius of the circular curve. Figure: Cubic Spiral

l = Distance measured along the curve.

x = Perpendicular offset from the tangent. 10
3
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of transition curve

2. Cubic Parabola y
T1
x= x
L
Where,
L = Total length of the transition curve.
Figure: Cubic Parabola
R = Radius of the circular curve.

l = Distance measured along the tangent.

x = Perpendicular offset from the tangent.
99
Chapter-2: Curves

Types of transition curve

3. Lemniscate Curve

r=
Where,
r = radius of the curvature.
 = polar ray at any point.
 = polar deflection angle. Figure: Lemniscate curve

It is commonly used in road work where it is required to

have transitional throughout having no intermediate
circular curve.

100
Chapter-2: Curves

Length of transition curve

Length of transition curve can be determined by any of
the following methods:
1. By an arbitrary gradient
2. By the time rate
3. By the rate of change of radial acceleration
1. By an arbitrary gradient
In this method, the super-elevation e is provided at an
arbitrary rate, say 1 in n.
Then the length of transition curve L:
L= ne
The value of n may vary between 300 to 1200.
101
Chapter-2: Curves
Length of transition curve
2. By the time rate
In this method, the super-elevation e is provided at an arbitrary
time rate of r units per second.
L= the length of the transition curve in meters
e = amount of super elevation in cm.
v = speed of the vehicle in m/sec.
r = time rate in cm/sec.
V = speed of vehicle in km/hour.
Time taken by vehicle to pass over the transition curve t is given by:
=
Super-elevation attained in t seconds = (r x t) cm =
But this should be equal to e.  r=e

 = meters 102
Chapter-2: Curves
Length of transition curve
3. By the rate of change of radial acceleration
In this method, the length of transition curve is decided on the basis
of the comfort of the passengers.
L= the length of the transition curve in meters
 = rate of change of radial acceleration. m/sec3
v = maximum speed of the vehicle in m/sec.
V = speed of vehicle in km/hour.
Time taken to travel over the transition curve, = sec
Acceleration attained at that time = ( x t) = m/sec2
Radial acceleration of circular curve = m/sec2

v3
 = L= meters.
R 103
Chapter-2: Curves

The Ideal Transition Curve

Transition curve is a curve of varying radius. If „r‟ be the
radius of transition curve at any point.
Then, we know that the centrifugal force acting on the
vehicle is given by,
Wv 2
P= --------- (1)
g
If centrifugal force P is to be increased at a constant rate, P
must vary with time. Again if the speed of the vehicle is
constant, the distance l along the transition curve measured
from the tangent point must vary with time.
Wv 2
P  g
10
9
 Circular curve
The Ideal Transition Curve with radius R
Junction of transition
Wv2
P  g with circular curve
where radius is R
But W, v and g are all constants.
 1
 r = Constant =LR ------(2) Transition Curve

L = total Length of the transition curve

R = radius of the curve at end of transition curve (minimum
radius)
Thus the fundamental requirement of a transition curve is
that its radius of curvature r at any point shall vary
inversely as the distance l from the beginning of curve.
Such a curve is Clothoid and is known as Ideal Transition
Curve. 110
Intrinsic Equation of the Ideal Transition Curve
Circular curve
with radius R

Transition Curve
D
L B
l Y
 s y

A
T B1 D1 B2 D2
x
X
106
Intrinsic Equation of the Ideal Transition Curve
T = Tangent Point, beginning of
the transition curve.
TA = Initial tangent
D =Point of junction of
transition curve and circular
curve
B = Any point on the curve at a T
distance l along the curve.
r = radius of the curve at any point B.
 = Inclination of the tangent to the transition curve at B
to the initial tangent TA= deviation angle

107
Intrinsic Equation of the Ideal Transition Curve
s = Angle between the initial
tangent and tangent at the
junction point = Spiral angle
l = Length of the curve from T
to B.
R = Radius of the circular T
curve
L = Total length of the
transition curve.
X,Y = Coordinates of D.
x,y = coordinates of any point B on the transition curve.
108
Intrinsic Equation of the Ideal Transition Curve
We have: lr = LR = constant
or, =
∅
But, = curvature =
∅
 =
T
or, ∅=

