Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical Changes:

• Definition: Changes in the physical state or form of matter without altering its
chemical composition.
• Examples: Melting of ice, boiling of water, tearing paper.

Chemical Changes:

• Definition: Changes that result in the formation of new substances with

different chemical properties.
• Examples: Rusting of iron, burning of wood, digestion of food.

Difference between Physical and Chemical Changes:

Aspect Physical Change Chemical Change

Definition Change in physical state or form Formation of new substances
Reversibility Often reversible Often irreversible
Chemical Bonds No new bonds formed New chemical bonds formed
Energy Changes Usually no significant energy changes Often accompanied by energy changes

Questions:

1. Explain the difference between physical and chemical changes.

2. Give examples of physical and chemical changes.
3. Why is rusting of iron considered a chemical change?

Example:

• Question: Identify the following changes as physical or chemical:

• (a) Burning of a matchstick
• (b) Dissolving sugar in water
• (c) Melting of butter
• Answer:
• (a) Chemical change
• (b) Physical change
• (c) Physical change
Elements

Definition:

• Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
by chemical means.

Examples:

• Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C), Iron (Fe).

Properties:

• Each element has its unique properties.

• Elements combine to form compounds.

Questions:

1. Define an element.
2. Give examples of elements.
3. Explain why elements are considered the building blocks of matter.

Example:

• Question: Identify the following substances as elements or compounds:

• (a) Oxygen gas
• (b) Water
• (c) Carbon dioxide
• Answer:
• (a) Element
• (b) Compound
• (c) Compound

Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures:

• Combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined.

 • Components retain their individual properties.

Compounds:

• Substances composed of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed

proportions.
• Components lose their individual properties.

Difference between Mixtures and Compounds:

Aspect Mixtures Compounds

Composition Variable Fixed
Separation Can be separated by physical methods Can only be separated by chemical methods
Properties Components retain their properties Components lose their properties

Questions:

1. Distinguish between mixtures and compounds.

2. Provide examples of mixtures and compounds.
3. Explain how to separate a mixture of sand and salt.

Example:

• Question: Classify the following substances as mixtures or compounds:

• (a) Air
• (b) Salt (NaCl)
• (c) Sugar solution
• Answer:
• (a) Mixture
• (b) Compound
• (c) Mixture

Symbols

Symbols:

• Representations used to denote elements.

• Usually one or two letters, often derived from the element's name.
Examples:

• Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C), Iron (Fe).

Usage:

• Symbols are used in chemical equations, formulas, and periodic table.

Questions:

1. What are symbols?

2. Explain the significance of symbols in chemistry.
3. Give examples of symbols for elements.

Example:

• Question: Write the symbols for the following elements:

• (a) Nitrogen
• (b) Calcium
• (c) Silver
• Answer:
• (a) N
• (b) Ca
• (c) Ag

Formulae and Simple Chemical Equations

Formulae:

• Represents the composition of a compound using symbols and subscripts.

• Shows the ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.

Examples:

• Water (H₂O), Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Sodium chloride (NaCl).

Simple Chemical Equations:

• Represents a chemical reaction using symbols and formulas.

 • Shows the reactants and products of the reaction.

Examples:

1. Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water (2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O)

2. Iron + Oxygen → Iron oxide (4Fe + 3O₂ → 2Fe₂O₃)

Questions:

1. Define formulae and chemical equations.

2. How are formulae and chemical equations useful in chemistry?
3. Write the formulae for the following compounds: Carbon dioxide, Sodium
chloride, Sulfuric acid.

Example:

• Question: Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of

methane (CH₄) in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
• Answer: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O

Law of Chemical Combination

Law of Definite Proportions:

• In a chemical compound, the elements are always combined in fixed

proportions by mass.
• Proposed by Joseph Proust in 1799.

Law of Multiple Proportions:

• When two elements form more than one compound, the ratios of the masses
of the second element that combine with a fixed mass of the first element can
be expressed as small whole numbers.
• Proposed by John Dalton in 1803.

Questions:

1. Explain the laws of chemical combination.

 2. How are the laws of chemical combination significant in understanding
chemical reactions?
3. Provide examples to illustrate the laws of chemical combination.

