Module- – II

Predicate Calculus
Propositions:
A declarative sentence which is true or false but not both is called a proposition or statement.
Lower case letters such as 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 𝑠, … are used to denote proposition.
Note: 1
If a proposition is true we say that the truth value of that proposition is true. It is denoted by T or 1.
Note: 2
If a proposition is false we say that the truth value of that proposition is false. It is denoted by F or 0.
Note: 3
Proposition which do not contain any of the logical operators or connectives are called primary or atomic
statement.
Note: 4
Many mathematical statements which can be constructed by combining one or more simple statements
using connectives are called compound statements.
Note: 5
The area of logic that deals with proposition is called propositional logic or propositional calculus.
Truth Table:
A truth table is a table that displays the relationship between truth values of sub propositions and
that of compound propositions constructed from them.
Note:
If the compound statements are made up of 𝑛 sub statements then its truth table contains 2𝑛 rows.
Connectives:
Conjunction:
When 𝑝 and 𝑞 are any two propositions, the proposition “𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞" denoted by 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 and called
the conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is defined as the compound proposition that is true when both 𝒑 and 𝒒 are
true and is false otherwise.
Truth Table for 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Disjunction:
When 𝑝 and 𝑞 are any two propositions, the proposition “𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞" denoted by 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 and called the
disjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is defined as the compound proposition that is false when both 𝒑 and 𝒒 are false
and is true otherwise.
Truth Table for 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
1 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
Negation:
Given any proposition 𝑝 and another proposition formed by writing “It is not the case that” or “It is false
that” before 𝑝 or by inserting the word “not” suitably in 𝑝 is called negation of 𝑝 and denoted by
~𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑝′ 𝑜𝑟 𝑝̅.
If 𝑝 is true then ~𝑝 is false and if 𝑝 is false then ~𝑝 is true.
Truth Table for ~𝒑
𝒑 ~𝒑
T F
F T

Exclusive OR:
If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are any two proposition then exclusive OR of 𝑝 and 𝑞is denoted by 𝑝⨁𝑞 is defined as the
compound proposition that is true when exactly one of 𝒑 and 𝒒 is true and is false otherwise.
Truth Table for 𝒑⨁𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⨁𝒒
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
Conditional Proposition:
If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are any two proposition, the compound proposition “𝑖𝑓 𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞” is denoted by 𝑝 → 𝑞
is called a conditional proposition, which is false when 𝒑 is true and 𝒒 is false and true otherwise.
Truth Table for 𝒑 → 𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Note: 1
In this conditional proposition 𝑝 is called hypothesis or premise and 𝑞 is called conclusion or consequence.
Note: 2
We call 𝑝 → 𝑞 as an implication.
Note: 3
The different situations when the conditional statements applied listed below.
(i) if 𝑝 then 𝑞
(ii) 𝑝 implies 𝑞
(iii) 𝑝 only if 𝑞
(iv) 𝑞 whenever 𝑝
(v) 𝑞 is necessary for 𝑝
(vi) 𝑞 follows from 𝑝
(vii) 𝑞 when 𝑝
(viii) 𝑝 is sufficient for 𝑞

2 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

Converse, Contrapositive & Inverse Statements
If 𝑝 → 𝑞 is a conditional statement then (i) q→ 𝑝 is called converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞
(ii) 𝑞 → 𝑝 is called a contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 (iii) 𝑝 → 𝑞 is called a inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞.
Biconditional Propositions
If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are any two proposition, the compound proposition “𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑞” is denoted by
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is called a biconditional proposition, which is true when 𝒑 and 𝒒 have the same truth value and
false otherwise.
Truth Table for 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↔𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Note: 1
Alternatively, 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 expressed as "𝑝 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑞" and "𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑞".
Note: 2
The notation 𝑝 ⇌ 𝑞 is also used instead of 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞.
NAND
The word NAND is a combination of NOT and AND, where NOT stands for negation and AND for
conjunction. The connective NAND is denoted by the symbol ↑ 𝑜𝑟 |.
For any two formulas 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞, 𝒑 ↑ 𝒒 ⇔ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒).
The propositions 𝑝 𝑁𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑞 is true whenever either 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ are false, and it is false when
both 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are true.
Truth Table for 𝒑 ↑ 𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↑𝒒
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F T

NOR
The word NOR is a combination of NOT and OR, where NOT stands for negation and OR for
disjunction. The connective NOR is denoted by the symbol ↓.
For any two formulas 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞, 𝒑 ↓ 𝒒 ⇔ (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒).
The propositions 𝑝 𝑁𝑂𝑅 𝑞 is true whenever both 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are false, and it is false otherwise.
Truth Table for 𝒑 ↓ 𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↓𝒒
T T F
T F F
F T F
F F T

3 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

Problem Based on Symbolize the statement using logical connectives:
Problem: 1
Write the symbolized form of the statement “If either Ram takes C++ or Kumar takes Pascal, then Latha
will takes Lotus”.
Solution:
Let 𝑝: Ram takes C++
𝑞: Kumar takes Pascal
𝑟: Latha will takes Lotus
Symbolic form: (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → 𝑟.
Problem: 2
Write the symbolized form of the following statements, (i) If the moon is out and it is not showing then
Ram goes out for a walk. (ii) If the moon is out, then if it is not showing, (then) Ram goes out for a walk.
(iii) It is not het case that Ram goes out for a walk iff it is not showing or the moon is out.
Solution:
Let 𝑝: The moon is out
𝑞: It is showing.
𝑟: Ram goes out for a walk
Symbolic form:
(i) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟.
(ii) 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟).
(iii) [𝑟 ↔ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑝)].
Problem based on Truth Table:
Problem: 1
Construct a truth table for each of the following compound propositions:
(i) (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)
(ii) (𝒒 → 𝒑) ↔ (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒)
(iii) (𝒑 → (𝒒 → 𝒓)) → ((𝒑 → 𝒒) → (𝒑 → 𝒓))

(iv) (𝒑 ∨ (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓)) ↔ ((𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ∧ (𝒑 → 𝒓))

(v) (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒) ↔ (𝒒 ↔ 𝒓)
(vi) (𝒑 → (𝒒 → 𝒔)) ∧ (𝒓 ∨ 𝒑) ∧ 𝒒

(vii) (𝒒 → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)) ↔ (𝒑 → (𝒒 ↔ 𝒑))

Solution:
(i) (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)
The compound statement has two sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 22 = 4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)
T T T T T
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F F T

4 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 (ii) (𝒒 → 𝒑) ↔ (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒)
The compound statement has two sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 22 = 4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑 𝒒 → 𝒑 𝒑↔𝒒 (𝒒 → 𝒑) ↔ (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒)

T T F F T F
T F F T F F
F T T T F F
F F T T T T

(iii) (𝒑 → (𝒒 → 𝒓)) → ((𝒑 → 𝒒) → (𝒑 → 𝒓))

The compound statement has three sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 23 = 8 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 → ( 𝒒 → 𝒓)
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒒→𝒓 𝒑→𝒒 𝒑→𝒓 (𝒑 → 𝒒) → (𝒑 → 𝒓) ≡ 𝒃 𝒂→𝒃
≡𝒂
T T T T T T T T T
T T F F F T F F T
T F T T T F T T T
T F F T T F F T T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F F T T T T T
F F T T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T T

(iv) (𝒑 ∨ (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓)) ↔ ((𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ∧ (𝒑 → 𝒓))

The compound statement has three sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 23 = 8 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒒 ∧ 𝒓 𝒑 ∨ (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓) (𝒑 ∨ (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓)) ≡ 𝒂 𝒑∨𝒒 𝒑→𝒓 (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ∧ (𝒑 → 𝒓) ≡ 𝒃 𝒂↔𝒃
T T T T T F T T T F
T T F F T F T F F T
T F T F T F T T T F
T F F F T F T F F T
F T T T T F T T T F
F T F F F T T T T T
F F T F F T F T F F
F F F F F T F T F F
(v) (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒) ↔ (𝒒 ↔ 𝒓)
The compound statement has three sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 23 = 8 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒 ≡ 𝒂 𝒒↔𝒓≡𝒃 𝒂↔𝒃
T T T F F T T T
T T F F F T F F
T F T F T F F T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T F F T F
F T F T F F F T
F F T T T T F F
F F F T T T T T