On integration, we get: ∅ = +
when l=0  ∅ =0
 C=0

∅ = , Which is the intrinsic equation of ideal

transition curve.
when, l=L  ∅ = =∅ = 109
Chapter-2: Curves
Basic Elements of Transition Curve

110
shown figure are the points
where transition curve and
circular curve meet are called
junction points.
Central circular angle: It is
angle EOD made at the centre O
subtended by the circular curve
between two junctions. It is
equal to ( - 2s ). 116
Basic Elements of Transition Curve
Length of central circular curve: It is the length of
circular arc between the two junctions E and D. it is given
by:
(∆− ∅)
=
Length of Transition Curve: It refers to the length of
transition curve on one side. it is the length between
tangent point and junction. It can be found out by any
suitable method satisfying the full value of super-elevation.
It is denoted by L. It can be found out from any of the
following.
L= ne meters (or) = meters
v3
(or) L= R meters. 117
Basic Elements of Transition Curve
Length of Combined Curve:
It is the total length of curves
from T1 to T2 . It is the sum of
length of central circular curve
and twice the transition curve
= (l+2L)
Combined tangent length: it
is the distance between the
points T1(Beginning of
transition curve) and the point
of intersection of two tangents
(B). It is given by:
Tangent length of combined
∆
curve = + +
118
Basic Elements of Transition Curve
Deflection angle at any point on transition curve: it is
the angle measured from back tangent to any point on the
curve. it is given by :
=
Chainage of Points on curve:
 Chainage of point of commencement(T1)= Chainage
of point of intersection(V) – Total Tangent length
 Chainage of 1st junction point (E)= Chainage of
T1+length of transition curve(L)
 Chainage of 2nd junction (D)= Chainage of E+length of
central circular curve(l)
 Chainage at point of tangency(T2)=Chainage of D+L =
Chainage of T1+ length of combined curve(l+2L) 119
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -1: Transition Curve

A transition curve is to be introduced between a straight
and a circular curve. A super-elevation of 15cm is
introduced at the point of circular curve. Assume rate of
super-elevation is to be 1 in 750. Find the length of the
transition curve.
Solution:
We know, Length of transition curve, L= ne
Given: n = 750

e= 15cm= m = 0.15m

 Length of transition curve, L = 750 x 0.15

 L =112.5m 12
0
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -2: Transition Curve
The super-elevation of a transition curve at circular curve
is 12cm. The rate of attaining super-elevation is 3cm per
second. Average speed of the vehicle is 50km/hr. Find
length of the transition curve.
Solution:
We know, Length of transition curve, = meters
∗
Given: V =50km/hr  v = m/sec = 13.89m/sec
∗

e= 12cm= m = 0.12m , r = 3cm/sec = 0.03m/sec

. ∗ .
 Length of transition curve, L = = 55.55m
.
 L =55.55m
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -3: Transition Curve
The maximum allowable speed on a curve is 60km/hr. The
rate of change of radial acceleration is 30cm/sec2. The
radius of the circular curve is 150m. Find the length of the
transition curve.
Solution:
v3
We know, Length of transition curve, L = R meters
∗
Given: V =60km/hr v = ∗
m/sec = 16.66m/sec
 = 30cm/sec3 = 0.30m/sec3 , R = 150m
( . )
 Length of transition curve, L = = 102.75m
. ∗
 L = 102.75m
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -4: Transition Curve
A transition curve of length 150m joins a circular curve whose
radius is 450m. What is the angle turned by the transition curve
and what is the shift? Find the approximate offsets to the
transition at a distance 95m starting along the tangent.
Solution:
(Here angle turned by the transition curve means spiral angle)
L
We know spiral angle, s= 2Rradians
150 180 0
  s= degrees = 9032’57”
2∗450 
L2 150 2
 Shift, S = = = 2.083m
24R 24∗450
For approximate offset, y =
( )
at distance 95m along tangent y x=95 = ∗ ∗
= 2.117m
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -5: Transition Curve
The angle of intersection between two straights is 1200. The
spiral angle is 100. if the radius of the main circular curve
is 300m, calculate:
(a) Length of transition curve and (b) Length of circular
curve.
Solution:
Here,  = 1800-1200 =600 , s =100 , R= 300m