Example:

• Question: Calculate the mass of oxygen required to combine with 10 grams

of hydrogen to form water (H₂O) according to the law of definite proportions.
• Answer: According to the law of definite proportions, the mass ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen in water is 2:16. Therefore, the mass of oxygen required =
(10/2) × 16 = 80 grams.

Properties of Air and Water

Properties of Air:

• Air is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).

• Other gases include carbon dioxide, argon, and traces of other gases.
• Air is essential for respiration and combustion.

Properties of Water:

• Water is a compound composed of hydrogen and oxygen (H₂O).

• It exists in three states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam).
• Water is a universal solvent and essential for life.

Questions:

1. Describe the properties of air.

2. Explain the properties of water.
3. How do the properties of air and water contribute to their importance in daily
life?

Example:

• Question: Identify the following as properties of air or water:

• (a) Essential for respiration
• (b) Exists in three states
• (c) Composed of nitrogen and oxygen
 • Answer:
• (a) Air
• (b) Water
• (c) Air

Preparation and Properties of Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen,

and Carbon Dioxide

Preparation and Properties of Hydrogen:

• Hydrogen gas can be prepared by the reaction of metals with acids or by

electrolysis of water.
• Properties: Highly flammable, lighter than air, burns with a pale blue flame.

Preparation and Properties of Oxygen:

• Oxygen gas can be obtained by the decomposition of compounds like

potassium chlorate or by electrolysis of water.
• Properties: Supports combustion, necessary for respiration.

Preparation and Properties of Nitrogen:

• Nitrogen gas can be obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air.

• Properties: Inert gas, does not support combustion, makes up 78% of air.

Preparation and Properties of Carbon Dioxide:

• Carbon dioxide can be prepared by the combustion of carbon or by the

reaction of acids with carbonates.
• Properties: Odorless, colorless gas, heavier than air, dissolved in water forms
carbonic acid.

Questions:

1. How is hydrogen prepared? Explain its properties.

2. Describe the preparation and properties of oxygen.
3. What are the methods of preparation and properties of nitrogen and carbon
dioxide?
Example:

• Question: Describe the properties and uses of graphite.

• Answer:
• Properties: Graphite is a soft, black, slippery substance. It is a good
conductor of electricity due to the delocalized electrons between the
layers.
• Uses: Graphite is used in pencils, lubricants, batteries, and as a
moderator in nuclear reactors.

Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation:

• Definition: Oxidation involves the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation

state.
• Example: Rusting of iron (Fe → Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻).

Reduction:

• Definition: Reduction involves the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation

state.
• Example: Reduction of copper (Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu).

Redox Reactions:

• Redox reactions involve both oxidation and reduction.

• Example: Combustion, corrosion, respiration.

Questions:

1. Define oxidation and reduction.

2. Explain the terms oxidizing agent and reducing agent.
3. Give examples of redox reactions.

Example:

• Question: Identify the following reactions as oxidation, reduction, or redox:

• (a) Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
 • (b) 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
• (c) 2NaCl → 2Na + Cl₂
• Answer:
• (a) Oxidation
• (b) Reduction
• (c) Redox

Acids, Bases, and Salts

Acids:

• Definition: Acids are substances that donate protons or accept electrons.

• Properties: Sour taste, turn blue litmus red, react with metals to produce
hydrogen gas.

Bases:

• Definition: Bases are substances that accept protons or donate electrons.

• Properties: Bitter taste, turn red litmus blue, feel slippery.

Salts:

• Definition: Salts are compounds formed by the neutralization of an acid and a

base.
• Properties: Ionic compounds, often soluble in water.

Questions:

1. Define acids, bases, and salts.

2. Explain the properties of acids, bases, and salts.
3. How are acids, bases, and salts useful in daily life?

Example:

• Question: Classify the following substances as acids, bases, or salts:

• (a) Lemon juice (citric acid)
• (b) Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
• (c) Sodium chloride (table salt)
• Answer:
 • (a) Acid
• (b) Base
• (c) Salt

Carbon and its Forms

Allotropes of Carbon:

• Carbon exists in several allotropes, including diamond, graphite, and fullerene.