5 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

(vi) (𝒑 → (𝒒 → 𝒔)) ∧ (𝒓 ∨ 𝒑) ∧ 𝒒
The compound statement has four sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 24 = 16 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒔 𝒓 𝒒→𝒔 𝒑 → (𝒒 → 𝒔) ≡ 𝒂 𝒓 ∨ 𝒑 (𝒓 ∨ 𝒑) ∧ 𝒒 ≡ 𝒃 𝒂∧𝒃
T T T T F T T T T T
T T T F F F F T T F
T T F T T T T T T T
T T F F T F F T T F
T F T T F T T T F F
T F T F F T T T F F
T F F T T T T T F F
T F F F T T T T F F
F T T T F T T F F F
F T T F F F T F F F
F T F T T T T T T T
F T F F T F T T T T
F F T T F T T F F F
F F T F F T T F F F
F F F T T T T T F F
F F F F T T T T F F

(vii) (𝒒 → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)) ↔ (𝒑 → (𝒒 ↔ 𝒑))

The compound statement has two sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 22 = 4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒  𝒑  𝒒  𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 𝒒 → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ≡ 𝒂 𝒒 ↔ 𝒑 𝒑 → (𝒒 ↔ 𝒑) ≡ 𝒃 𝒂↔𝒃
T T F F F T F F T
T F F T F F T T T
F T T F F T T T T
F F T T T T F T F

Tautology:
A statement formula which is always true regardless of the truth values of the variables in it is
called tautology or logical truth or universally valid formula.
Contradiction:
A statement formula which is false always for the truth values of the variables in it is called
contradiction.
Contigency:
If a proposition is neither tautology nor contradiction then it is called contigency,
Logical Equivalence:
Two formulas A and B are said to be equivalence to each other iff 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴. In other
words A and B are equivalent to each other iff 𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵 is tautology.
We write 𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 ⇔ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 ≡ 𝐵
Note:
𝐴 ⇔ 𝐵 iff the last column of the truth tables of A & B are same.
Tautological Implications:
𝐴 is said to be tautologically imply a formula 𝐵 iff 𝐴 → 𝐵 is tautology. In this case we write 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐵
Problem: 1

6 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

Verify (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) → 𝒑 is a tautology.
Solution:
The compound statement has two sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 22 = 4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) → 𝒑
T T T T
T F T T
F T T F
F F F T

Since the last column of the truth table contains True and False.
∴ The formula is not tautology.
Problem: 2
Write the truth table for the following compound statements and state which of them are tautology of
contradiction or contingency.
(i) (𝒑 ∧ (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒)) → 𝒒 (ii) (𝒑 → 𝒒) ↔ (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒)
(iii) (𝒒 → 𝒓) ∧ 𝒓 ∧ (𝒑 → 𝒒) (iv) (𝒒 ∨ 𝒓) → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒓)
(v) (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒) ≡ (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑) (Practice Problem)
Solution:
(i) (𝒑 ∧ (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒)) → 𝒒
The compound statement has two sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 22 = 4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↔𝒒 𝒑 ∧ (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒) (𝒑 ∧ (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒)) → 𝒒
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Since the last column of the truth table contains only True. ∴ The formula is tautology.
(ii) (𝒑 → 𝒒) ↔ (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒)
The compound statement has two sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 22 = 4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒑 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 (𝒑 → 𝒒) ↔ (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒)
T T T F T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T

Since the last column of the truth table contains only True.
∴ The formula is tautology.
(iii) (𝒒 → 𝒓) ∧ 𝒓 ∧ (𝒑 → 𝒒)
The compound statement has three sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 23 = 8 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒒→𝒓  ( 𝒒 → 𝒓)  ( 𝒒 → 𝒓) ∧ 𝒓 𝒑→𝒒 (𝒒 → 𝒓) ∧ 𝒓 ∧ (𝒑 → 𝒒)
T T T T F F T F
T T F F T F T F
T F T T F F F F
T F F T F F F F
F T T T F F T F
F T F F T F T F
F F T T F F T F
F F F T F F T F

Since the last column of the truth table contains only False.
∴ The formula is contradiction.
(iv) (𝒒 ∨ 𝒓) → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒓)

7 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

The compound statement has three sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 23 = 8 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒒∨𝒓 𝒓 𝒑 ∧ 𝒓 (𝒒 ∨ 𝒓) → (𝒑 ∧ 𝒓)
T T T T F F F
T T F T T T T
T F T T F F F
T F F F T T T
F T T T F F F
F T F T T F F
F F T T F F F
F F F F T F T

Since the last column of the truth table contains both True and False. ∴ The formula is contigency.
Problem: 3
Prove that 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒 ≡ (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
Solution:
The compound statement has two sub statements. Therefore, the truth table contains 22 = 4 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠.
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↔𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

From the truth table we see that the truth values of 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 & (𝑝 → 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) are same.
∴ 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝).
Problem: 4
Prove the following (i) (𝒑 → 𝒒) ⇒ (𝒒 → 𝒑) (ii) (𝒑 → (𝒒 → 𝒓)) ⇒ ((𝒑 → 𝒒) → (𝒑 → 𝒓))
Solution:
(i) (𝒑 → 𝒒) ⇒ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
We prove this result using the truth table for (𝑝 → 𝑞 ) → (𝑞 → 𝑝)
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒 𝒑 𝒒 →  𝒑 (𝒑 → 𝒒) → (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

Since the last column of the truth table contains only True. ∴ The formula is tautology.
Hence, (𝑝 → 𝑞 ) ⇒ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
(ii) (𝒑 → (𝒒 → 𝒓)) ⇒ ((𝒑 → 𝒒) → (𝒑 → 𝒓))
We prove this result using the truth table for (𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟)) → ((𝑝 → 𝑞) → (𝑝 → 𝑟))
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒒 → 𝒓 𝒑 → (𝒒 → 𝒓) ≡ 𝒂 𝒑 → 𝒒 𝒑 → 𝒓 (𝒑 → 𝒒) → (𝒑 → 𝒓) ≡ 𝒃 𝒂→𝒃
T T T T T T T T T
T T F F F T F F T
T F T T T F T T T
T F F T T F F T T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F F T T T T T
F F T T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T T

Since the last column of the truth table contains only True. ∴ The formula is tautology.
Hence, (𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟)) ⇒ ((𝑝 → 𝑞) → (𝑝 → 𝑟))

8 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 Sl. No. IMPORTANT FORMULAE IN DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
p p p
1. Idempotent Laws
p p  p

pqq p
2. Commutative Laws
pqq p

p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  r
3. Associative Laws
p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  r

p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r )
4. Distributive Laws
p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r )

p  ( p  q)  p
5. Absorption Laws
p  ( p  q)  p

( p  q)  p  q
6. DeMorgans Laws
( p  q)  p  q

7. Double Negation (p)  p

p  p  T
8. Complement Laws
p  p  F

pF  p
9. Identity Laws
p T  p

p T T
10. Dominant Laws
pF F

11. Replacement Process p  q  p  q

( p  q)  p
12. Simplification
( p  q)  q

p pq
13. Addition
q pq
(( p  q)  p)  q
14. Modus ponens (or)
p  q, p  q
(( p  q)  q)  p
15. Modus Tollens (or)
p  q, q  p
(( p  q)  (q  r ))  ( p  r )
Hypothetical Syllogism (or) Chain Rule (or)
16. (or)
Law of Syllogism
p  q, q  r  p  r
(( p  q)  p)  q
17. Disjunctive Syllogism (or)
p  q, p  q
18. Resolution (( p  q)  (p  r ))  (q  r )

9 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 (or)
p  q, p  r  q  r
19. p  q  ( p  q)  (q  p)

20. p, q  p  q

21. p  q  p  q

22. p  q  ( p  q)

23. ( p  q)  p  q

24. ( p  q)  ( p  r )  p  (q  r )

25. ( p  q)  ( p  r )  p  (q  r )

26. ( p  r )  (q  r )  ( p  q)  r

27. ( p  r )  (q  r )  ( p  q)  r

28. p  q  p  q

29. p  q  ( p  q)  (p  q)

30. ( p  q)  ( p  q)

31. p  p  q

32. q p q

33. ( p  q)  p

34. ( p  q)  q

35. p  ( p  q)  q

36. q  ( p  q)  p

37. p  ( p  q)  q

38. ( p  q)  (q  r )  p  r

39. ( p  q)  ( p  r )  (q  r )  r

40. p  q  q  p

Problems Based on Identities:

Problem: 1
Show that (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ∧ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ⇔ 𝒑
Solution:
(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⇔ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ ((𝑝) ∨ 𝑞 ) Using Demorgan’s Law and Double Negation
⇔ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )
⇔ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑞) Using Distributive Law
⇔𝑝∨𝐹 Using Complement Law
⇔ 𝑝.

