Wireless Networking and Mobile Chapter One Wireless Communication for voice and data

Computing(ITec3104)

Chapter one

1. Introduction

Wireless communication is among technology’s biggest contributions to mankind. Wireless

communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without help of wires,
cables or any other forms of electrical conductors. The transmitted distance can be anywhere
between a few meters (for example, a television’s remote control) and thousands of kilometres (for
example, radio communication). Some of the devices used for wireless communication are cordless
telephones, mobiles, GPS units, wireless computer parts, and satellite television.

Wireless technology is the method of delivering data from one point to another without using
physical wires, and includes radio, cellular, infrared, and satellite. A historic perspective will
provide you with a general understanding of the substantial evolution that has taken place in this
area. The common wireless networks of today originated from many evolutionary stages of wireless
communications and telegraph and radio applications. Although some discoveries occurred in the
early 1800s, much of the evolution of wireless communication began with the emergence of the
electrical age and was affected by modern economics as much as by discoveries in physics.

1.1. History of Wireless Network

In the 19th century, numerous inventors and scientists, including Michael Faraday, James Clerk
Maxwell, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, Nikola Tesla, David Edward Hughes, Thomas Edison, and
Guglielmo Marconi, began to experiment with wireless communications. These innovators
discovered and created many theories about the concepts of electrical magnetic radio frequency
(RF).

Wireless networking technology was first used by the U.S. military during World War II to transmit
data over an RF medium using classified encryption technology, to send battle plans across enemy
lines. The spread spectrum radio technologies often used in today’s WLANs were also originally
patented during the era of World War II, although they were not implemented until almost two
decades later.

In 1970, the University of Hawaii developed the first wireless network, called ALOHA net, to
wirelessly communicate data between the Hawaiian Islands. The network used a LAN
communication Open Systems Interconnection layer 2 protocols called ALOHA on a wireless
shared medium in the 400 MHz frequency range. The technology used in ALOHA net is often
credited as a building block for the Medium Access Control technologies of Carrier Sense Multiple

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Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) used in Ethernet and Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) used in 802.11 radios.

In the 1990s, commercial networking vendors began to produce low-speed wireless data networking
products, most of which operated in the 900 MHz frequency band. The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) began to discuss standardizing WLAN technologies in 1991. In 1997,
the IEEE ratified the original 802.11 standard that is the foundation of the WLAN technologies.

Legacy 802.11 technology was deployed between 1997 and 1999 mostly in warehousing and
manufacturing environments for the use of low-speed data collection with wireless barcode
scanners. In 1999, the IEEE defined higher data speeds with the 802.11b amendment. The
introduction of data rates as high as 11 Mbps along with price decreases, ignited the sales of
wireless home networking routers in the small office, home office (SOHO) marketplace. Home
users soon became accustomed to wireless networking in their homes and began to demand that
their employers also provide wireless networking capabilities in the workplace. After initial
resistance to 802.11 technology, small companies, medium-sized businesses, and corporations
began to realize the value of deploying 802.11 wireless networking in their enterprises.

If you ask the average user about their 802.11 wireless networks, they may give you a strange look.
The name that many people recognize for the technology is Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi is a marketing term,
recognized worldwide by millions of people as referring to 802.11 wireless networking.

What Does the Term Wi-Fi Mean?

Many people mistakenly assume that Wi-Fi is an acronym for the phrase wireless fidelity (much
like hi-fi is short for high fidelity), but Wi-Fi is simply a brand name used to market 802.11 WLAN
technology. Ambiguity in IEEE framework standards for wireless communications allowed
manufacturers to interpret the 802.11 standard in different ways. As a result, multiple vendors could
have IEEE 802.11–compliant devices that did not interoperate with each other. The organization
Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) was created to further define the IEEE standard
in such a way as to force interoperability between vendors. WECA, now known as the Wi-Fi
Alliance, chose the term Wi-Fi as a marketing brand. The Wi-Fi Alliance champions enforcing
interoperability among wireless devices. To be Wi-Fi compliant, vendors must send their products
to a Wi-Fi Alliance test lab that thoroughly tests compliance to the Wi-Fi certification.

Wi-Fi radios are used for numerous enterprise applications and can also be found in laptops, mobile
phones, cameras, televisions, printers, and many other consumer devices. More than 350 million
Wi-Fi chipsets were shipped in 2010, with current estimates of annual sales of over one billion Wi-
Fi chipsets within the next few years.

