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The document discusses different types of physical sensors including strain gauges, capacitive transducers, and piezoelectric transducers. Strain gauges measure changes in length through resistance changes. Capacitive transducers can measure displacement, force, or pressure by changing the separation distance or configuration of capacitor plates. Piezoelectric transducers generate electric charges or voltages when mechanically strained via crystals like quartz.

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8 views

Lec 4

The document discusses different types of physical sensors including strain gauges, capacitive transducers, and piezoelectric transducers. Strain gauges measure changes in length through resistance changes. Capacitive transducers can measure displacement, force, or pressure by changing the separation distance or configuration of capacitor plates. Piezoelectric transducers generate electric charges or voltages when mechanically strained via crystals like quartz.

Uploaded by

abdulaziz.moha17
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lect.

Physical Sensors and Measurement - II

1.4 Strain Gauge Transducers

Strain gauges are displacement-type transducers that measure changes in


the length of an object as a result of an applied force. These transducers
produce a resistance change that is proportional to the fractional change in
the length of the object, also called strain, S, which is defined as
∆𝑙
𝑆= … … … . (1)
𝑙
where ∆l is the fractional change in length, and l is the initial length of the
object. Examples include resistive wire elements and certain semiconductor
materials. To understand how a strain gauge works, consider a fine wire
conductor of length, l, cross-sectional area, A, and resistivity, 𝜌. The
resistance of the unstretched wire is given by :
𝑙
𝑅 = 𝜌 … … … … … (2)
𝐴
Now suppose that the wire is stretched within its elastic limit by a small
amount, ∆l, such that its new length becomes (l + ∆l). Because the volume of
the stretched wire must remain constant, the increase in the wire length
results in a smaller cross-sectional 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 . Thus,

l×A = (l + ∆l) × 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 ……………. (3)

The resistance of the stretched wire is given by:


𝑙 + ∆𝑙
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 = 𝜌 × … … … … … (4)
𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑
The increase in the resistance of the stretched wire ∆R is:
Asst.Lect. Atheer Jamhour Physical Sensors and Measurement-II

𝑙
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 − 𝜌 × … … … … … (5)
𝐴
Substituting Eq. (4) and the value for 𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 from Eq. (3) into Eq. (5)
gives:

…….. (6)

Assume that for small changes in length, ∆l << l, this relationship simplifies
to:

………… (7)

The fractional change in resistance, (∆R/R), divided by the fractional change


in length, (∆l/l), is called the gauge factor, G. Note that G is a unit less
number. Accordingly, the gauge factor provides sensitivity information on
the expected change in resistance for a given change in the length of a strain
gauge. The gauge factor varies with temperature and the type of material.
Therefore, it is important to select a material with a high gauge factor and
small temperature coefficient. For a common metal wire strain gauge made
of constantan, G is approximately equal to 2. Semiconductor strain gauges
made of silicon have a gauge factor about 70 to 100 times higher and are
therefore much more sensitive than metallic wire strain gauges.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.1

2
Lecture Three Asst.Lect. Atheer Jamhour

Strain gauges typically fall into two categories: bonded or unbounded. A


bonded strain gauge has a folded thin wire cemented to a semiflexible
backing material, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. An unbounded strain gauge
consists of multiple resistive wires (typically four) stretched between a fixed
and a movable rigid frame. In this configuration, when a deforming force is
applied to the structure, two of the wires are stretched, and the other two are
shortened proportionally.

FIGURE 4.1 A bonded-type strain gauge transducer.

2.4 Capacitive Transducers

The capacitance, C (in farad), between two equal-size parallel plates of cross-
sectional area, A, separated by a distance, d, is given by:
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀𝑜 × 𝜀𝑟 × … … … … . . (8)
𝑑
where 𝜀𝑜 is the dielectric constant of free space (8.85 × 10−12 F/m), and 𝜀𝑟 is
the relative dielectric constant of the insulating material placed between the
two plates. The method that is most commonly employed to measure
displacement is to change the separation distance, d, between a fixed and a
movable plate, as illustrated in Figure 4.2a. This arrangement can be used to
measure force, pressure, or acceleration. Alternatively, it is possible to add a
third plate and form a differential-type capacitance transducer (Figure 4.2b).
In this configuration, two of the plates are stationary, whereas the middle

3
Asst.Lect. Atheer Jamhour Physical Sensors and Measurement-II

plate can be moved freely relative to the position of the other plates, thus
creating two variable-size capacitors. Accordingly, movement of the middle
plate, which will change the initial distance, d, by ∆d, will change the
distance between two adjacent plates such that one capacitor will increase
while the other will decrease in value. This double-capacitor arrangement
provides improved sensitivity and can be incorporated into a Wheatstone
bridge configuration.

