Functions and their Graphs

Functions
A function from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element
𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑌 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function. The
set of all values of ƒ(x) as x varies throughout D is called the range of the
function. The range may not include every element in the set Y. The domain and
range of a function can be any sets of objects, but often in calculus they are sets
of real numbers.
Example:

• The formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 gives a real y-value for any real number x, so the
domain is (−∞, ∞) .The range of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is [0, ∞) because the square of
any real number is nonnegative and every nonnegative number y is the
2
square of its own square root, 𝑦 = (√𝑦) for 𝑦 ≥ 0 .
• The formula y= 1/x gives a real y-value for every x except x=0. We cannot
divide any number by zero. The range of y= 1/x the set of reciprocals of all
nonzero real numbers, is the set of all nonzero real numbers, since
y=1/(1/y)
• The formula 𝑦 = √𝑥 gives a real y-value only if 𝑥 ≥ 0 .The range of
𝑦 = √𝑥 is [0, ∞) because every nonnegative number is some number’s
square root (namely, it is the square root of its own square).
• In 𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥 the quantity (4 – x) cannot be negative. That is, 4 − 𝑥 ≥ 0
or 𝑥 ≤ 4 .The formula gives real y-values for all 𝑥 ≤ 4 .The range of
√4 − 𝑥 is [0, ∞), the set of all nonnegative numbers.
 • The formula 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2 gives a real y-value for every x in the closed
interval from -1 to 1. Outside this domain, 1 − 𝑥 2 is negative and its square
root is not a real number. The values of 1 − 𝑥 2 vary from 0 to 1 on the
given domain, and the square roots of these values do the same. The range
of 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2 is [0, 1].
Example
Find the Domain of the given functions
1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−3
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2−3
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3𝑥 2
𝑥
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|+1
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = √8 − 𝑥 + √𝑥 − 5
1
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥
3
7. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥

Sol.
1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−3
The domain will be all real numbers except the numbers that make the
denominator equals zero i.e. , 𝑥 − 3 ≠ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 3. Then the domain
is [D= R/{x=3}].
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 3
The domain will be all real numbers except the numbers that make the
expression under the square root negative i.e.
𝑥 2 − 3 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 ≥ 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ ±√3
Then the domain will be
𝐷 = (−∞, −√3] ∪ [√3, ∞) 𝑜𝑟 𝑅/{(−√3, √3)}
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3𝑥 2
The domain will be all real numbers except the numbers that make the
expression under the square root negative i.e.
𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 ≥ 0 = 𝑥(1 − 3𝑥) ≥ 0
1
𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
3
Then the number under the square root will be negative if
1
𝑥 < 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 >
3
 And the domain will be only the closed interval [0,1/3]
𝑥
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|+1
The domain will be all real numbers except the numbers that make the
denominator equals zero i.e., |𝑥| + 1 ≠ 0 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| ≠ −1, and since there
is no number that makes this possible then the domain is all real
numbers. D=R
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = √8 − 𝑥 + √𝑥 − 5
The domain will be all real numbers except the numbers that make the
expression under the square root negative i.e.
(8 − 𝑥) ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 − 5) ≥ 0
8 ≥ 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 5
Then the number under the square root will be negative if
𝑥 < 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 8
And the domain will be only the closed interval [5,8].
1
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥

The domain will be all real numbers except the numbers that make the
denominator equals zero i.e., 𝑥 2 ≠ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 0, then the domain is all real
numbers except x=0. D=R/{x=0}
3
7. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
Since the number under the cube root can be negative or positive, then
the domain will be all real numbers. 𝐷 = (−∞, ∞).

When we define a function with a formula and the domain is not stated explicitly
or restricted by context, the domain is assumed to be the largest set of real x-
values for which the formula gives real y-values, the so-called natural domain.
If we want to restrict the domain in some way, we must say so. The domain of a
function may be restricted by context. For example, the domain of
𝑦 = 𝑥2
is the entire set of real numbers. To restrict the function to, say, positive values
of x, we would write( 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 > 0 ). Changing the domain to which we apply
a formula usually changes the range as well. The range of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is [0, ∞) The
range of( 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 2 ) is the set of all numbers obtained by squaring numbers
greater than or equal to 2. In set notation, the range is {𝑦|𝑦 ≥ 4} 𝑜𝑟 [4, ∞).
When the range of a function is a set of real numbers, the function is said to be
real-valued. The domains and ranges of many real-valued functions of a real
variable are intervals or combinations of intervals. The intervals may be open,
closed, or half open, and may be finite or infinite
Example
Find the range of the given functions
1
1. 𝑦 =
𝑥2