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According to the Wi-Fi Alliance, the billionth Wi-Fi chipset was sold in 2009. Since the original
standard was created in 1997, 802.11 technologies have grown to enormous proportions; Wi-Fi has
now become part of our worldwide culture.

1.2. Wireless Technologies and Devices

In addition to the wired network, various technologies exist that allow the transmission of
information between hosts without cables. These are known as wireless technologies.

Wireless technologies use electromagnetic waves to carry information between devices. An

electromagnetic wave is the same medium that carries radio signals through the air.

The electromagnetic spectrum includes such things as radio and television broadcast bands, visible
light, x-rays and gamma-rays. Each of these has a specific range of wavelengths and associated
energies as shown in the diagram.

Some types of electromagnetic waves are not suitable for carrying data. Other parts of the spectrum
are regulated by governments and licensed to various organizations for specific applications.
Certain areas of the spectrum have been set aside to allow public use without the restriction of
having to apply for special permits. The most common wavelengths used for public wireless
communications include the Infrared and part of the Radio Frequency (RF) band.

Infrared

Infrared (IR) is relatively low energy and cannot penetrate through walls or other obstacles.
However, it is commonly used to connect and move data between devices such as Personal Digital
Assistants (PDAs) and PCs. A specialized communication port known as an Infrared Direct Access

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(IrDA) port uses IR to exchange information between devices. IR only allows a one-to-one type of
connection.
IR is also used for remote control devices, wireless mice, and wireless keyboards. It is generally
used for short-range, line-of-sight, communications. However, it is possible to reflect the IR signal
off objects to extend the range. For greater ranges, higher frequencies of electromagnetic waves are
required.

Radio Frequency (RF)

RF waves can penetrate through walls and other obstacles, allowing a much greater range than IR.
Certain areas of the RF bands have been set aside for use by unlicensed devices such as wireless
LANs, cordless phones and computer peripherals. This includes the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and the 5
GHz frequency ranges. These ranges are known as the Industrial Scientific and Medical (ISM)
bands and can be used with very few restrictions.
Bluetooth is a technology that makes use of the 2.4 GHz band. It is limited to low-speed, short-
range communications, but has the advantage of communicating with many devices at the same
time. This one-to-many communications has made Bluetooth technology the preferred method over
IR for connecting computer peripherals such as mice, keyboards and printers.
Other technologies that make use of the 2.4 GHz and 5GHz bands are the modern wireless LAN
technologies that conform to the various IEEE 802.11 standards. They are unlike Bluetooth
technology in that they transmit at a much higher power level, which gives them a greater range.

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Wireless communication technologies which use various radio frequencies includes: Broadcast
radio, microwave radio, communications satellites.
Broadcast Radio
Basically an audio broadcasting service, radio broadcasts sound through the air as radio waves. It
uses a transmitter to transmit radio waves to a receiving antenna. To broadcast common
programming, stations are linked to the radio networks. The broadcast occurs either in syndication
or simulcast (simultaneous broadcast) or both. Radio broadcasting can also be done via cable FM,
the internet and satellites. A radio broadcast sends data over long distances (across countries) at up
to 2 mbps (AM/FM Radio).
Radio waves are electromagnetic signals transmitted by an antenna. Radio waves have different
frequency segments, and you will be able to pick up an audio signal by tuning into a specific
frequency segment. For example, When the Radio FM Addis says “You are listening to 97.1 FM”,
what it actually means is that signals are being broadcasted at a frequency of 97.1 megahertz, which
in turn means that the transmitter at the station is oscillating at a frequency of 97,100,000 cycles per
second.
Microwave Radio
Microwave transmission involves the transfer of voice and data through the atmosphere as super
high-frequency radio waves called microwaves. Microwave transmission is mainly used to transmit
messages between ground-based stations and satellite communications systems. Microwave
transmission mainly uses radio waves whose wavelengths are conveniently measured in small units
such as centimeters. Microwaves belong to the radio spectrum ranges of roughly 1.0 gigahertz
(GHz) to 30 GHz. Antennas used in microwave transmissions are of convenient sizes and shapes.
Microwave transmission depends on line-of-sight in order to work properly. The main drawback of
microwave signals is that they can be affected by bad weather, especially rain.