L radians 
(a) use relation,  s= 2R L=104.72m

(b) use relation , l = R(−2

1800
)  l = 209.44m

119
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -6: Transition Curve (Agor 17.8)
Two straights of a proposed road intersect at a chainage of
(78+34) chains in 20m units with a deflection angle 400
300 (right). It is proposed to layout a circular curve of 10
chains radius with transition curve 1.5 chains long at each
end.
calculate the chainages of both tangent points and both
junction points and also tangential offset for setting out the
first junction point.
Solution:

120
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -6: Transition Curve (Agor 17.8)

121
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -6: Transition Curve (Agor 17.8)

122
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -6: Transition Curve (Agor 17.8)

123
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -7: Transition Curve (Punmia 3.1)

A transition curve is required for a circular curve of
200m radius, the gauge being 1.5m and maximum super-
elevation restricted to 15cm. The transition is to be
designed for a velocity such that no lateral pressure is
imposed on the rails and the rate of gain of radial
acceleration is 30cm/sec3. Calculate the required length
of the transition curve and the design speed.
Solution:
Given:
 = 30cm/sec3 = 0.3m/sec3, Guage,G = 1.5m
R = 200m, Super-elevation, e = 15cm
We know the length of transition curve on the basis of
v3
radial acceleration: L= R meters. ( where v in m/s)
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -7: Transition Curve (Punmia 3.1)
v3 = v3
 L= 0.3x200 60 ----------(1)
The velocity v is determined from the requirement of no
lateral pressure on a super elevation of 15cm for

15cm
G=1.5m.

e=

15 v2
 tan = = Gauge=1.5
150 gR m

/ /
15 1
 v = 150 =
10 9
.

 v = 14m/sec
Substituting the value of v in equation (1):
14 3
L = 60 = 45.733 m 46 m
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -8: Combined Curve (Punmia 3.2)

A road bend which deflects 800 is to be designed for a
maximum speed of 100 km per hour, a maximum
centrifugal ration ¼ and a minimum rate to a change of
acceleration of 30cm/sec3, the curve consisting of a
circular arc combined with two cubic spirals. Calculate:
(a) the radius of the circular arc,
(b) the requisite length of transition,
(c) the total length of the composite curve, and
(d)the chainages of beginning and end of the transition
curve, and of the junctions of the transition curves with
the circular arc if the chainage of the P.I. is 42862 meters.
126
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -8: Transition Curve (Punmia 3.2)

Solution:
Given:

V= 100kmph 100x1000
 v = 60x60 m/sec = 27.78 m/sec
v2
Centrifugal ratio = = 1 (given)
gR 4
4v 2 4(27.78)2
R= = =314.68  315m.
g 9.81
The length of the transition curve:
v3 (27.78)3
L = = 0.3x315= 226.9m  227m

127
Chapter-2: Curves

Spiral angle, s = L
2Rrad.
L
= 1719 x R min

= 1719 x 227
315
= 20038’48”
Central angle, c =  - 2s
= 800 – 41017‟36”
= 38042‟24”

Length of the circular curve, l = R

180 0 = 212.8m
128
Chapter-2: Curves

Length of the combined curve, L‟ = l+2L = (212.8+2x227)