Problem: 2

10 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

Show that (𝒑 ∧ (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓)) ∨ (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓) ∨ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒓) ⇔ 𝒓
Solution:
(𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)) ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) ⇔ ((𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) Using Associative Law
⇔ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) Using Demorgan’s Law
⇔ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ 𝑟) ∨ ((𝑞 ∨ 𝑝) ∧ 𝑟) Using Distributive Law
⇔ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∨ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)) ∧ 𝑟 Using Distributive Law
⇔ 𝑇∧𝑟 Using Identity Law
⇔𝑟
Functionally Complete Set of Connectives

Definition:

Functionally Complete Set

Any set of connectives in which every formula can be expressed in terms of an equivalent formula
containing the connectives from this set is called a Functionally Complete Set of Connectives.

It is assumed that a functionally complete set does not contain any redundant connectives, that is,
a connective that can be expressed in terms of the other connectives.

Problem: 1

Write an equivalent formula for 𝒑 ∧ (𝒒 ↔ 𝒓) that contains neither the biconditional nor the conditional.

Solution:

𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ↔ 𝑟) ⇔ 𝑝 ∧ ((𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑟 ⟶ 𝑞 ))

⇔ 𝑝 ∧ ((𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ))

This is the required equivalent formula.

Normal Forms:
Definitions:
Normal Form or Canonical Form
To determine whether a given compound proposition is a tautology or a contradiction or atleast
satisfiable and whether two given compound proposition 𝐴(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 ) & 𝐵(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 ) are
equivalent, we have to construct the truth table and compare them.
A better method is to reduce A and B to some standard forms called normal forms and use them
for deciding the nature of A or B for comparing A & B.
Elementary Product:
A product of statements and their negation is called an elementary product.
Example: 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟
Elementary Product:
A sum of statements and their negation is called an elementary sum.
Example: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟
Note:

11 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 It will be convenient to use the word product in the place of conjunction and sum in the place of
disjunction.
Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF):
A formula which is equivalent to a given formula A and which consists of a sum of elementary
product is called Disjunctive Normal Form.
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF):
A formula which is equivalent to a given formula A and which consists of a product of elementary
sum is called Conjunctive Normal Form.
Problem: 1
Obtain DNF and CNF of a formula 𝒑 ⟶ ((𝒑 ⟶ 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 ∨ 𝒑))
Solution:
To find DNF:
𝑝 ⟶ (( 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 ) ∧  ( 𝑞 ∨  𝑝 )) ⟺ 𝑝 ⟶ (( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧  (  𝑞 ∨  𝑝 ))
⟺  𝑝 ∨ (( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧  ( 𝑞 ∨  𝑝 ))
⟺  𝑝 ∨ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝 ) Using Demorgans’s Law and Double Negation
⟺  𝑝 ∨ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) Using Commutative Law

⟺ 𝑝 ∨ ((𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 )) ∨ (𝑞 ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ))) Using Distributive Law

⟺ 𝑝 ∨ ((𝐹 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 )) Since 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝐹

⟺ 𝑝 ∨ (𝐹 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 )) Since 𝑝 ∧ 𝐹 ≡ 𝐹
⟺  𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) Since 𝑝 ∨ 𝐹 ≡ 𝑝
Hence proved the given formula is DNF.
To find CNF:
𝑝 ⟶ (( 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 ) ∧  ( 𝑞 ∨  𝑝 )) ⟺ 𝑝 ⟶ (( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧  (  𝑞 ∨  𝑝 ))
⟺  𝑝 ∨ (( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧  ( 𝑞 ∨  𝑝 ))
⟺ 𝑝 ∨ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝)) Using Demorgans’s Law and Double Negation

⟺ 𝑝 ∨ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 )) Using Commutative Law

⟺ (𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 )) Using Distributive Law

⟺ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑝) ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 )) Using Associative Law

⟺ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑝) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )) Using Distributive Law

⟺ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑇 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )) Since 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑇

⟺ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) Since 𝑝 ∧ 𝑇 ≡ 𝑝
⟺ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 Since 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝
Hence proved the given formula is CNF.
Minterms:
 A minterms in the statement variables 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 is a formula of the form 𝑦1 ∧ 𝑦2 ∧ … ∧ 𝑦𝑛 ,
where each 𝑦𝑖 either 𝑃𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑖 .
 The minterms in two variables 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 (22 = 4).
 The minterms in three variables 𝑝, 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 are 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟,
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 (23 = 8).
Some Observations:

12 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

  A minterm contain does not contain both a variable and its negation.
 Each minterm has truth value 1 (T).
Maxterms:
 A maxerms in the statement variables 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 is a formula of the form 𝑦1 ∨ 𝑦2 ∨ … ∨ 𝑦𝑛 , where
each 𝑦𝑖 either 𝑃𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑖 .
 The maxerms in two variables 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 (22 = 4).
 The maxerms in three variables 𝑝, 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 are 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟,
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 (23 = 8).
Some Observations:
 A maxerms contain does not contain both a variable and its negation.
 Each maxerms has truth value 0 (F).
Principal Conjunctive Normal Form: (PCNF or pcnf)
A formula is equivalent to a given formula and consisting of conjunction of Maxterms only is called
PCNF or pcnf is also called Product of Maxterms.
Principal Disjunctive Normal Form: (PDNF or pdnf)
A formula is equivalent to a given formula and consisting of conjunction of Minterms only is called
PDNF or pdnf is also called Product of Minterms.
Note: 1
PCNF: Any elementary sum which is a tautology is dropped. Maxterms are obtained in the conjunctions
by introducing the missing factors (Sum). Respective identical Maxterms appearing in the conjunctions
are deleted. 𝑷 ∨ 𝑭 ≡ 𝑷; 𝑷 ∧ 𝑷 ≡ 𝑭
Note: 2
PDNF: Any elementary product which is a contradiction is dropped. Minterms are obtained in the
disjunctions by introducing the missing factors (Product). Respective identical Minterms appearing in the
disjunctions are deleted. 𝑷 ∧ 𝑻 ≡ 𝑷; 𝑷 ∨ 𝑷 ≡ 𝑻.
To find PCNF and PDNF using Truth Table:
PCNF:
For every truth value F (0) of the given formula. Select the maxterms which has also truth value F,
for the same combination of the truth values of the statement variables. Then the given formula is equal
to the product of the selected Maxterms.
PDNF:
For every truth value T (1) of the given formula. Select the minterms which has also truth value T,
for the same combination of the truth values of the statement variables. Then the given formula is equal
to the sum of the selected Minterms.
Given PCNF of a Formula to Find its PDNF:
Let 𝑆 be a formula.
Suppose PCNF of 𝑆 is given.
Then the conjunction of the maxterms which are not present in the PCNF of 𝑆 is equivalent to 𝑆 then
(𝑆) gives disjunction of minterms.
That is, PDNF.

13 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

Problem: 1

Using truth table find PCNF and PDNF of 𝒑 ∨ (𝒑 → (𝒒 ∨ (𝒒 → 𝒓)))

Solution:

𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒑 𝒒 𝒒 → 𝒓 𝒒 ∨ ( 𝒒 → 𝒓) 𝒑 → (𝒒 ∨ (𝒒 → 𝒓)) ≡ 𝑨 𝒑∨𝑨

T T T F F T T T T
T T F F F T T T T
T F T F T T T T T
T F F F T F F F T
F T T T F T T T T
F T F T F T T T T
F F T T T T T T T
F F F T T F F F F

The pdnf of given statement is: (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)

∨ ( 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 ) ∨ ( 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧  𝑟 ) ∨ ( 𝑝 ∧  𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 )
The pcnf of given statement is: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟
Problem: 2
Using truth table find PCNF and PDNF of (𝒑 → (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓)) ∧ (𝒑 → (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓))
Solution:
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝒑 𝒒 𝒒 ∧ 𝒓 𝒑 → (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓) ≡ 𝒂 𝒓 𝒒 ∧ 𝒓  𝒑 → (  𝒒 ∧  𝒓) ≡ 𝒃 𝒂∧𝒃
T T T F F T T F F T T
T T F F F F F T F T F
T F T F T F F F F T F
T F F F T F F T T T F
F T T T F T T F F F F
F T F T F F T T F F F
F F T T T F T F F F F
F F F T T F T T T F T

The pdnf of given statement is: (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)

The pcnf of given statement is: (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
∧ (𝑝 ∨  𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨  𝑟 )

Problem: 3
Obtain the pcnf of ((𝒑 ∧ 𝒓) → 𝒒) ∧ 𝒓 without using truth table.
Solution:
((𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 ⇔ ((𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ 𝑟

⇔ ( 𝑝 ∨  𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧  𝑟 Since 𝑝 ∨ 𝐹 ≡ 𝑝 & 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝐹