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Communications Satellites

A communication satellite is an artificial satellite used specifically as a communication

transmitter/receiver in orbit. It behaves like a radio relay station above the earth to receive, amplify,
and redirect analog and digital signals carried on a specific radio frequency.
Data is passed through a satellite using a transponder which is a signal path. Most satellites have
between 24 to 72 transponders, with a single transponder capable of transmitting and receiving 155
million bits of information per second. This huge capability makes communication satellites an
ideal medium for transmitting and receiving all kinds of content, including audios and videos.
Satellites transmit information by using frequency bands known as C-band and the higher Ku-band.
In the near future, the use of a much higher frequency band known as Ka-band is expected to
increase

1.3. Applications of Wireless Communication

Television Remote Control – Modern televisions use wireless remote control. Currently radio
waves are also used.

Wireless Local Area Network – This is a wireless local area network that establishes internet
connection with the portable computers.

Security systems – For homes and office buildings, hard wired implementation security systems are
replaced by the Wireless technology.

Cellular Telephone – Radio waves are used to facilitate the operator to make phone calls from any
place on the earth. CDMA, GSM, and 3G are examples of the advancement made by wireless
communication in the domain.

Wireless energy transfer – A process where a power source transmits electrical energy to electrical
load which does not have built-in power source wirelessly.

Computer Interface Devices – Computer hardware manufacturers had realized that having so
many wires to communicate between devices would confuse the consumer. So they switched to
wireless technology to facilitate their consumers, thus making it easy to mediate between a
computer and other peripherals including mouse and keyboard. Earlier, such units required bulky,
highly limited transceivers but recent generations of computer peripherals use compact and high-
quality wireless devices such as Bluetooth for communication. These days, wireless devices have
become very common and are preferred for their ease of handling and reliability. In reality,
wireless-enabled devices have a slightly slower response time than conventional wired devices.
This issue is being addressed by manufacturers and will be taken care of in the near future. Initial

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concerns that had risen regarding the security of wireless keyboards have also been taken care of
with the advent of technology.

Wireless Communications are categorized under three major categories as:

 Mobile: it includes cellular phones (GSM/cdma2000.1x)

 Portable: it includes WLAN (802.11) and Bluetooth(802.15)
 Fixed: it includes WiMAX (802.16)

1.4. Types of Wireless Network

Wireless networks are grouped into four major categories: Wireless Personal Area networks
(WPAN), Wireless Local Area networks (WLAN), Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN),
and Wireless Wide Area networks (WWAN).

Despite these distinct categories, it is difficult to place boundary limitations on a wireless

implementation. This is because, unlike a wired network, wireless networks do not have precisely
defined boundaries. The range of wireless transmissions can vary due to many factors. Wireless
networks are susceptible to outside sources of interference, both natural and man-made.
Fluctuations in temperature and humidity can greatly alter the coverage of wireless networks.
Obstacles within the wireless environment can also affect the range.

Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)

This is the smallest wireless network used to connect various peripheral devices such as mice,
keyboards and PDAs to a computer. All of these devices are dedicated to a single host with usually
use IR or Bluetooth technology.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN is typically used to extend the boundaries of the local wired network (LAN). WLANs use
RF technology and conform to the IEEE 802.11 standards. They allow many users to connect to a
wired network through a device known as an Access Point (AP). An Access Point provides a
connection between wireless hosts and hosts on an Ethernet wired network.

Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)

WMAN provides RF coverage to a metropolitan area such as a city and the surrounding suburbs.
WMANs have been created for some time by matching different wireless technologies, and recent
advancements have made this more practical.

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One wireless technology that is often associated with a WMAN is defined by the 802.16 standard.
This standard defines broadband wireless access and is sometimes referred to as Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX).

802.16 technologies are viewed as a direct competitor to other broadband services such as DSL and
cable. Although 802.16 wireless networking is typically thought of as a last mile data-delivery
solution, the technology might also be used to provide access to users over citywide areas.

Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)

WWAN networks provide coverage over extremely large areas. A good example of a WWAN is the
cell phone network. These networks use technologies such as Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) or Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and are often regulated by
government agencies.

1.5. Benefits and Limitations of Wireless Technology

Wireless technology offers many advantages compared to traditional wired networks.