Capacitance sensors can be mass-produced using solid-state


microfabrication techniques that are commonly employed in making
integrated circuits.

FIGURE 4.2 Capacitive displacement transducer: (a) single capacitance and


(b) differential capacitance.

Accordingly, movement of the middle plate, which will change the initial
distance, d, by ±∆d, will change the distance between two adjacent plates
such that one capacitor will increase while the other will decrease in value.
This double-capacitor arrangement provides improved sensitivity and can
be incorporated into a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Capacitance
sensors can be mass-produced using solid-state microfabrication techniques
that are commonly employed in making integrated circuits.

Capacitive displacement transducers can be used to measure respiration or


movement by attaching multiple transducers to a mat that is placed on a bed.

4
Lecture Three Asst.Lect. Atheer Jamhour

A capacitive displacement transducer can also be used as a pressure


transducer by attaching the movable plate to a thin diaphragm that is in
contact with a fluid or air. By applying a voltage across the capacitor and
amplifying the small AC signal generated by the movement of the
diaphragm, it is possible to obtain a signal that is proportional to the applied
external pressure source.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.2

3.4 Piezoelectric Transducers

Piezoelectric transducers are used in cardiology to listen to heart sounds


(phonocardiography), in automated blood pressure measurements, and for
measurement of physiological forces and accelerations. They are also
commonly employed in generating ultrasonic waves (high-frequency sound
waves typically above 20 kHz) that are used for measuring blood flow or
imaging internal soft structures in the body. A piezoelectric transducer
consists of a small crystal (e.g., quartz) that contracts if an electric field
(usually in the form of a short voltage impulse) is applied across its plates,
as illustrated in Figure 4.3. Conversely, if the crystal is mechanically strained,
it will generate a small electric potential. Besides quartz, several other
ceramic materials, such as barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate, are
also known to produce a piezoelectric effect.

The piezoelectric principle is based on the phenomenon that when an


asymmetrical crystal lattice is distorted by an applied force, F, the internal
negative and positive charges are reoriented. This causes an induced surface

5
Asst.Lect. Atheer Jamhour Physical Sensors and Measurement-II

charge, Q, on the opposite sides of the crystal. The induced charge is directly
proportional to the applied force and is given by:

Q = k × F ………… (9)

FIGURE 4.3 Ultrasonic transducer.

where k is a proportionality constant for the specific piezoelectric material.


By assuming that the piezoelectric crystal acts like a parallel plate capacitor,
the voltage across the crystal, V, is given by:
∆𝑄
∆𝑉 = … … … … . . (10)
𝐶
where C is the equivalent capacitance of the crystal.

Since the crystal has an internal leakage resistance, any steady charge
produced across its surfaces will eventually be dissipated. Consequently,
these piezoelectric transducers are not suitable for measuring a steady or
low-frequency DC force. Instead, they are used either as variable force
transducers or as mechanically resonating devices to generate high
frequencies (typically from 1 to 10 MHz) either in crystal-controlled
oscillators or as ultrasonic pulse transducers. the time, t, it takes the
ultrasonic pulse to propagate across the object can be measured and used to
calculate the separation distance, d, of the two transducers from the
following relationship:

𝑑 = 𝑐𝑡 × 𝑡 … … . (11)

6
Lecture Three Asst.Lect. Atheer Jamhour

3.5 The Wheatstone bridge


 A clever circuit to measure very small changes in resistance is called a
Wheatstone bridge.
 A schematic diagram of a simple Wheatstone bridge circuit is shown
to the right.
 As seen in the sketch, a DC supply voltage is supplied (top to bottom)
across the bridge, which contains four resistors (two parallel legs of
two resistors each in series).
 The output voltage is measured across the legs in the middle of the
bridge.
 In the analysis here, it is assumed that the measuring device
(voltmeter, oscilloscope, computerized digital data acquisition system,
etc.) used to measure output voltage Vo has an infinite input impedance,
and therefore has no effect on the circuit.

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