14 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 ⇔ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨  𝑟 ) ∧ ( 𝑟 ∨ 𝐹 )
⇔ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑟 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 ))
⇔ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ ((𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ))
⇔ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨  𝑟 ) ∧ ( 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝐹 ) ∧ ( 𝑟 ∨  𝑞 ∨ 𝐹 )
⇔ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ ((𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑝)) ∧ ((𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑝))
⇔ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨  𝑟 ) ∧ ( 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑝 ) ∧ ( 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 ∨  𝑝 ) ∧ ( 𝑟 ∨  𝑞 ∨ 𝑝 ) ∧ ( 𝑟 ∨  𝑞 ∨  𝑝 )
⇔ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨  𝑟 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨  𝑟 ) ∧ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨  𝑟 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨  𝑞 ∨  𝑟 ) ∧ ( 𝑝 ∨  𝑞 ∨  𝑟 )
⇔ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟).
Duality Principle:
The dual of a compound proposition that contains only the logical operators ∨, ∧, 𝑇 is the
proposition by replacing each ∨ 𝑏𝑦 ∧, each ∧ 𝑏𝑦 ∨, each 𝑇 𝑏𝑦 𝐹 and each 𝐹 𝑏𝑦 𝑇.
Problem: 1
Write the following equivalences of dual
(i) [(𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ∨ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)] ∨ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ≡ 𝒑
(ii) (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) → 𝒓 ≡ (𝒑 → 𝒓) ∧ (𝒒 ∧ 𝒓)
(iii) (𝒑 ∧ (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒)) → 𝒒 ≡ 𝑻
Solution:
(i) [(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)] ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝
The dual statement is [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝
(ii) (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑟) ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∨ 𝑟 ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
The dual statement is (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∧ 𝑟 ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
(iii) (𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 )) → 𝑞 ≡ 𝑇

(𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)) → 𝑞 ≡ 𝑇

(𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑝)) → 𝑞 ≡ 𝑇

(𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑝)) ∨ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑇

The dual statement is (𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝)) ∧ 𝑞 ≡ 𝐹

Theory of Inference:

If an implication 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a tautology, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are statement formula, we say that “𝐵

logically follows form 𝐴” or “𝐵 is a valid conclusion (Consequence) of the premise ( the assumptions or
the hypothesis) A” we say that from a set of premises (𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑛 ) a conclusion 𝐶 follows logically if
(𝐻1 ∧ 𝐻2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐻𝑛 ) ⟹ 𝐶

When C logically follows form 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑛

We write 𝐻1

𝐻2

𝐻𝑛

−−−−−

𝐶
15 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
 −−−−−

(Or) ((𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑛 ) ⟹ 𝐶) or ( 𝐼𝑓 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶) which means that if we know 𝐻1 is true, 𝐻2 is

true, ……. & 𝐻𝑛 is true then we can conclude that 𝐶 is true.

Definition:

When a conclusion is derived from a set of premises by using the accepted rules of reasoning,
then such a process of derivation is called a deduction, or a format proof, and the argument is called a
valid argument.

Rules of Inference:

Rule P:

A premise may be introduced at any point in a derivation.

Rule T:

A formula 𝑆 may be introduced in a derivation if 𝑆 is tautologically implied by any one or more of

the preceding formulas in the derivation.

Rule CP:

This rule is also called the deduction theorem. This rule states that if we can derive a formula 𝑆
from the formula 𝑅 and a set of premises then we can derive 𝑅 → 𝑆 from the same set of promises alone.

This follows form the equivalence (𝑃 ∧ 𝑅) → 𝑆 ⟺ 𝑃 → ( 𝑅 → 𝑆)

The rule CP is used when the conclusion is of the form 𝑅 → 𝑆.

In that 𝑅 is taken as an additional premise and 𝑆 is derived from 𝑅 and the given premises.

Definitions:

Inconsistent:

A set of formula 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑛 is said to the inconsistent if their conjunctions imply a contradiction

that is (𝐻1 ∧ 𝐻2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐻𝑛 ) ⟹ 𝑅 ∧ 𝑅, for some formula 𝑅.

Consistent:

A set of formulae 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑛 is said to be consistent if it is not inconsistent. That is, atleast one
assignment of truth values to the atomic variables in 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑛 the conjunction 𝐻1 ∧ 𝐻2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐻𝑛 has
truth value T.

Direct Proof:

A direct proof is a proof in which the truth of the premises of the theorem are shown to directly
imply the truth of conclusion of the theorem. Deduction (or) direct proof is also called formal proof. In
direct proof we assume the hypothesis 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , … , 𝐻𝑛 are true and using the rules of inference and known
facts we prove that 𝐶 is true. Thus we prove 𝐻 → 𝐶 is true.

Indirect Proof:

While giving an indirect proof we negate the conclusion of the theorem & add this negation to be
premises and show that the premises and negation of the conclusion together imply a contradiction
establishing that the premises of the theorem implies the conclusion.

16 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 (a) Proof of the contrapositive or proof by contraposition.
(b) Proof by contradiction.

(a) Proof of the contrapositive or proof by contraposition is a very useful and powerful method. It uses
the contrapositive equivalence 𝐻 → 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶 → 𝐻. In this method, we assume the conclusion C
is false, then using the rules of inference and known facts we prove some hypothesis 𝐻𝑖 is also
false and hence H is false. This means that indirectly the conclusion is true.
(b) Proof by contradiction is based on the law of reduction and absurdum
𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝐹. That is, 𝐻 → 𝐶 ≡ (𝐻 ∧ 𝐶) → 𝐹, where 𝐻 ≡ 𝐻1 ∧ 𝐻2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐻𝑛
In this method, we assume the conclusion C is false and all 𝐻𝑖 are true (That is, H is True). Then by
using the rules we reach a contradiction F. This implies that our “C is False” is wrong. Thus,
indirectly we prove 𝐻 → 𝐶.

The technique of indirect method of proof runs as follows:

 Introduce the negation of the desired conclusion as new premises.

 From the new premise, together with the given premises, derive contradiction.
 Assert the desired conclusion as a logical inference from the premises.
Observations:

(i) A Proof must end in a finite number of steps.

(ii) Each set of a proof must be either a premise (or) a proposition that is implied by previous steps using
only valid equivalence (or) implications.

(iii) For a direct proof of the last step must be the conclusion of the theorem. For the indirect proof last
step must be contradiction.

Problem: 1
Prove that if 𝒏 is an integer and 𝒏𝟐 is an odd integer, then n is an odd integer by (i) direct method and
(ii) indirect method.
Solution:
Let 𝑝: 𝑛2 is an odd integer, 𝑞: 𝑛 is an odd integer
We to prove 𝑝 → 𝑞.
(i) Assume 𝑝 is true.
∴ 𝑛2 is an odd integer is true.
⇒ 𝑛2 = 2𝑚 + 1 for some integer 𝑚
⇒ 𝑛2 − 1 = 2𝑚
(𝑛+1)(𝑛−1)
⇒ =𝑚
2

Since (𝑛 + 1) and (𝑛 − 1) are integers and (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 − 1) is divisible by the prime number 2, we have
2|𝑛 + 1, 2|𝑛 − 1.
If 2|𝑛 + 1, then 𝑛 + 1 = 2𝑘, for some integer 𝑘
⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑘 − 1, which is odd.
If 2|𝑛 − 1, then 𝑛 − 1 = 2𝑟, for some integer 𝑟
⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑟 + 1, which is odd.
In either case 𝑛 is odd.
Therefore, 𝑞 is true.
17 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
 Thus 𝑝 → 𝑞 is the direct proof.
(ii) One of the indirect methods is contrapositive method.
That is, 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞 → 𝑝
Assume 𝑞 is true.
Therefore, 𝑛 is not an odd integer.
⇒ 𝑛 is an even integer.
Therefore, 𝑛 = 2𝑘, for some integer 𝑘.
Therefore, 𝑛2 = 4𝑘 2 , which is an even integer.
⇒ 𝑝 is true.
Thus, 𝑞 → 𝑝 is true.
Hence, 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
Note: We shall now prove by contradiction method.
Assume conclusion is false and hypothesis is true.
That is, 𝑛 is not an odd integer.
Therefore, 𝑛 is an even ⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑚, for some integer 𝑚.
Therefore, 𝑛2 = 4𝑚2 , which is an even integer.
⇒ 𝑝 is not true.
That is, this contradicts the hypothesis 𝑛2 is odd.
Hence our assumption is wrong.
Therefore, 𝑛 is an odd integer.
Problem: 2

Prove that √𝟐 is irrational, using suitable method.

Solution:
The best method for this is proof by contradiction.
Assume the contrary.

That is, assume √2 is rational.

𝑝
Therefore, √2 = 𝑞 for some integers 𝑝 and 𝑞 such that 𝑝 and 𝑞 have no common factors.

𝑝2
∴ 𝑞2 = 2 ⇒ 𝑝2 = 2𝑞 2

Since, 𝑝2 is an even integer, 𝑝 is an even integer.