• Properties of diamond: Hardest natural substance, transparent, poor
conductor of electricity.
• Properties of graphite: Soft, slippery, good conductor of electricity.
• Properties of fullerene: Hollow structure, used in nanotechnology.

Carbon Compounds:

• Organic compounds are compounds containing carbon, often combined with

hydrogen, oxygen, and other elements.
• Examples: Methane (CH₄), Ethanol (C₂H₅OH), Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆).

Questions:

1. What are the allotropes of carbon? Explain their properties.

2. Define organic compounds. Give examples.
3. How are carbon compounds important in daily life?

Example:

• Question: Compare and contrast natural and artificial fertilizers.

• Answer:
• Natural Fertilizers: Derived from organic sources, contain a variety of
nutrients, environmentally friendly but slow-acting.
• Artificial Fertilizers: Manufactured chemical compounds, customizable
nutrient content, faster-acting but can cause environmental pollution.
Natural and Artificial Fertilizers

Natural Fertilizers:

• Derived from natural sources such as compost, manure, and plant residues.
• Contains organic matter and nutrients essential for plant growth.

Artificial Fertilizers:

• Manufactured chemical compounds containing essential nutrients for plant

growth.
• Can be customized to meet specific crop requirements.

Comparison:

Aspect Natural Fertilizers Artificial Fertilizers

Source Organic materials Chemical compounds
Nutrient Content Variable Specific, can be customized
Cost Relatively low Higher
Environmental Impact Minimal Can have environmental consequences

Questions:

1. Differentiate between natural and artificial fertilizers.

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each type of fertilizer.
3. How do fertilizers contribute to crop production?

Example:

• Question: Describe the properties and uses of graphite.

• Answer:
• Properties: Graphite is a soft, black, slippery substance. It is a good
conductor of electricity due to the delocalized electrons between the
layers.
• Uses: Graphite is used in pencils, lubricants, batteries, and as a
moderator in nuclear reactors.
Elementary Ideas about the Structure of Atom, Atomic,
Equivalent, and Molecular Weights

Structure of Atom:

• Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, while electrons orbit around
the nucleus in energy levels.

Atomic Weight:

• Atomic weight is the average mass of an atom of an element, taking into

account the isotopes and their relative abundance.

Equivalent Weight:

• Equivalent weight is the mass of a substance that combines with or displaces

one mole of hydrogen ions (H⁺) in a chemical reaction.

Molecular Weight:

• Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a
molecule.

Questions:

1. Describe the structure of an atom.

2. What is atomic weight? How is it determined?
3. Define equivalent weight and molecular weight.

Example:

• Question: Calculate the molecular weight of water (H₂O).

• Answer:
• Molecular weight of H₂O = 2(Atomic weight of hydrogen) + Atomic
weight of oxygen
• Molecular weight of H₂O = 2(1.008) + 16.00
• Molecular weight of H₂O = 18.02 g/mol
Sure, here are the notes covering those topics:

Physical Properties and States of Matter

Physical Properties:

• Characteristics of matter that can be observed or measured without changing its chemical
composition.
• Examples: Color, density, melting point, boiling point.

States of Matter:

• The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.

• Changes in temperature and pressure can cause substances to change states.

Questions:

1. Define physical properties and give examples.

2. Explain the three states of matter.
3. How does temperature affect the states of matter?

Example:

• Question: Describe the physical properties of water.

• Answer:
• Color: Colorless
• Density: 1 g/cm³
• Melting Point: 0°C
• Boiling Point: 100°C

Mass, Weight, Volume, Density, and Specific Gravity

Mass:

• The amount of matter in an object, measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g).

Weight:

• The force exerted on an object due to gravity, measured in newtons (N) or pounds (lbs).

Volume:

• The amount of space occupied by an object, measured in cubic meters (m³) or cubic
centimeters (cm³).

Density:

• The mass of a substance per unit volume, measured in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³)
or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³).

Specific Gravity:

• The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water.

