DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPTS OF

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

SOLOMON ESTIFANOS

FEBRUARY, 2024
1 DEBRE BERHAN, ETHIOPIA
Topics to be Covered
 Purpose of Studying Research Methods

 What is Research?

 Purpose of Research

 Motivation in Research

 Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

 Types of Research

 The Systematic Process of Research

 Characteristics of Good Research

 Qualities of Good Research

 Research Ethics

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Purpose of Studying Research Methods

 Research has become a prevailing phenomenon of the world’s

civilization that all of us are impacted by it.

 Advances in many fields of endeavor are attributed to research,

and for much of these research activities there is an inherent
assumption that research fosters development.

 Research activities uses various research methods ranging from

relatively simple single operations to complex combination of
procedures, both qualitative and quantitative.

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Purpose . . . Con’t . . .

 Before research can be put in to practice, some skills must be

acquired. Acquiring research skills may be helpful for the
following reasons;

We may often need more information before making certain

decisions
We may also be called up on to do a research for a higher level
executives
We may again need to buy research services from others, or at
least evaluate research done by others or
We may find a career position as a research specialist in various
areas of our discipline
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Purpose . . . Con’t . . .

 Generally, knowing what to do in a specific situation is

very important
How is a research problem identified?
What procedures apply in pursuing the solution of the
specific problem?
How are the data to be collected, analyzed and interpreted?
How can a satisfactory report be produced?

All these questions call for certain research skills

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What is Research?
Research is;
 Application of scientific method in the study of problems. It is a
systematic attempt to obtain answers to questions about events
through the application of scientific procedures
 Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic
 Systematic inquiry aimed at providing information to solve
problems

 Systematic process of collecting and analyzing information for

some purpose
 Research is scientific because it is just a search for knowledge through
recognized methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation
6  It is systematic because it uses some steps or procedures in doing this
Purpose of Research
 The purpose of research is to discover new ideas or
solutions through the application of scientific
procedures.

 Research has a clearly articulated goal

Examples:
o Test a current theory
o Add details to a theory
o Replace a theory with a better one
o Write a new theory where none existed, etc.

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  In general the purpose of research may be either of the
following:
✓Exploration
✓Description
✓Explanation

 The main factors to be considered before embarking on

research include:
✓Type and nature of information sought
✓Timing
✓Availability of resources
✓Cost/benefit analysis
✓Ethical considerations
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Motivation in Research
 The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of
the following:
✓ Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
✓ Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
✓ Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
✓ Desire to be of service to society;
✓ Desire to get respectability.

 Many more factors such as directives of government,

employment conditions, curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships, social
9 thinking and awakening and so on.
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
1. Authority: When knowledge is obtained from individuals who are
qualified producers of knowledge.
o E.g. knowledge about religion from priests and sheiks, students get knowledge
from teachers, students, etc…

2. Tradition: When we accept without questioning the traditions,

customs or culture of our forefathers or the society within which we are
living
o E.g. it is not culturally accepted for males to wear females’ dresses.

3. Experience: Our personal experience or our observation of the

experiences of other people is another fundamental source of knowledge.
We need no one to tell us about it.
o E.g. we know rainy months in a year from our experience.

4. Reasoning: Knowledge can be obtained based on some rules and forms

of logic. It can be Deductive or Inductive.
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Methods of Acquiring . . . Con’t . . .
5. Scientific Method: This integrates the most important aspects of the
inductive and deductive methods. Here knowledge will be obtained
through a step by step process of collecting data, analyzing it and reaching
at a conclusion
 Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical
considerations. Scientific method is based on certain basic postulates which
can be stated as follows:
 It relies on empirical evidence
 It utilizes relevant concepts
 It is committed to only objective considerations
 It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e. it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects
 It results in to probabilistic predictions
 Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use in
testing the conclusions through replication
11  It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories
Types of Research
 Since the kind of research selected will determine the
conduct of research, research can be classified based on:
The goal of research,
The specific objectives of research,
The approaches used by the research,
The designs used,
The type of data used in research, and
The fields of study

 Research can be classified in different ways: Descriptive and

Analytical; Basic and Applied; Qualitative and Quantitative;
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Conceptual and Empirical; etc…
A. Descriptive Vs Analytical
 Descriptive Research: includes surveys and fact-finding inquiry of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present

 The researcher has no control over the variables. He can only

report what has happened or what is happening.
Example: The frequency of shopping by people, the preference of people,
the number of employed workers in a factory, etc.

 Analytical Research: the researcher has to use facts or information

already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.
 Attempt to model empirically the social phenomena under
investigation. It asks “why” and tries to find the answer to a
13 problem.
B. Applied Vs Fundamental
 Applied Research: aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.
 The aim is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem
 Theory is less central than seeking a solution to specific problem

 Fundamental (Basic or Pure) Research: is mainly concerned with

generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Simply,
gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or
‘basic’ research.
 It is primarily concern is understanding of the fundamental nature of
social reality
 It is the source of most scientific ideas and ways of thinking
 It is mostly exploratory in nature
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 Mostly deductive - seeks new conclusions from current assumptions
C. Quantitative Vs Qualitative
 Quantitative Research: it is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity
Most often we are testing a hypothesis
 We collect data and see whether the hypothesis is
consistent with the data
 It often takes longer- identifying, collecting, and analyzing
appropriate data is difficult and expensive.
This approach can be further subdivided into:
 Inferential,
 Experimental and
 Simulation approaches.
 The purpose of Inferential Approach is to form a database from
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which to infer characteristics or relationships of populations.
 Con’t …
 Experimental Approach is characterized by much greater
control over the research environment.
 Some or all the variables are manipulated to observe their
effect on other variables.
 Simulation Approach involves the construction of
artificial environment within which relevant information and
data can be generated.
 This permits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a
system under controlled conditions.
 Given values of initial conditions, parameters and
exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the
behavior of the process over time.
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 Con’t …