One of the main advantages is the ability to provide anytime, anywhere connectivity. The
widespread implementation of wireless in public locations, known as hotspots, allows people to
easily connect to the Internet to download information and exchange emails and files.

Wireless technology is fairly easy and inexpensive to install. The cost of home and business
wireless devices continues to decrease. Yet, despite the decrease in cost, the data rate and
capabilities of these devices have increased, allowing faster, more reliable wireless connections.

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Wireless technology enables networks to be easily expanded, without the limitations of cabled
connections. New and visiting users can join the network quickly and easily.

Generally the following are the benefits of wireless technology:

 Mobility – allows for easy connection of both stationary and mobile clients
 Scalability- can be easily expanded to allow more users to connect and to increase the
coverage area
 Flexibility- provides anytime, anywhere connectivity
 Cost savings- equipment costs continue to fall as the technology matures
 Reduce installation time- installation of a single piece of equipment can provide
connectivity for a number of people
 Reliability in harsh environments- easy to install in emergency and hostile environments

Despite the flexibility and benefits of wireless, there are some limitations and risks.

First, Wireless LAN (WLAN) technologies make use of the unlicensed regions of the RF spectrum.
Since these regions are unregulated, many different devices make use of them. As a result, these
regions are congested and signals from different devices often interfere with each other. In addition,
many devices such as microwave ovens and cordless phones use these frequencies and can interfere
with WLAN communications.

Second, a major concern with wireless is security. Wireless provides ease of access. It does this by
broadcasting data in a manner that allows anyone the ability to access it. However, this same feature
also limits the amount of protection wireless can provide for the data. It allows anyone to intercept
the communication stream, even unintended recipients. To address these security concerns,
techniques have been developed to help secure wireless transmissions including encryption and
authentication.

The limitations of wireless technology are given as follows:

 Interference –wireless technology is susceptible to interference from other devices that

produce electromagnetic energies. This includes: cordless phones, microwaves, televisions
and other wireless LAN implementations.
 Network and Data Security- Wireless LAN technology is designed to provide access to the
data being transmitted, not security of the data. Additionally, it can provide an unprotected
entrance into the wired network.
 Technology- technology continues to evolve. Wireless LAN technology does not currently
provide the speed or reliability of wired LANs.

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1.6. Standard Organizations

Each of the standards organizations discussed below help to guide a different aspect of the wireless
networking industry.

The International Telecommunication Union Radio communication Sector (ITU-R) and local
entities such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set the rules for what the user can
do with a radio transmitter. These organizations manage and regulate frequencies, power levels, and
transmission methods. They also work together to help guide the growth and expansion that is being
demanded by wireless users.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

FCC regulates communications within the United States as well as communications to and from
the United States. It is responsible for regulating interstate and international communications by
radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. The task of the FCC in wireless networking is to regulate
the radio signals that are used for wireless networking. The FCC and the respective controlling
agencies in the other countries typically regulate two categories of wireless communications:
licensed spectrum and unlicensed spectrum.

Licensed Spectrum

 Frequencies require an approved license application, and the financial costs are very high.

Unlicensed Spectrum

 Users do not have to go through the license application procedures before they can install a
wireless system
 There are no financial costs, you still must abide by transmission regulations and other
restrictions. In other words, transmitting in an unlicensed frequency may be free, but there
still are rules.
 The main disadvantage to transmitting in an unlicensed frequency band is that anyone else
can also transmit in that same frequency space.
 Unlicensed frequency bands are often very crowded; therefore, transmissions from other
individuals can cause interference with your transmissions.

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International Telecommunication Union Radio communication Sector (ITU-R)

A global hierarchy exists for management of the RF spectrum worldwide. The United Nations has
tasked the International Telecommunication Union Radio communication Sector (ITU-R) with
global spectrum management. The ITU-R maintains a database of worldwide frequency
assignments and coordinates spectrum management through five administrative regions.