Questions:

1. Define mass, weight, volume, density, and specific gravity.

2. How are mass and weight different?
3. Explain how to calculate density.

Example:

• Question: Calculate the density of a substance with a mass of 50 grams and a volume of
25 cm³.
• Answer:
• Density = Mass / Volume
• Density = 50 g / 25 cm³ = 2 g/cm³

Principle of Archimedes, Pressure, and Barometer

Principle of Archimedes:

• An object immersed in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal to the weight
of the fluid it displaces.

Pressure:

• Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area.
 • Formula: Pressure = Force / Area

Barometer:

• An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.

• Types: Mercury barometer, Aneroid barometer.

Questions:

1. Explain the principle of Archimedes.

2. Define pressure and describe its units.
3. How does a barometer work?

Example:

• Question: A solid has a weight of 500 N and displaces 0.1 m³ of water. Calculate the
buoyant force acting on it.
• Answer:
• Buoyant Force = Weight of water displaced
• Buoyant Force = Density of water × Volume × Gravity
• Buoyant Force = 1000 kg/m³ × 0.1 m³ × 9.8 m/s² = 980 N

Motion of Objects, Velocity, and Acceleration

Motion:

• Change in position of an object with respect to time.

Velocity:

• The rate of change of displacement of an object.

• Formula: Velocity = Displacement / Time

Acceleration:

• The rate of change of velocity of an object.

• Formula: Acceleration = Change in velocity / Time

Questions:

1. Define motion and describe its types.

2. What is velocity? How is it different from speed?
 3. Explain acceleration and give examples.

Example:

• Question: A car accelerates from rest at a rate of 2 m/s² for 5 seconds. Calculate its final
velocity.
• Answer:
• Initial velocity (u) = 0 m/s
• Acceleration (a) = 2 m/s²
• Time (t) = 5 seconds
• Final velocity (v) = u + at
• Final velocity (v) = 0 m/s + (2 m/s² × 5 s) = 10 m/s

Newton's Laws of Motion

First Law (Law of Inertia):

• An object will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.

Second Law (Law of Acceleration):

• The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.
• Formula: F = ma

Third Law (Action and Reaction):

• For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Questions:

1. Describe Newton's first law of motion.

2. Explain the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration.
3. Give examples of each of Newton's laws.

Example:

• Question: A force of 20 N is applied to a mass of 5 kg. Calculate the acceleration of the

object.
• Answer:
• Mass (m) = 5 kg
• Force (F) = 20 N
 • Acceleration (a) = F / m
• Acceleration (a) = 20 N / 5 kg = 4 m/s²

Force and Momentum

Force:

• A push or pull on an object that causes it to change its velocity.

• Formula: Force = Mass × Acceleration

Momentum:

• The product of an object's mass and velocity.

• Formula: Momentum = Mass × Velocity

Questions:

1. Define force and momentum.

2. How are force and acceleration related?
3. Explain the principle of conservation of momentum.

Example:

• Question: A car with a mass of 1000 kg accelerates from rest to a velocity of 20 m/s in 10
seconds. Calculate its momentum.
• Answer:
• Mass (m) = 1000 kg
• Velocity (v) = 20 m/s
• Momentum = Mass × Velocity
• Momentum = 1000 kg × 20 m/s = 20,000 kg m/s

Parallelogram of Forces, Stability, and Equilibrium of Bodies

Parallelogram of Forces:

• A graphical method used to find the resultant of two forces acting at a point.
Stability and Equilibrium:

• An object is in stable equilibrium if it returns to its original position when displaced

slightly.
• An object is in unstable equilibrium if it moves away from its original position when
displaced slightly.

Questions:

1. Explain the parallelogram of forces.

2. Describe stable and unstable equilibrium.
3. How do you find the resultant of non-parallel forces?

Example:

• Question: Two forces of 10 N and 15 N act at an angle of 60 degrees to each other. Find
their resultant force.
• Answer:
• Resultant force (R) = √(10² + 15² + 2 × 10 × 15 × cos 60)
• R = √(100 + 225 + 150)
• R = √475 ≈ 21.8 N

Gravitation

Gravitation:

• The force of attraction between two masses.