 Qualitative Research: is concerned with qualitative

phenomenon, i.e. phenomena relating to or involving quality
or kind

For instance,
✓ Motivation Research: investigating the reasons for human behavior. This
type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires,
using in depth interviews for the purpose

✓ Attitude or Opinion Research: research designed to find out how people

feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution

• To apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a

difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one
should seek guidance from experimental psychologists
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D. Conceptual Vs Empirical
 Conceptual Research: is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones
 Empirical Research: relies on experience or observation
alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is
data based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment.
 In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively
to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information
 In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis
 Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to
be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
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E. Some Other Types of Research

 One-time Research or Longitudinal Research: from the point of view of time

 Field-setting Research or Laboratory Research or Simulation Research -

depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out

 Exploratory or Formalized Research: depending on the nature of hypothesis

developed and its testability

 Historical Research: depending the resource the study utilizes

 Conclusion-Oriented and Decision-Oriented Research: depending on the

orientation that the researcher made at the final part of the study

 Operations Research: it is a scientific method of providing executive

departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under
their control
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The Systematic Process of Research

 Useful procedural guideline regarding the

research process;
 Selecting a Topic

Formulating the Research Problem and Research Questions

 Extensive Literature Review

Formulation of Working Hypothesis

 Preparing the Research Design and Sample Design

 Collecting the Data (Execution)

 Analysis of Data (Including Test of Hypothesis)

 Drawing Conclusions
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Process of Research Con’t…

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Characteristics of a Good Research
 Although studies differ in various ways, they all meet the common ground
of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to
satisfy the following criteria:
✓ The purpose of the research should be clearly defined

✓ The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to

permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement
✓ The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible
✓ The researcher should report with complete frankness, defects in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings
✓ The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully

✓ Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research

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and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis
Good Research Con’t . . .
In other words, Good Research will have the following qualities:
 Good Research is Systematic: It means that research is structured with
specified steps in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research reject the use of guessing and
intuition in arriving at conclusions

 Good Research is Logical: This implies that research is guided by the

rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and
deduction are of great value in carrying out research

 Good Research is Empirical: It implies that research is related basically

to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that
provides a basis for external validity to research results

 Good Research is Replicable: This characteristic allows research results

to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis
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Research Ethics
Shared Values
 There is no one best way to undertake research. There is no universal
method that applies to all scientific investigations.
 Accepted practices for the conduct of research can and do vary from
discipline to discipline.
 Some of the most important shared values include:
✓ HONESTY — conveying information truthfully and honoring
commitments,
✓ ACCURACY — reporting findings precisely and taking care to avoid
errors,
✓ EFFICIENCY — using resources wisely and avoiding waste, and
✓ OBJECTIVITY — letting the facts speak for themselves and avoiding
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improper bias.
Research Ethics Con’t . . .
During Data Collection
 Some ethical principles governing data collection include:
 Informed consent,
 Respect for privacy and
 Safeguarding the confidentiality of data
 Thus, collection of data illegally, under false pretences, from
minors, etc is unethical.
 Getting access and consent to do research is therefore,
essential.

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Research Ethics Con’t . . .
During Analysis (Misuse of data)
 Fabrication and falsification of research results are
serious forms of misconduct.
 It is a primary responsibility of a researcher to avoid either a false
statement or an omission that distorts the truth.

 Every researcher has an obligation to maintain a clear

and complete record of data acquired. Records should
include sufficient detail to permit examination for the purpose of ;
 Replicating the research,
 Responding to questions that may result from unintentional
error or misinterpretation,
 Establishing authenticity of the records, and
 Confirming the validity of the conclusions.
 Negative (unexpected) results must be reported.
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Research Ethics Con’t . . .
When writing the research paper - Plagiarism
 Plagiarism is the unauthorized use of someone else's thoughts or
wording either by
• Incorrect documentation, failing to cite your sources altogether, or
• Simply by relying too heavily on external resources.

 Whether intentional or inadvertent some or all of another

author's ideas become represented as your own. Plagiarizing
undermines your academic integrity.
 Incidentally, plagiarism also includes informal published material
such as the "buying" of a paper from another student.
 Because it is intellectual theft, plagiarism is considered as an
academic crime with punishment
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Research Ethics Con’t . . .
 Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide normal choices about
our behavior and our relationship with others

 The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers

adverse consequence from research activities

In general, researchers should be ethical in the following points;

 Violating participants confidentiality
 Changing data or creating false data to meet desired objective
 Changing data presentation and analysis
 Interpreting data from biased perspective
 Omitting sections of data analysis
 Making recommendation beyond the data collected
 No plagiarism
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References in Use

 C.R. Kothari. 2004. Research Methodology:

Methods and Techniques. Second Revised Edition.

 Ranjit Kumar. 2005. Research Methodology: A

step-by-step guide for beginners. London. Sage
Publications

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