∴ 𝑝 = 2𝑚 for some integer 𝑚.
∴ (2𝑚)2 = 2𝑞 2
⇒ 𝑞 2 = 2𝑚2
Since, 𝑞 2 is an even integer, 𝑞 is an even integer.
∴ 𝑞 = 2𝑘 for some integer 𝑘.
Thus 𝑝 and 𝑞 are even. Hence they have a common factor 2.
This contradicts the assumption 𝑝 and 𝑞 have no common factors.

Thus our assumption √2 is rational is wrong.

Hence, √2 is irrational.

18 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

Problem Based on Truth Table Technique:

Problem

Find whether the conclusion 𝑪 follows form the premises H1, H2, H3 in the following cases, using truth
table technique.
(i) H1 : 𝒑, H2: 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒, 𝑪: 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 (ii) H1 : 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒, H2: 𝒑 → 𝒓, H3: 𝒒 → 𝒓, 𝑪: 𝒓
Solution:
(i) H1 : 𝒑, H2: 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒, 𝑪: 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 𝐇𝟏 :  𝒑 𝐇𝟐 : 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 𝐇 𝟏 ∧ 𝐇𝟐 𝑪 ≡ 𝒑∧𝒒
T T F T F T
T F F T F F
F T T T T F
F F T F F F

H1 & H2 and hence H1 ∧ H2 are true in the third row, in which case 𝐶 is false.

Hence C does no follow from H1 & H2.

(ii) H1 : 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒, H2: 𝒑 → 𝒓, H3: 𝒒 → 𝒓, 𝑪: 𝒓

𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝑯𝟏 : ( 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) 𝑯𝟐 : ( 𝒑 → 𝒓) 𝑯𝟑 : ( 𝒒 → 𝒓) 𝑯𝟏 ∧ 𝑯𝟐 ∧ 𝑯𝟑
T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F
T F T T T T T
T F F T F T F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T F F
F F T F T T F
F F F F T T F

H1, H2, H3 & hence H1 ∧ H2 ∧ H3 are true in the 1st, 3rd & fifth rows in which 𝑟 is also true.

Hence, 𝐶 follows form H1, H2 & H3.

Problem: 1

Derive 𝐒 is the valid inference from 𝐏 → 𝐐, 𝐐 ∨ 𝐑, 𝐒 → 𝐏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐑

Solution:

To prove: 𝑃 → 𝑄, 𝑄 ∨ 𝑅, 𝑆 → 𝑃, 𝑅 ⟹ 𝑆

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) 𝑄∨𝑅 Premises
(2) 𝑅 Premises

19 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 (3) 𝑄 Tautology, (1),(2) & Disjunctive Syllogism
(4) 𝑃 → 𝑄 Premises
(5) 𝑃 Tautology, (3),(4) & Modus Tollens
(6) 𝑆 → 𝑃 Premises
(7) (𝑆) ≡ 𝑆 Tautology, (5),(6) & Modus Tollens

Hence 𝑆 is valid Inference

Problem: 2

Show that 𝑸, 𝑷 → 𝑸 ⟹ 𝑷

Solution:

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) 𝑃→𝑄 Premises
(2)  𝑄 → 𝑃 Tautology (1) & Contrapositive
(3) 𝑄 Premises
(4) 𝑃 Tautology, (2), (3), & Modus Ponens

Problem: 3
Show that 𝑹 ∨ 𝑺 is a valid conclusion form the premises
𝑪 ∨ 𝑫, 𝑪 ∨ 𝑫 → 𝑯, 𝑯 → (𝑨 ∧ 𝑩) & (𝑨 ∧ 𝑩) → (𝑹 ∨ 𝑺)
Solution:
To prove: 𝐶 ∨ 𝐷, 𝐶 ∨ 𝐷 → 𝐻, 𝐻 → (𝐴 ∧ 𝐵) & (𝐴 ∧ 𝐵) → (𝑅 ∨ 𝑆) ⟹ 𝑅 ∨ 𝑆
Step No. Premise Reasons
(1) 𝐶∨𝐷 Premises
(2) 𝐶 ∨ 𝐷 → 𝐻 Premises
(3) 𝐻 Tautology (1), (2), & Modus Ponens
(4) 𝐻 → (𝐴 ∧ 𝐵) Premises
(5) 𝐴 ∧ 𝐵 Tautology (3), (4), & Modus Ponens
(6) (𝐴 ∧ 𝐵) → (𝑅 ∨ 𝑆) Premises
(7) 𝑅∨𝑆 Tautology (5), (6), & Modus Ponens

Hence 𝑅 ∨ 𝑆 is valid Inference.

Problem: 4
Show that if 𝒑 → 𝒒, 𝒒 → 𝒓, (𝒑 ∧ 𝒓) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑 ∨ 𝒓 then 𝒓.
𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝒑 → 𝒒, 𝒒 → 𝒓, (𝒑 ∧ 𝒓) , 𝒑 ∨ 𝒓 ⟹ 𝒓
Solution:
Step No. Premise Reasons
(1) 𝑝→𝑞 Premises
(2) 𝑞→𝑟 Premises
(3) 𝑝→𝑟 Tautology, (1), (2) & Hypothetical syllogism
Tautology, (3) & Material Implication
(4) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑟
Replacement Process
(5) 𝑝∨𝑟 Premises
(6) (𝑝 ∧  𝑝 ) ∨ 𝑟 Tautology, (4), (5) & Distributive law
(7) 𝑟 Tautology, (6) 𝑃 ∨ 𝑅 ≡ 𝐹
(8) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟 ) Premises

20 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 (9) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑟 Tautology ,(8) & Demorgans law
(10) 𝑟 ∧ ( 𝑝 ∨  𝑟 ) Tautology, (7), (9) & Conjunction
(11) (𝑟 ∧  𝑝 ) ∨ (𝑟 ∧  𝑟 ) Tautology, (10) & Distributive law
(12) 𝑟 ∧ 𝑝 Tautology, (11) & 𝑟 ∧ 𝑟 ≡ 𝐹
(13) 𝑟 Tautology, (12) & Simplification

Problems Based on CP Rule:

Problem: 1
Show that 𝑹 → 𝑺 can be derived from the premises 𝑷 → (𝑸 → 𝑺), 𝑹 ∨ 𝑷, 𝑸
Solution:
It is enough to include 𝑅 is an additional premise and derive 𝑆.

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) 𝑅 ∨ 𝑃 Premises
(2) 𝑅 ≡ (𝑅) Premises (Additional)
(3) 𝑃 Tautology (1), (2) & Disjunctive Syllogism
(4) 𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑆 ) Premises
(5) 𝑄→𝑆 Tautology (3), (4) & Modus Ponens
(6) 𝑄 Premises
(7) 𝑆 Tautology (5), (6) & Modus Ponens
(8) 𝑅→𝑆 CP – Rule

∴ 𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑆), 𝑅 ∨ 𝑃, 𝑄 ⟹ 𝑅 → 𝑆 is valid.
Problem: 2
Show that 𝑷 → 𝑺 can derived from the premises 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸, 𝑸 ∨ 𝑹, 𝑹 → 𝑺
Solution: We include 𝑃 as additional premise & derive 𝑆
Step No. Premise Reasons
(1) 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 Premises
(2) 𝑃 Premises (Additional)
(3) 𝑄 Tautology (1), (2) & Disjunctive Syllogism
(4) 𝑄 ∨ 𝑅 Premises
(5) 𝑅 Tautology (3), (4) & Disjunctive Syllogism
(6) 𝑅→𝑆 Premises
(7) 𝑆 Tautology (5), (6) & Modus Ponens
(8) 𝑃→𝑆 CP – Rule

∴ 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄, 𝑄 ∨ 𝑅, 𝑅 → 𝑆 ⟹ 𝑃 → 𝑆 is valid.
Problems Based on Indirect Method of Proof:

Problem: 1

Using indirect method of proof derive 𝑷 → 𝑺 from 𝑷 → 𝑸 ∨ 𝑹, 𝑸 → 𝑷, 𝑺 → 𝑹, 𝑷

Solution:

The desired result is 𝑃 → 𝑆

It is negation is (𝑃 → 𝑆) ≡ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑆) ≡ 𝑃 ∧ 𝑆

We include the additional premise is 𝑃 ∧ 𝑆.

