Chapter 1

Duration
Table of contents

Important words: duration, rhythm, beat, pulse, metre, bar, 2

anacrusis, repeat
Time signatures & metre: simple time, compound time, 3
multimetre, metronome
Accent and ostinato: syncopation, backbeat, polyrhythm, 4
cross rhythm, free rhythm, riff
Tempo: Italian terms, Lento, Adagio, Andante, Moderato, 5
Allegro, Vivace, Presto; accelerando, ritardando, rubato
Duration match-up (student activity) 6

Notation term tango (student activity) 7

Tick or cross (student activity) 8

Duration checklist (student listening activity) 9

Duration and style (student activity) 10

Duration and style (student activity) 11

Duration question template (student listening activity) 12

Duration answer template (student listening activity) 13

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 Important words
In your studies of music, you will have to learn the correct way to talk about musical concepts. For Music
Course 1, the overall concept of rhythm, beats, pulse, time signatures and so on, is called duration.

Duration means how long something lasts. For example, the HSC Music To remember the
meaning of this word,
Examination for Course 1 Aural Skills is of one hour duration. think of Duracell
Of course, duration does not always have to be long. A batteries
semiquaver has a very short duration, and a semibreve has a (dura=duration).
longer duration. They were so named
to imply that they last
for a long time.
Rhythm refers to patterns of long and short sounds. Rhythm involves
the grouping and organisation of sounds, and how the long and
short notes are arranged.
The word “rhythm”
Beat is the main time unit of a composition. A beat occurs on a comes from the Greek
word “rhuthmos”
strong accent. If you clap along in time with music, you are which means flow.
clapping the beat. A conductor moves his or her arms in time
with the beat.
Take your resting
Pulse refers to the underlying pattern of strong beats. Pulse is very pulse. How many
similar in meaning to “beat”. beats per minute?

Metre is the way beats are grouped together and measured. Beats are
arranged into bars, with the same number of beats in each bar.
A time signature is used to show how many beats are in each bar
Some types of music
and the duration of each beat. have an irregular
metre which means
Bar means a group of beats, separated by bar lines. The first beat is the number of beats
changes
usually accented, which means that it is emphasised or stressed. from bar to bar.
Usually, there is the same number of beats in each bar.

Anacrusis is a note or notes occurring before the first beat of the first bar of a composition. The
notes in an anacrusis form an incomplete bar, and their value is subtracted from the final
bar of the piece. The anacrusis can also be called an upbeat.

3 Double bar lines

4           : are used at the end

of a composition.
Time The two dots
Signature First beat accented Bar line mean repeat.
Anacrusis Bars

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 Make sure you memorise these
Time Signatures are numbers used at the beginning of a note values and names!
note rest
composition to explain the metre, or how many beats are in each Semibreve 4 beats 
bar. A time signature also tells you about the duration of each beat. 
Minim 2 beats  
how many beats in each bar? 3 beats per bar
3 Crotchet 1 beat  
4 what kind of beats are in each bar? crotchet beats
 
Quaver ½ beat

Semiquaver ¼ beat  
Simple time is based on simple, or whole beats, like
crotchets or minims. Most pop and rock music is in simple time, and
A dot adds half the value eg.  1½

usually 4 beats per bar. For the exam, you will mostly need to be familiar with :

2 3 4 4 on the bottom means crotchet beats

4 4 4

Compound time is based on dotted beats, such as dotted crotchets. It feels like three beats
in a bar, but the beats are quicker. Dance compositions, such as gigues and folk dances, use compound
time.

6 9 12 8 on the bottom means quavers, grouped in dotted crotchet beats

8 8 8

Multimetre Some pieces use numerous changes in time signatures in quick succession. In the
examination, you may be faced with a jazz piece or a modern composition which keeps changing its metre.
It makes the music complex and interesting. For example, the metre may
change from 5/4 to 7/4 to 4/4.

Metronome Invented by J.N.Mälzel in 1816, the metronome has a

swinging rod, like a pendulum in a clock that makes a clicking sound. The
speed of the rod can be varied by moving a weight into a higher or lower
position. The rod has numbers on it, from 30 to 180, meaning the number
of beats per minute. The numbers correspond to the metronome marking
on the top of most pieces of music.
eg. M.M. = 80
Mälzel’s metronome. 80 crotchet beats per minute.