= 666.8 m
 L
Total Tangent length, T = (R+S)tan2 + 2 = 1938.6m
Given, chainage of the P.I. = 42862m
Chainage of beginning of curve = Chainage of PI – T
= 40923.4 m
Chainage of end of curve =Chainage of T1 + L‟
= 41590.2 m
Chainage of First junction (E) =Chainage of T1 + L
= 41150.4 m
Chainage of Second junction(F) =Chainage E + l
=41363.2 m
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -9:Setting out of transition Curve (Agor 17.7)
It is proposed to insert a transition curve of 90m length
between a straight and a circular curve of 300m radius.
Calculate the deflection angles for setting out the transition
curve if the peg interval on the transition curve is 15m and
the chainage of point of commencement is 1810.4m.
Solution:
Let A,B,C,D,… be the points on transition curve. Let T be
the point of commencement and J be the junction between
transition and circular curve.
Given:
Chainage of T = 1810.4 m
Peg interval = 15m
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -9:Setting out of transition Curve (Agor 17.7)
Chainages of different poits on transition curve:
Chainage at junction J = Chainage of T + Length of
transition curve(L)
= 1810.4 + 90
= 1900.4 m
 Chainage of 1st point A on the curve = 1815 m
 Chainage of 2nd point B on the curve = 1830 m
 Chainage of 3rd point C on the curve = 1845 m
 Chainage of 4th point D on the curve =1860 m
 Chainage of 5th point E on the curve = 1875 m
 Chainage of 6th point F on the curve = 1890 m
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -9:Setting out of transition Curve (Agor 17.7)
Distances of different points on transition curve from
Point of commencement(T):
Distance of 1st point A from P.C. (TA) = 1815 -1810.4 = 4.6m
Distance of 2nd point B from P.C. (TB) = 1830 -1810.4 = 19.6 m
Distance of 3rd point C from P.C. (TC)= 1845 -1810.4 = 34.6 m
Distance of 4th point D from P.C. (TD) =1860 -1810.4 = 49.6 m
Distance of 5th point E from P.C. (TE) = 1875 -1810.4 = 65.6 m
Distance of 6th point F from P.C. (TF) = 1890 -1810.4 = 79.6 m
Distance Junction point J from P.C. (TJ) = 1900.4 -1810.4 = 90 m
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -9:Setting out of transition Curve (Agor 17.7)
Deflection angles:
Deflection angle is given by:
573l32
= −− −
RL
2
573∗ (4.6)3
Deflection angle for A,  1 = = 000’27”
300∗90
573∗(19.6)32
Deflection angle for B,  2 = = 0008’09”
300∗90
2
573∗ (34.6)3
Deflection angle for C,  3 = = 0025’24”
300∗90
573∗(49.6)23
Deflection angle for D,  4 = = 0052’13”
300∗90
Chapter-2: Curves
Numerical -9:Setting out of transition Curve (Agor 17.7)
23
573∗(65.6)
 Deflection angle for E,  5 = = 1028’34”
300∗90
573∗(79.6)32
 Deflection angle for F,  6 = = 2014’28”
300∗90
2
573 ∗(90.0)3
 Deflection angle for J,  7 = = 02051’54”
300∗90
Check:
1
Total deflection angle,  n(=7) = 3* Spiral angle
L 90 180
We know, Spiral angle ( s) = * * = 8034’40”
2R 2∗300 
1 1
 3 ∗ s= 3 ∗ 8034‟40” = 02051’54” = 7 (Hence OK)
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -10: Combined Curve (Agor 17.12)

Two straights AB and BC intersect at a chainage of
1400m, the deflection angle being 400. It is proposed to
insert a right handed circular curve 400meters radius
with a cubic parabola of 90 meters length at each end.
circular curve to be set out with pegs at 20 meter interval
and the transition curve with pegs at 10 meters intervals
of through chainage.
Find the chainages:
a. At the beginning and the end of the combined curve.
b. At the junctions of the transition curve with the circular
curve.
c. Tangential angles for the first two points on the
circular curve.
Chapter-2: Curves

Numerical -11: Combined Curve (Agor 17.13)

It is required to join two straights having a total
deflection angle 180 right by a circular curve of 500m
radius, having cubic soiral transition curve at each end.
The design velocity is 72 kilometers per hour and the rate
of change of acceleration along the transition curve is not
to exceed 25cm/sec3. Chainage at the point of intersection
is 840m. Assume peg interval along the transition curve
10m and along circular curve 20m. Calculate the
necessary data required for setting out the curve.