21 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 Step No. Premise Reasons
(1) 𝑃 →𝑄∨𝑅 Premises
(2) 𝑃 Premises
(3) 𝑄∨𝑅 Tautology (1), (2) & Modus Ponens
(4) 𝑆 → 𝑅 Premises
(5) 𝑃∧𝑆 Premises (Additional)
(6) 𝑆 Tautology ,(5) & Simplification 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞
(7) 𝑅 Tautology (4), (6) & Modus Ponens
(8) 𝑄 Tautology ,(3),(7) & Disjunctive Syllogism
(9) 𝑄 → 𝑃 Premises
(10) 𝑃 Tautology (8), (9) & Modus Ponens
(11) 𝑃 ∧ 𝑃 Tautology, (2), (10)

This is a contradiction.
The negated conclusion is wrong.
∴ The given conclusion is valid.
That is, 𝑃 → 𝑄 ∨ 𝑅, 𝑄 → 𝑃, 𝑆 → 𝑅, 𝑃 ⟹ 𝑃 → 𝑆
Problems Based on Inconsistent

Problem: 1

Prove that the premises 𝒑 → 𝒒, 𝒒 → 𝒓, 𝒔 → 𝒓 and 𝒒 ∧ 𝒔 are inconsistent.

Solution:

If we derive a contradiction by using the given premises, it means that they are inconsistent.

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) 𝑝→𝑞 Premises
(2) 𝑞→𝑟 Premises
(3) 𝑝→𝑟 Tautology (1), (2) & Hypothetical Syllogism
(4) 𝑠 → 𝑟 Premises
(5) 𝑟 → 𝑠 Tautology ,(7) & Contrapositive
(6) 𝑞 → 𝑠 Tautology ,(2),(5) & Hypothetical Syllogism
(7) 𝑞 ∨ 𝑠 Tautology (6) & Replacement Process
(8) (𝑞 ∧ 𝑠 ) Tautology ,(7) & Demorgans law
(9) 𝑞∧𝑠 Premises
(10)  (𝑞 ∧ 𝑠 ) ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑠 ) Tautology (8), (9) & Conjunction
(11) 𝐹 Tautology, (10) &𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝐹

Hence, the given premises are inconsistent.

Problem: 2

Prove that the premises 𝒂 → (𝒃 → 𝒄), 𝒅 → (𝒃 ∧ 𝒄), and 𝒂 ∧ 𝒅 are inconsistent.

Solution:

If we derive a contradiction by using the given premises, it means that they are inconsistent.

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) 𝑎∧𝑑 Premises
(2) 𝑎 Tautology (1) & Simplification
(3) 𝑑 Tautology (1) & Simplification

22 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 (4) 𝑎 → (𝑏 → 𝑐) Premises
(5) 𝑏→𝑐 Tautology,(3),(4) & Modus Ponens
(6) 𝑏 ∨ 𝑐 Tautology ,(5) & Replacement process
(7) 𝑑 → (𝑏 ∧ 𝑐 ) Premises
(8)  (𝑏 ∧  𝑐 ) →  𝑑 Tautology ,(7) & Contrapositive
(9) (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) → 𝑑 Tautology ,(8) & Demorgans law
(10) 𝑑 Tautology (6),(9) & Modus Ponens
(11) 𝑑 ∧ 𝑑 Tautology (3), (10) & Conjunction
(12) 𝐹 Tautology, (11) &𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝐹

Hence the given premises are inconsistent.

Practice Problem:
Show that 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑝 → 𝑟, 𝑞 → 𝑟, 𝑝 are inconsistent.
Validity of Verbal Arguments

Problem: 1

Prove the validity of the following argument.

“ If I get the job & work hard, then I will get promoted. It I get promoted, then I will be happy. I will not
be happy. Therefore either I will not get the job or I will not work hard”.

Solution:
Let 𝑝: I get the job
𝑞: I work hard
𝑟: I get promoted
𝑠: I will be happy.
Then the above argument can be written in symbolic form.
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟, 𝑟 → 𝑠, 𝑠 ⟹ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟 Premise
(2) 𝑟→𝑠 Premise
(3) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) → 𝑠 Tautology, (1),(2) & Hypothetical Syllogism
(4) 𝑠 Premise
(5) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) Tautology,(3),(4) & Modus Tollens
(6) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 Tautology ,(5) & Demorgans law
Hence the given argument is valid.

Problem: 2

Determine the validity of the following argument.

“My father praises me only if I can be proud of myself. Either I do well in sports or I cannot be proud of
myself. It I Study hard, then I cannot do well in sports. Therefore, if father praises me then I do not
study”.

Solution:

Let 𝑝: My father praises me

𝑞: I can be proud of my self

23 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 𝑟: I do well in sports

𝑠: I study hard.

The above argument can be written in symbolic from as 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑠 → 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑝 → 𝑠

We include the additional premise 𝑝, derive 𝑠.

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) 𝑝→𝑞 Premise
(2) 𝑝 Premise (Additional)
(3) 𝑞 Tautology (1),(2) & Modus Ponens
(4) 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞 Premise
(5) 𝑟 Tautology,(3),(4) & Disjunctive Syllogism
(6) 𝑠 → 𝑟 Premise
(7) 𝑠 Tautology ,(5),(6) & Modus Tollens
(8) 𝑝 → 𝑠 CP – Rule

Hence the argument is valid.

Problem: 3

Determine the validity of the following argument.

Today is Sunday. Today is not Sunday. Therefore, the moon is made of green cheese.

Solution:

Let 𝑆: Today is Sunday

𝑀: Moon is made of green cheese.

The above argument can be written in symbolic form as 𝑆, 𝑆 ⟹ 𝑀

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) 𝑆 Premise
(2) 𝑆∨𝑀 Tautology, (1) & Addition 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑝
(3) 𝑆 Premise
(4) 𝑀 Tautology (2),(3) & Disjunctive syllogism

∴ The argument is valid.

Problem: 4

Determine the validity of the following argument.

If 7 is a prime number, then 7 does not divide 35. 7 divides 35. Therefore 7 is not a prime number.

Solution:

Let 𝑝: 7 is a prime number

𝑞: 7 divides 35

The given argument of the symbolic form is 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝

24 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 Step No. Premise Reasons
(1) 𝑝 → 𝑞 Premise
(2) 𝑞 Premise
(3) 𝑝 Tautology ,(1),(2) & Modus Tollens
Hence given argument is valid.

Problem: 5

Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent.

“If the contract is valid, then John is liable for penalty. If John is liable for penalty, he will go bankrupt.
If the bank will loan him money, he will not go bankrupt. As a matter of fact, the contract is valid & the
bank will loan him money.

Solution:

Let 𝑉: The contract is valid

𝐿: John is liable for penalty

𝑀: Bank will loan him money.

𝐵: He will go bankrupt.

The given argument of the symbolic form is

𝑉 → 𝐿, 𝐿 → 𝐵, 𝑀 → 𝐵 ⟹ 𝑉 ∧ 𝑀

Step No. Premise Reasons

(1) 𝑉→𝐿 Premise
(2) 𝐿→𝐵 Premise
(3) 𝑉→𝐵 Tautology,(1),(2) & Hypothetical syllogism
(4) 𝑉∧ 𝑀 Premise
(5) 𝑉 Tautology (4) & Simplification
(6) 𝑀 Tautology (4) & Simplification
(7) 𝐵 Tautology,(3),(5) & Modus Ponens
(8) 𝑀 → 𝐵 Premise
(9) 𝐵 Tautology,(6),(8) & Modus Ponens
(10) 𝐵 ∧ 𝐵 Tautology (7),(9) & Contradiction

Thus the given set of premises leads to a contradiction and hence it is inconsistent.

Practice Problems:

1) Determine the validity of the following argument. If there was a ball game then traveling was difficult.
If they arrived on time, then traveling was not difficult. They arrived on time. Therefore there was no ball
game”.

Hint: ( A  B, C  B, C  A )

2) Show that the following premises are inconsistent.

“A diagnostic message is stored in a buffer or it is retransmitted. A diagnostic message is not stored in

the buffer. If a diagnostic message is stored in buffer then it is retransmitted. A diagnostic message is not
retransmitted.
25 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
Hint: P:A diagnostic message is stored in buffer

Q: Message is transmitted

( P  Q, P, P  Q, Q )

3) Show that the following premises are inconsistent. “If Ram misses many classes through illness then he
fails high school. If Ram fails high school then he is uneducated. If Ram reads a lot of books then he is not
uneducated. Ram misses many classes through illness and reads a lot of books”

Hint: A: Ram misses many classes through illness

B: Ram fails high school

C: Ram reads a lot of books

D: Ram is uneducated.

( A  B, B  D, C  D, A  C )

4) Show that the hypotheses “It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday. We will go
swimming only if it is sunny. If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip and if we take a
canoe trip then we will be home by sunset” lead to the conclusion “we will be home by sunset”.

Hint: p: It is sunny this afternoon

q: It is colder than yesterday

r: We will go swimming

s: We will take a canoe trip

t: We will be home by sunset.

( p  q, r  p, r  s, s  t  t )

PREDICATE CALCULUS

Consider the statement “x is a student”. This is a declarative sentence. The variable x is a subject
of the statement. The second part of the statement namely “is a student” is called the predicate of the
statement. “x is a student”. A predicate refers to a property which the subject of the statement can have.