The five regions are broken down as follows:

 Region A: North and South America Inter-American Telecommunication Commission
(CITEL)
 Region B: Western Europe European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT)
 Region C: Eastern Europe and Northern Asia Regional Commonwealth in the field of
Communications (RCC)
 Region D: Africa African Telecommunications Union (ATU)
 Region E: Asia and Australasia Asia-Pacific Telecommunity (APT)

It is important to understand that communications are regulated differently in many regions and
countries.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, commonly known as the IEEE, is a global
professional society with more than 400,000 members. The IEEE’s mission is to “foster
technological innovation and excellence for the benefit of humanity.” To networking professionals,
that means creating the standards that we use to communicate. The IEEE standards must adhere to
the rules of the communications organizations, such as the FCC.
The IEEE is probably best known for its LAN standards, the IEEE 802 project. IEEE projects are
subdivided into working groups to develop standards that address specific problems or needs. For
instance, the IEEE 802.3 working group was responsible for the creation of a standard for Ethernet,
and the IEEE 802.11 working group was responsible for creating the WLAN standard. The numbers
are assigned as the groups are formed, so the 11 assigned to the wireless group indicates that it was
the 11th working group formed under the IEEE 802 project.
As the need arises to revise existing standards created by the working groups, task groups are
formed. These task groups are assigned a sequential single letter (multiple letters are assigned if all
single letters have been used) that is added to the end of the standard number (for example, 802.11a,
802.11g, and 802.3af). Some letters are not assigned.
For example o and l are not assigned to prevent confusion with the numbers 0 and 1. Other letters
may not be assigned to task groups to prevent confusion with other standards. For example, 802.11x

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has not been assigned because it can be easily confused with the 802.1X standard and because
802.11x has become a common casual reference to the 802.11 family of standards.
It is important to remember that the IEEE standards, like many other standards, are written
documents describing how technical processes and equipment should function.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

It is an international community of people in the networking industry whose goal is to make the
Internet work Better. The mission of the IETF, as defined by the organization in a document known
as RFC3935, is “to produce high quality, relevant technical and engineering documents that
influence the way people design, use, and manage the Internet in such a way as to make the Internet
work better. IETF is responsible for creating Internet standards. Many of these standards are
integrated into the wireless networking and security protocols and standards.

Wi-Fi Alliance

The Wi-Fi Alliance is a global, nonprofit industry association of more than 350 member companies
devoted to promoting the growth of WLANs. One of the primary tasks of the Wi-Fi Alliance is to
market the Wi-Fi brand and raise consumer awareness of new 802.11 technologies as they become
available. Because of the Wi-Fi Alliance’s overwhelming marketing success, the majority of the
worldwide 450 million Wi-Fi users are likely to recognize the Wi-Fi logo seen in the figure below

The Wi-Fi Alliance’s main task is to ensure the interoperability of WLAN products by providing
certification testing.

The Wi-Fi Alliance, originally named the Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA), was
founded in August 1999. The name was changed to the Wi-Fi Alliance in October 2002.

Multiple Wi-Fi CERTIFIED programs exist that cover basic connectivity, security, quality of
service (QoS), and more. Testing of vendor Wi-Fi products is performed in 14 independent
authorized test laboratories in eight countries. The guidelines for interoperability for each Wi-Fi
CERTIFIED program are usually based on key components and functions that are defined in the
IEEE 802.11-2007 standard and various 802.11 amendments. In fact, many of the same engineers
who belong to 802.11 task groups are also contributing members of the Wi-Fi Alliance. However, it
is important to understand that the IEEE and the Wi-Fi Alliance are two separate organizations. The

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IEEE 802.11 task group defines the WLAN standards, and the Wi-Fi Alliance defines
interoperability certification programs. The Wi-Fi CERTIFIED programs includes Core Technology
& Security, Wi-Fi Multimedia (WMM)-Multimedia, WMM Power Save (WMM-PS)-Multimedia, Wi-
Fi Protected Setup-Security, Wi-Fi Direct, CWG-RF-Multimedia and Voice Personal-Application.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

The International Organization for Standardization, commonly known as the ISO, is a global,
nongovernmental organization that identifies business, government, and society needs and develops
standards in partnership with the sectors that will put them to use. The ISO is responsible for the
creation of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which has been a standard reference for
data communications between computers since the late 1970s.

The OSI model is the cornerstone of data communications, and learning to understand it is one of
the most important and fundamental tasks a person in the networking industry can undertake. The
following graphic shows the seven layers of the OSI.

The IEEE 802.11-2007 standard defines communication mechanisms only at the Physical layer and
MAC sub layer of the Data-Link layer of the OSI model.

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