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 Accent and ostinato
Accent means emphasis or stress. It can be achieved by playing one note or chord louder than the
others, or by increasing its duration slightly. In 4/4 time, the accent falls on the first note or chord of a
bar, with a weaker accent on the third beat.
Syncopation occurs when the accent is on the weaker beats. In 4/4, if the accent is not on the
first and third beats of a bar, then there is probably some kind of syncopation in the music. Syncopation
can range from a simple backbeat (see below) to complex jazz rhythm patterns. Syncopation can be
achieved by moving notes on to the weak beats of the bar, or through ties, or by accenting notes that
would not normally be accented.
Backbeat is a feature of rock, popular and rhythm’n’blues music. Instead of occurring on the first
and third beats, the accent is on the second and fourth beats. Backbeat is a form of syncopation.

4
4   _  >
>
     
_  
  
> >
Strong accents are shown by arrow markings > . Backbeat Ties are used to throw the accent off the
Weaker accents and stress marks are shown by a line -. main beats on to the half beats.
Strong accent on first beats; weaker accent on third beats. Both of these bars are SYNCOPATED.

Polyrhythm refers to the use of two or more conflicting rhythm patterns Learn this word
or accents at the same time. “Poly” means “many”, so polyrhythm means “many because you are sure
different types of rhythms”. Polyrhythms often occur in heavily syncopated pieces to hear some type of
polyrhythms in the
and compositions which combine different metres. Jazz pieces with complex
HSC examination!
syncopation and changing accent patterns can have a polyrhythmic effect even if
only one instrument is playing.
3
Cross rhythm is a type of polyrhythm where 4      
two metres are played at the same time. Mostly cross
rhythms are used when 3/4 is played against 6/8. You 6    
8
can hear lots of cross rhythms in West Side Story.
Free rhythm describes music where the beat is indefinite. If you try to clap along, it is difficult to
know where the regular accents occur.
Ostinato refers to a repeated pattern of pitch or rhythm, in all or part of a piece. Ostinato comes
from the Italian word “obstinate” or stubborn, because the pattern repeats again and again, stubbornly
continuing. The plural of ostinato is ostinati not ostinatos. A riff is a short repeated phrase. It is a
word used ONLY IN POPULAR MUSIC. It is played usually on guitar or bass. A riff is very similar to an
ostinato. A riff may occur only a few times whereas an ostinato is more continuous.

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The international language of music is
SLOWLY Lento

Adagio

Andante

MODERATELY
FAST Moderato
By common agreement among
musicians, most markings on music are
in Italian, so a composer in China can
communicate his or her intentions with
a performer in Spain or Australia. As Allegro
always, there are exceptions to this
rule. Romantic composers often wrote
their instructions in German, the Vivace
Impressionists wrote theirs in French,
and in modern music, anything goes!
But as a general rule, musicians use QUICKLY Presto
Italian to specify speed, dynamics and
expression.

When the music speeds up, we use the term accelerando

which means gradually getting faster. Think of the accelerator on
a car.
When the music slows down, we use the term ritardando
which means gradually getting slower.
These are words for gradual changes of speed, not a total change
of tempo.

Rubato In some compositions, the speed seems to ebb and flow,

creating expressive climaxes in each phrase. This is rubato, which means
“robbing”. You steal part of the value of one note, and pay it back on the
next note or phrase. Rubato technique consists of mini-accelerando and
mini-ritardando parts, while the overall tempo remains constant. Rubato
was used extensively in the Romantic period by composers such as
Chopin, as performers were given the opportunity to express themselves
through variations in tempo. Rubato is also used in jazz, and in slow
romantic pop ballads.

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 Draw a line to match the music word or symbol with its correct meaning.

ACCELERANDO
speed

a repeated pattern of notes and/or rhythm
ACCENT
when the 2nd and 4th beats of the bar are accented
BACKBEAT
where the accents occur on the weaker or off-beats
in a bar
TEMPO
3 crotchet beats per bar
MODERATO
a note or chord that is stressed or emphasised
RHYTHM
the numbers written at the start of a composition to
SYNCOPATION indicate how many and what type of beats per bar

RUBATO slowly

3 indicates the end of a composition

4
numerous changes in time signature
PRESTO
many rhythms or accents occurring at the same time

patterns of long and short sounds

M.M.  = 60 gradually getting faster

crotchet rest
MULTIMETRE
moderately fast
TIME SIGNATURE
quickly
POLYRHYTHM
Mälzel’s Metronome - indicates the speed of the
OSTINATO piece; 60 crotchet beats per minute

LENTO “robbing” the time - playing faster and slower to

make the performance more expressive

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Choose a word from the box and write it on the line next to the music or words that explain it.
polyrhythm bass clef moderately fast backbeat accent quickly
syncopation quaver natural sign repeat sign flat sign
sharp sign compound time slowly gradually getting slower
ostinato up-beat cross rhythm crotchet rest gradually getting faster

1.     10. 