We denote the statement “x is a student” by S(x) (or) S x where S denotes the predicate “is a
student” and x is the variable. Though the statement S(x) has no truth value, once a value has been
assigned to the variable x the statement S(x) has a truth value.

A predicate is denoted by a capital letter and subject is denoted by a single variable.

Statement Function (OR) Propositional Function (OR) Open Statement

Definition:

An Open Statement is a declarative sentence which

(i) contains one or more symbols

(ii) is not a TF – Statement

26 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 (iii) produces a TF – statement when each of its symbols is replaced by a specific object from a
designated set.

Example:

Consider the statement for “The rational number greater than 100”. If we denote the predicate “is
greater than” by P, this statement assumes the form P(x).The set of all rational number is the Universal
set for this formula as the objects which replace the variables are drawn from this set.

By replacing the variable x by the rational number 2 we get the statement “The rational number 2
is greater than 100”. This statement is written as P (2) (or) P 2.

Definition: Simple Statement Function:

A simple statement of one variable is defined to be an expression consisting of a predicate symbol

and an individual variable.

Note:

It becomes a statement when the variable is replaced by any particular value. (Define statement
function of one variable. When it will become a statement).

Compound Statement Function:

A compound statement is one which can be obtained by combining one or more statement
functions and using logical connectives.

Example:

Suppose H(x) and M(x) stands for the statement functions “x is human” and “x is mortal”
respectively. Then H (x)  M (x) stands for the proposition function “x is human and mortal”.

H (x) M (x) stands for “x is human implies x is mortal” M(x)   H (x) stands for “x is mortal but not
human”.

Substitution Instance:

The statement obtained by replacing the variable of a single statement function by the name of an
individual (or) object is called a substitution instance of the given simples statement function. Any
substitution instance of a given statement function is a statement formula of the propositional calculus.

Example:

Let S stands for the predicate “is a student”. Let x be a variable. Then S(x): x is a student, is a simple
statement function. Let ‘a’ stand for the name Arun.

Then S(a) : Arun is a student, is a substitution instance of the formula S(x). S(a) is statement in the
propositional calculates.

Number of places of a predicates:

If only one name or object is associated with a predicate then that predicate is called a one place
predicate.

“ is a student” is a one place predicate. We can attach any one name to this predicate to get a
proposition ( Example: Arun is a student )

If there are two names associated with a predicate then that predicate is called two place
predicate.

“is less than” is a two place predicate. 2 is less than 3, Ram is senior to Krishna. “is senior” is a two
place predicate.
27 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
 It is denoted by L (2,3) and S (r,k) respectively. Where L stands for the predicate “is less than” and
S stands for the predicate “is senior”.

“Sits between” is a three place predicate. Banarjee sits between Ghose and Bose.

In general, an m-place predicate requires m-names of objects to be inserted in fixed positions in

order to obtain a statement. The position of these names is important. If S is an m-place predicate and
a1,a2,…,am are the names of the objects then S (a1,a2 ,…,am ) is a statement.

QUANTIFIERS

Certain statement involves words that indicate quantity such as “all”, “some”, “none”, “one”. They
answer the question “How many?” Since each word indicates quantity they are called quantifiers. An
analysis of mathematical sentences involving quantifiers indicates that the main two quantifiers are “all”
and “some” where “some” is interpreted to mean “at least one”.

Universal Quantifier:

Consider the examples

1. All birds have wings

2. No air balloon is perfectly round.

In the first example the quantifier “all” is explicitly present.

In the second example though the word “all” is not explicitly present. We can rewrite the statement as
“All air balloons fail to be perfectly round”.

“The quantifier all is called universal quantifier we denote it by (x) or (x).

The symbol (x) represented each of the following phrases and they all have essentially the same
meaning.

(i) For all x , (ii) For every x (iii) For each x (iv) Everything x is such that (v) Each thing x is such that.

Let P(x) be a statement formula. It is not a statement. But “for any x P(x)” is a statement. This is written
either as (x )P(x) or (x) Px or (x) P(x) or (x) P x.

Existential Quantifier:

Consider the following statement

(i) Some men are honest

(ii) There is a successor for every natural numbers.

In the second statement the phrase “there is” occurs explicitly and it means that “there exists at least
one”

In the first statement the phrase “there exists at least one” is not explicitly. We can rewrite the first
statement as “There is at least one man who in honest”.

28 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

 The quantifier “Some” which essentially means that “there is at least one” is called the “existential
quantifier”. The existential quantifier is denoted by the symbol (x) . (x) Stands for each of the following
phrases.

(i) For some x

(ii) Some x such that
(iii) There exists an x such that
(iv) There is at least one x such that

Example:

Let G be the predicate “is green”

Let G(x): x is green be the statement derived from the predicate G. We write the following
statements in terms of quantifiers.

(i) Something is green (  x) (G(x))

(ii) Everything is green ( x ) (G(x))
(iii) Nothing is green ( Everything is not green ) ( x ) ( (G ( x)) )
(iv) Something is not green ( x ) ( (G ( x)) )

Observation:

(1) There are two ways of obtaining a TF statement from an open statement

(i) by replacing each variable by an object which it represents

(ii) by prefixing either the existential quantifier or the universal quantifier.

(2) A TF statement obtained from an open statement by prefixing either the existential quantifier or the
universal quantifier is called a closed sentence.

Universe of Discourse

It is defined as a set of all values taken by a variable. The universe of discourse specifies the
possible values of the variable x. Therefore it is defined as the domain of the variable in a propositional
function.

Consider a predicate P(x): “x is greater than 6”. Let there be two statements written in symbolic forms
(x)P(x) and ( x )P(x)

Further if we limit – ourselves to denote the universe of discourse by the sets.

(i) {-1, 7,8,11,12, } (ii) { -3,8,9,-2} (iii) {2,3,4} (iv) {11,13,20}

(x) P (x) is the false for the universe (i), (ii), (iii) & (x) P (x) is true for the universe (iv) alone.

The statement ( x ) P (x) is true for the universe of discourse for (i), (ii), (iv), but false for (iii).

Free and Bound variables:

When a quantifier is used on a variable x or when we have to assign a value to this variable to get a
proposition, the occurrence of the variable is said to be bound or the variable is said to be a bound
variable. An occurrence of a variable that is not bound by a quantifier or that is set equal to a particular
value is said to be free.
29 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
 The part of the logical expression or predicate formula to which a quantifier is applied is called the
scope of the quantifier.

Example:

Predicate Formula Bound Variable & Scope Free Variable

1. x P(x,y) x; P(x,y) y

2. x (P(x)  Q(x)) x; P(x)  Q(x) -

3. x(P(x)   (y) Q (x,y)) x; P(x)   (y) Q (x,y) -

x; P(x)  Q(x)
4. x (P(x)  Q(x))  y R(y) -
y; R(y)

5.  x P(x)  Q(x) First x; P(x) Second x.

Rule for negating a statement covered by one quantifier:

To negate a statement covered by one quantifier, change the quantifier from universal to
existential, or from existential to universal and negate the statement which it quantifiers.

Statement Negation

(x) (P(x)) (  x)(  P(x))

(  x)(P(x)) (x) (  P(x))

Result:

The following quantified statements are equivalences

(i) (x) (P(x))   (  x) (  P(x))

(ii) (x) (  P(x)   (  x) (P(x))

(iii) (  x)(P(x))   (x) (  P(x))

(iv) (  x)(  P(x))   (x) (P(x))

Problem: 1

Write each of the following in symbolic form (Assume that the universe consists of literally everything)

(a) All men are giants

(b) No men are giants

(c) Some men are giants

(d) Some men are not giants

Solution:

Let M(x): x is a man

30 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
 G(x): x is a giant

(a) “All men are giants” means “for all x, if x is a man then x is giant”

Symbolic Form: (∀𝑥 )[𝑀(𝑥 ) → 𝐺 (𝑥 )]

(b) “No men are giants” means “for all x, if x is a man then x is giant”

Symbolic Form: (∀𝑥 )[𝑀(𝑥 ) → 𝐺 (𝑥 )]

(c) “Some men are giants” means “for all x, if x is a man then x is giant”

Symbolic Form: (∃𝑥 )[𝑀(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝐺 (𝑥 )]

(d) “Some men are not giants” means “for all x, if x is a man then x is giant”

Symbolic Form: (∃𝑥 )[𝑀(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝐺 (𝑥 )]

Problem: 2

Write the following statements in the closed form (Assume that the universe consists of literally
everything)

(i) Some people who trust others are rewarded.

(ii) If anyone is good then John is good.