• Formula: F = G (m₁m₂/r²)

Questions:

1. What is gravitation?
2. Explain the universal law of gravitation.
3. How does the force of gravitation change with distance?

Example:

• Question: Calculate the gravitational force between two objects with masses of 50 kg
and 100 kg separated by a distance of 5 meters.
• Answer:
• F = (6.67 × 10^-11 Nm²/kg²)(50 kg)(100 kg) / (5 m)²
• F ≈ 2.67 × 10^-10 N
Elementary Ideas of Work, Power, and Energy

Work:

• The product of force and displacement in the direction of the force.

• Formula: Work = Force × Displacement × cos θ

Power:

• The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.

• Formula: Power = Work / Time

Energy:

• The capacity to do work.

• Types: Kinetic energy, potential energy.

Questions:

1. Define work, power, and energy.

2. How is work related to force and displacement?
3. Explain the different forms of energy.

Example:

• Question: Calculate the power required to lift a 200 N object to a height of 10 meters in
5 seconds.
• Answer:
• Work = Force × Displacement = 200 N × 10 m = 2000 J
• Power = Work / Time = 2000 J / 5 s = 400 W

Heat and its Effects

Heat:

• The transfer of thermal energy between objects due to temperature differences.

Effects of Heat:
 • Change in temperature, change in state, expansion, and contraction of materials.

Questions:

1. Define heat.
2. How is heat transferred between objects?
3. Explain the effects of heat.

Example:

• Question: What happens to the volume of a liquid when it is heated?

• Answer: The volume of the liquid increases due to expansion.

Sound Waves and their Properties, Reflection and Refraction

Sound Waves:

• Longitudinal waves that require a medium to propagate.

• Properties: Frequency, wavelength, amplitude, speed of sound.

Reflection:

• The bouncing back of a wave when it encounters a surface.

• Laws of reflection: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection.

Refraction:

• The bending of a wave when it passes from one medium to another.

• Laws of refraction: Snell's Law.

Questions:

1. Describe sound waves and their properties.

2. Explain the phenomena of reflection and refraction.
3. How does the speed of sound change in different mediums?

Example:

• Question: A sound wave traveling in air enters water. Describe how its speed and
wavelength change.
• Answer:
• The speed of sound increases in water, and the wavelength decreases.
Spherical Mirrors and Lenses

Spherical Mirrors:

• Concave and convex mirrors.

• Image formation: Real and virtual images.

Lenses:

• Convex and concave lenses.

• Image formation: Real and virtual images.

Questions:

1. Describe concave and convex mirrors.

2. Explain how images are formed by mirrors and lenses.
3. What are the differences between real and virtual images?

Example:

• Question: Describe the image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed
between the focus and the mirror.
• Answer: The image formed is virtual, upright, and magnified.

Types and Properties of Magnets

Types of Magnets:

• Permanent magnets: Retain their magnetism.

• Temporary magnets: Lose their magnetism easily.

Properties:

• Attraction and repulsion, magnetic field, magnetic poles.

Questions:

1. Differentiate between permanent and temporary magnets.

2. Explain the properties of magnets.
 3. How are magnetic fields produced?

Example:

• Question: Describe the properties of a magnetic field around a bar magnet.

• Answer:
• The magnetic field is strongest at the poles and weakest at the center.

Static and Current Electricity

Static Electricity:

• The accumulation of electric charge on an object.

• Examples: Lightning, static shock.

Current Electricity:

• The flow of electric charge through a conductor.

• Types: AC (Alternating current), DC (Direct current).

Questions:

1. What is static electricity?

2. Describe the flow of current electricity.
3. How are static and current electricity different?

Example:

• Question: Explain how static electricity is generated.

• Answer:
• Static electricity is generated by friction between two objects.

Conductors and Non-conductors

Conductors:

• Materials that allow the flow of electric charge.

 • Examples: Metals, electrolytes.

Non-conductors (Insulators):

• Materials that do not allow the flow of electric charge.

• Examples: Rubber, glass.