The range can be calculated as the set of all values of ƒ(x) as x varies
throughout the domain. Then first we have to find the domain of the
1
function 𝑦 = 2 which has been calculated previously as D=R/{x=0}. Then
𝑥
the range will be restricted with the x values. Now y cannot be negative
since y is a fraction of two positive numbers (1 and 𝑥 2 ), then the range
will be 𝑦 > 0 𝑜𝑟 (0, ∞).

2. 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2
The domain will be all real numbers that make (1 − 𝑥 2 ) ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 ≤ 1 then
the domain is [-1,1] while the range can be calculated as x varies throughout
the closed interval [-1,1] which makes y values varies through the closed
interval [0,1].
3. 𝑦 = |𝑥|
The domain of this function is (−∞, ∞) and as x varies throughout this
domain the values of y are positive values only since |x| is always positive
even if x values are negative. Then the range will be [0, ∞).

Graphs of Functions
Another way to visualize a function is its graph. If ƒ is a function with domain D,
its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the
input-output pairs for ƒ.
Example
The graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 is the set of points with coordinates
(x, y) for which 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2. Its graph is sketched below
The graph of a function ƒ is a useful picture of its behaviour. If (x, y) is a point
on the graph, then y=f(x) is the height of the graph above the point x. The height
may be positive or negative, depending on the sign of f(x).

Graph of some Frequently encountered Functions

There are a number of important types of functions frequently encountered in
calculus.
• Linear Functions
A function of the form 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃 for constants m and b, is called a linear
function. Examples of some linear functions with different slopes (m) are
shown in the figure below

Figure (b) linear function with slope =0

Figure (a) linear Functions with
different slopes
• Power Functions
A function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 where a is a constant, is called a power
function. There are several important cases to consider.
(i) when a=n, where n is positive.
The graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑛 for n=1,2, 3, 4, 5, are displayed in figure below. These functions
are defined for all real values of x. Notice that as the power n gets larger, the curves tend to
flatten toward the x-axis on the interval (-1,1) and also rise more steeply for |x|>1. Each
curve passes through the point (1, 1) and through the origin.

Figure
Graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4,5 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − ∞ < 𝑥 < ∞

(ii) when a = -1 or a = -2.

The graphs of the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −2 are shown in figure
below. Both functions are defined for all 𝑥 ≠ 0 (you can never divide by zero).

Figure (a) when a = -1

(b) when a = -2
 1 1 3 2
(iii) when 𝑎 = , , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2 3 2 3
1 1
3
The functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 = √𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 = √𝑥 are the square root
2 3

and cube root functions, respectively. The domain of the square root
function is [0, ∞) but the cube root function is defined for all real x. Their
graphs are displayed in figure below along with the graphs of
3 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 3

• Piecewise defined Function

Sometimes a function is described by using different formulas on different parts
of its domain. One example is the absolute value function

𝑥, 𝑥≥0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑥<0
Example
−𝑥, 𝑥<0
𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 2 , 0≤ 𝑥≤1
1, 𝑥>1

Shifting a Graph of a Function

1. To shift the graph of a function straight up, add a positive constant to the righthand
side of the formula (f(x)+c)
2. To shift the graph of a function straight down, add a negative constant to the right-
hand side of the formula (f(x)-c)
3. To shift the graph of to the left, add a positive constant to x. ( y= f(x+c) )
4. To shift the graph of to the right, add a negative constant to x.( y= f(x-c) )
 −√2 √2

To shift the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 up we add positive constants to the function and
to shift the graph down we add negative constants to the function.

To shift the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 to the left, we add a positive constant to x. To

shift the graph to the right, we add a negative constant to x.
Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
Example
𝑥
If 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓(2𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓( )
2

Sol.

𝑦 = sin 𝑥 (𝑟𝑒𝑑)
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) (𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒)
𝑥
𝑦 = sin ( ) (𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛)
2
Example
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)2 + 1
Sol.
First sketch 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 then 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)2 by shifting 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 right by 2
units then shift 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)2 up by one unit as in the figures below

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)2
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)2 + 1