(iii) He is ambitions or no one is ambitions

(iv) Someone is teasing

(v) It is not true that all roads lead to home.

Solution:

Let P(x): x is person

T(x): x is trusts others

R(x): x is rewarded

G(x): x is good

A(x): x is ambitions

Q(x): x is teasing

S(x): x is a road

L(x): x leads to home.

(i) “Some people who trust others are rewarded” means “There is one x, such that x is a person, x trust
others and x is rewarded”

Symbolic Form: (∃𝑥)[𝑃(𝑥) ∧ 𝑇(𝑥) ∧ 𝑅(𝑥)]

(ii) “If anyone is good then John is good” means “There is one x, such that x is a person, x trust others and
x is rewarded”

Symbolic Form: (∃𝑥 )[𝑃(𝑥) ∧ 𝐺(𝑥)] → 𝐺(𝐽𝑜ℎ𝑛)

31 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

(iii) “He” represents a particular person. Let the person be y so the statement “He is ambitions or no one
is ambitions” means “y is ambitions or for all x if x is a person then x is not ambitions”

Symbolic Form: 𝐴(𝑦) ∨ [(∀𝑥 )(𝑃(𝑥 ) → 𝐴(𝑥))]

(iv) “Someone is teasing” means “There is one x, such that x is a person and x is teasing”

Symbolic Form: (∃𝑥)[𝑃(𝑥) ∧ 𝑄(𝑥)]

(v) “It is not true that all roads lead to home” means “There is one x, such that x is road, x is not lead to
home”

Symbolic Form: (∃𝑥)[𝑆(𝑥) ∧ 𝐿(𝑥)] Since (∀𝑥 )(𝑆(𝑥 ) → 𝐿(𝑥))

Problem: 3

Write in symbolic form “All dogs bark”

Solution:

P(x): x is a dog.

Q(x): x barks

 (  x )(P(x) → (Q(x))
Problem: 4

Write in symbolic form – All complex numbers composed of real and imaginary parts.

Solution:

C(x): x is a complex number

R(x): x is composed of real and imaginary parts.

 (  x )(C(x) → (Q(x))
Problem: 5

Write in symbolic form – Every parrot is ugly

Solution:

P(x): x is a parrot

Q(x): x is ugly

 (  x )(P(x) → (Q(x))
Problem: 6

Write in symbolic form – There is an ugly parrot

Solution:

There exists an x, x is a parrot and x is ugly,

  x   A x   B  x  
Statement Involving More than one Quantifiers

Problem: 1

32 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY

Write in symbolic form the statement, “x is the brother of the sister of y”

Solution:

Let A(x) : x is a human being

B(x,y): x is brother of y

C(x,y): x is the sister of y

Let z be the sister of y. then we would simply mean that x is the brother of z and z is the sister of y.

Symbolic Form: (∃𝒛)(𝑨(𝒛) ∧ 𝑩(𝒙, 𝒛) ∧ 𝑪(𝒛, 𝒚))

Problem: 2

Symbolize the following statements

(i) Some vegetables are sweeter than all fruits

(ii) Every fruit is sweeter than all vegetables

(iii) Every fruit is sweeter than some vegetables

Solution:

Let F(x): x is a fruit

V(x): x is the vegetable

S(x,y): x is sweeter than y

Symbolic Form:

(i) (∃𝒙)[𝑽(𝒙) ∧ (∀𝒚)(𝑭(𝒚) → 𝑺(𝒙, 𝒚))]

(ii) (∀𝒙)[𝑭(𝒙) → (∀𝒚)(𝑽(𝒚) → 𝑺(𝒙, 𝒚))]

(iii) (∀𝒙)[𝑭(𝒙) → (∃𝒚)(𝑽(𝒚) ∧ 𝑺(𝒙, 𝒚))]

Truth values of Quantified Statements

Problem: 1

Let P(x,y) be the statement “x + y = y + x”. What is the truth value of the quantified statement
(x)(y)P(x,y)?

Solution:

(x)(y)P(x,y) means for all, real numbers x and for all real numbers y it is true that x + y = y + x

Therefore, the quantified statement is True.

Problem: 2

What are the truth values of following quantifications over the set of real numbers?

(i) (x) P(x) where P(x) : x + 1  x (ii) (x) Q(x) where Q (x) : x = x + 1
Solution: (i) True and (ii) False

Problem: 3

Write the truth value of (x) P(x) where P(x) : x 2  10 with universe U =  1,2,3,4 
33 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
Solution: For x = 4, x 2  10 is True

 Truth value of quantified statement is True.

Problem: 4

Let Q (x,y) denote x + y = 0 . What are the truth values of the quantified statements
(y)(x)Q(x,y) & (x)(y) Q (x,y)?

Solution:

(i) (y) (x) Q (x,y) means, there is real number y such that for every number x, Q(x,y) is true
(ii) (x) (y) Q(x,y) It means that, for real number x there exists a real number y such that “x
+y = 0” ( y = -x)
 Q (x,y) is True.

Problem: 5

Consider the predicate Q(x): x is less than 5 and the statements (x) Q(x) and (x) Q(x)

If the universe of discourse is (i) -1,0,1,2,4 (ii) 3,-2,7,8,-2 (iii) 15,20,24.Discuss the truth values of
(x)Q(x) and (x)Q(x)

Solution:

( x) Q(x) is true for the universe of discourse (i) but false for (ii) & (iii)

The statement (x) Q(x) is true for both universe (i) & (ii) but false for (iii)

THEORY OF INFERENCE FOR PREDICATE CALCULUS:

Rule US: (Universal Specification)

If a statement of the form (x) (P(x)) is assumed to be true (where P(x) may or may not contain
other symbols in addition to x), then the universal quantifier may be dropped from the statement to obtain
P(x) which is true for each object in the universe, or to obtain P(b) which is true for a specific object of the
universe.

Rule UG (Universal Generalization)

If a statement P(x) is true for an arbitrary x of the universe (when P(x) may or may not contain other
symbols in addition to x), then the universal quantifier may be prefixed to obtain (x) (P(x)), provided that
every existential object in P(x) which depends on x is covered by a quantifier.

Rule ES: ( Existential Specification)

If (x) P(x) is assumed to be true ( where P(x) may or may not contain other symbols in addition to
x), then the existential object it can be used to represent the object for which P(x) is true, provided ‘b’ has
not already been used to represent some object in the discussion (or) in P(x). Then by dropping the
existential quantifier and replacing ‘x by b’ we can obtain P(b).

Rule EG : ( Existential Generalization)

Let ‘c’ be an object having a given property and let P ( c ) be a symbolic expression of this property
possesses by c, which may or may not contain other symbols in addition to c. If x is not one of the symbols
occurring in P ( c ) then the existential of x can be expressed by replacing c by x and prefixing the existential
quantifier to obtain (x) (P(x)).

Note:
34 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY
 (i) The elimination of quantifiers can be done by rules of specification called US & ES.
(ii) To prefix the correct quantifier, we need the rules of generalization called UG and EG

Problem: 1

Verify the validity of the following argument. “Every living thing is a plant or an animal. John’s
gold fish is alive and it is not a plant. All animals have hearts. Therefore John’s gold fish has a heart.

Solution: Let the universe consists of all living things

Let P(x) : x is a plant
A(x) : x is an animal
H(x) : x has a heart
g : John’s gold fish.
Then the inference pattern is: (x) (P(x)  A(x)),  P(g), (x) [ A(x)  H(x)]  H(g)
Step No. Premise Reason
(1) (x) (P(x)  A(x)) Premise
(2)  P(g) Premise
(3) P(g)  A(g) (1), US
(4) A(g) (2), (3), Tautology, & Disjunctive syllogism pvq, p q
(5) (x) (A(x)H(x) Premise
(6) A(g)H(g) US, (5)
(7) H(g) Tautology,(4),(6) & Modus ponens pq, p  q
 This conclusion is valid.

Problem: 2

Verify the validity of the following argument

“Lions are dangerous animals. There are Lions. Therefore there are dangerous animals”

Solution:

Let L(x): x is Lion

D(x): x is dangerous animal

Then the inference pattern is (x) [L(x)D(x)], (x) [L(x)]  (x) [D(x)]

Argument:

Step No. Premise Reason

(1) (x) [L(x)] Premise
(2) L(b) ES, (1)
(3) (x)[L(x)D(x)] Premise
(4) L(x)D(b) US, (3)
(5) D(b) Tautology, (2),(4) & Modus ponens pq, pq
(6) (x)[D(x)] EG, (5)
Thus the inference is valid.

35 Dr.A.Manickam,Asst.Prof (SASL), Department of Mathematics, VIT BHOPAL UNIVERSITY