Questions:

1. Define conductors and non-conductors.

2. Give examples of each.
3. How do conductors and non-conductors affect the flow of electricity?

Example:

• Question: Give examples of good conductors and insulators.

• Answer:
• Conductors: Copper, aluminum
• Insulators: Rubber, plastic

Ohm's Law, Simple Electrical Circuits, and Heating

Ohm's Law:

• The current flowing through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points.
• Formula: V = IR

Simple Electrical Circuits:

• Components: Voltage source, conductors, resistors, switches.

Heating Effect of Electric Current:

• When an electric current passes through a conductor, it produces heat.

Questions:

1. State Ohm's Law and explain its significance.

2. Describe the components of a simple electrical circuit.
3. How does electric current produce heat?
Example:

• Question: Calculate the current passing through a resistor with a resistance of 20 ohms
connected to a voltage source of 100 volts.
• Answer:
• Using Ohm's Law: V = IR
• I = V / R = 100 V / 20 Ω = 5 A

These comprehensive notes cover the topics extensively, including points, tables, questions, and
examples, providing a strong foundation for the Army Nursing Assistant exam preparation.

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topic:

Physical Properties and States of Matter

Physical Properties:

Property Definition
Color Visible hue of a substance
Density Mass per unit volume
Melting Point Temperature at which a solid melts
Boiling Point Temperature at which a liquid boils

States of Matter:

State Description
Solid Definite shape and volume, particles closely packed
Liquid Definite volume but no definite shape, particles less packed
Gas No definite shape or volume, particles highly spaced out
Formulas:

1. Density (ρ) = Mass (m) / Volume (V)

2. Volume = Mass / Density
3. Pressure = Force / Area

Examples:

1. Physical Properties:
• Color: Gold has a distinctive yellow color.
• Density: Iron has a density of 7.87 g/cm³.
• Melting Point: The melting point of ice is 0°C.
2. States of Matter:
• Solid: Ice is a solid at room temperature.
• Liquid: Water flows and takes the shape of its container.
• Gas: Oxygen in the air is a gas.
3. Formulas:
• Density: Calculate the density of a substance with a mass of 50 grams
and a volume of 25 cm³.
• Solution: Density = Mass / Volume = 50 g / 25 cm³ = 2 g/cm³
• Volume: Find the volume of an object with a mass of 100 grams and a
density of 2 g/cm³.
• Solution: Volume = Mass / Density = 100 g / 2 g/cm³ = 50 cm³
• Pressure: Calculate the pressure exerted by a force of 50 N on an area
of 5 m².
• Solution: Pressure = Force / Area = 50 N / 5 m² = 10 N/m²

Mass, Weight, Volume, Density, and Specific Gravity

Formulas:

Quantity Formula
Density (ρ) Density = Mass / Volume
Specific Gravity Specific Gravity = Density of substance / Density of water
Weight Weight = Mass × Acceleration due to gravity (w = mg)

Examples:
 1. Calculate the density of a substance with a mass of 40 grams and a volume of
10 cm³.
• Solution: Density = Mass / Volume = 40 g / 10 cm³ = 4 g/cm³
2. Find the specific gravity of a substance with a density of 2 g/cm³.
• Solution: Specific Gravity = Density of substance / Density of water = 2
g/cm³ / 1 g/cm³ = 2
3. Calculate the weight of a 5 kg object on the surface of the Earth.
• Solution: Weight = Mass × Acceleration due to gravity = 5 kg × 9.8
m/s² = 49 N

Principle of Archimedes, Pressure, and Barometer

Formulas:

Quantity Formula
Pressure Pressure = Force / Area
Buoyant Force Buoyant Force = Density × Volume × Acceleration due to gravity
Atmospheric Atmospheric Pressure = h × ρ × g (where h is the height of the mercury column, ρ is the
Pressure density of mercury, and g is the acceleration due to gravity)

Examples:

1. Calculate the pressure exerted by a force of 100 N on an area of 10 m².

• Solution: Pressure = Force / Area = 100 N / 10 m² = 10 N/m²
2. Find the buoyant force acting on an object with a volume of 0.1 m³ and a
density of 1000 kg/m³.
• Solution: Buoyant Force = Density × Volume × Acceleration due to
gravity = 1000 kg/m³ × 0.1 m³ × 9.8 m/s² = 980 N
3. Determine the atmospheric pressure using a mercury barometer with a
height of 0.76 m.
• Solution: Atmospheric Pressure = h × ρ × g = 0.76 m × 13600 kg/m³ ×
9.8 m/s² = 99808 Pa
Motion of Objects, Velocity, and Acceleration

Formulas:

Quantity Formula
Velocity Velocity = Displacement / Time
Acceleration Acceleration = Change in Velocity / Time
Final Velocity Final Velocity = Initial Velocity + (Acceleration × Time)
Distance Travelled Distance = Initial Velocity × Time + (0.5 × Acceleration × Time²)

Examples:

1. A car accelerates from rest at a rate of 2 m/s² for 5 seconds. Calculate its final
velocity.
• Solution: Final Velocity = Initial Velocity + (Acceleration × Time) = 0 +
(2 m/s² × 5 s) = 10 m/s
2. An object falls freely from a height of 50 meters. Calculate its final velocity
just before hitting the ground.
• Solution: Final Velocity = √(2 × 9.8 m/s² × 50 m) = √(980 m²/s²) = 31.3
m/s
3. A train starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2 m/s² for 10 seconds.
Calculate the distance it travels during this time.
• Solution: Distance = Initial Velocity × Time + (0.5 × Acceleration ×
Time²) = 0 + (0.5 × 2 m/s² × (10 s)²) = 100 m

Newton's Laws of Motion

Formulas:

Law Formula
Second Law F = ma
Momentum Momentum = Mass × Velocity
Gravitational Force F = G (m₁m₂ / r²)

Examples:

1. Calculate the force required to accelerate a 10 kg mass at a rate of 5 m/s².

 • Solution: F = m × a = 10 kg × 5 m/s² = 50 N
2. An object with a mass of 2 kg moves with a velocity of 3 m/s. Calculate its
momentum.
• Solution: Momentum = Mass × Velocity = 2 kg × 3 m/s = 6 kg m/s
3. Determine the gravitational force between two masses of 100 kg and 200 kg
separated by a distance of 10 meters.
• Solution: F = G (m₁m₂ / r²) = (6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N m²/kg²) × ((100 kg) × (200
kg) / (10 m)²) = 1.34 × 10⁻⁶ N

Force and Momentum

Formulas:

Quantity Formula
Force F = ma
Momentum Momentum = Mass × Velocity

Examples:

1. A force of 50 N is applied to an object with a mass of 5 kg. Calculate its

acceleration.
• Solution: a = F / m = 50 N / 5 kg = 10 m/s²
2. An object with a mass of 10 kg moves with a velocity of 4 m/s. Calculate its
momentum.
• Solution: Momentum = Mass × Velocity = 10 kg × 4 m/s = 40 kg m/s
3. Determine the force required to stop a moving object with a momentum of
20 kg m/s.
• Solution: F = Δp / Δt = (0 - 20 kg m/s) / (1 s - 0 s) = -20 N (negative
sign indicates opposite direction)

Parallelogram of Forces, Stability, and Equilibrium of Bodies

Formulas:
 Quantity Formula
Resultant Force R = √(P² + Q² + 2PQcosθ)
Moment of Force Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance from the pivot
Torque Torque = Force × Distance

Examples:

1. Find the resultant force of two forces of 10 N and 15 N at an angle of 60

degrees.
• Solution: R = √(10² + 15² + 2(10)(15)cos60°) = √(100 + 225 + 2(10)(15)
× 0.5) = √(325 + 150) = √475 ≈ 21.8 N
2. Calculate the moment of a force of 20 N applied at a distance of 3 meters
from the pivot.
• Solution: Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance = 20 N × 3 m = 60
Nm
3. Determine the torque produced by a force of 30 N applied at a distance of 5
meters from the pivot.
• Solution: Torque = Force × Distance = 30 N × 5 m = 150 Nm