2.          11. 

3.         12. 

4.  13. 

5.                  14. 

6.     15. 
7. : 16. accel.

8.        17. Adagio

18. Vivace
9. 4        
4
19. Moderato
4
4        
4
4      
   
 
20. rit.

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 Tick or cross
Below you will find 16 statements made by students when practising their written responses
for the HSC examination. Some make sense and musical terminology is used correctly,
while others do not make sense or musical terminology is used incorrectly. Draw a tick or a
cross in the box next to each statement to indicate if you think it is correct. If you make a
cross, explain why the statement is incorrect.

eg. There is an ostinato in one bar. X The statement cannot be correct. An ostinato is a
continuous, repeated pattern so it is not possible
for it to be in one bar only.
____________________________________
1. The rhythm was high. ____________________________________
____________________________________
2. The piece has a quick pulse. ____________________________________
____________________________________
3. The excerpt is in a jazz, swing style, using complex ____________________________________
dotted rhythms. ____________________________________
____________________________________
4. The backbeat was on the main beat. ____________________________________
____________________________________
5. There was one polyrhythm. ____________________________________
____________________________________
6. The accelerando towards the end adds to a ____________________________________
sense of excitement and climax in the piece. ____________________________________
____________________________________
7. The speed is smooth. ____________________________________
____________________________________
8. The drums play a syncopated ostinato. ____________________________________
____________________________________
9. The tempo changes from Allegro in Section A, to ____________________________________
Adagio in Section B. ____________________________________
____________________________________
10. The singer sings Allegro, the piano plays ____________________________________
Lento, and the saxophone plays Moderato. ____________________________________
____________________________________
11. There is no rhythm until half way through the ____________________________________
piece. ____________________________________
____________________________________
12. The composer uses cross rhythms - the ____________________________________
guitar plays in 3/4 and the fiddle is in 6/8 ____________________________________
____________________________________
13. The beat has a jazzy feel. ____________________________________
____________________________________
14. The tempo gets louder and faster. ____________________________________
____________________________________
15. The time signature is slow.

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Your teacher will play four musical excerpts for you. Draw a tick in the column if the aspect of duration
occurs in the music you hear.

ASPECTS OF DURATION PRESENT IN THE EXCERPT 1 2 3 4

Tempo is Adagio / Lento

Tempo is Andante / Moderato
Tempo is Vivace / Presto
Tempo remains constant throughout the excerpt
Tempo changes during the excerpt
Simple time
Compound time
Multimetre
Rhythm is strict and rigid
Rhythm is free and indefinite
Syncopation
No syncopation
Polyrhythms
Cross rhythms
Ostinato
Backbeat
Anacrusis
Accelerando
Ritardando
Rubato
Note values are mostly short
Note values are mostly long
Dotted rhythms
How many bars are there in each section of the excerpt?
Intro
Section A / Verse 1
Section B / Verse 2 / Chorus
Section C / Verse 3

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Your general knowledge about the history of music should give you ahead start in answering questions in
the HSC examination. As soon as you hear the first bars of the excerpt in an exam situation, you should
be able to identify the style. Is it a Classical piece? a piece of Theatre music? a Rock song? or a sample of
African tribal drumming? By working out what period and genre the excerpt is from, your general
knowledge can give you a head start in answering the exam question.

Here is a summary of how Rhythm is used in Jazz music. Of course, there are exceptions to every
statement, but on the whole, these generalisations apply.

Aspect of duration
Jazz
Tempo ranges from slow, rubato ballads in “cool” jazz, to fast bebop and New Orleans jazz

Metre multimetre is common, use of 5/4, 7/4, cross rhythms as different instruments imitate and
improvise around each other.
Describe rhythm Extensive use of rhythmic improvisation during solos. In ensembles, the drummer and bass player
usually play a stabilising beat. Syncopation is often used, as melodic lines are based on speech
rhythms. Heavy use of accents, ties and dotted rhythms to create syncopation. Rhythmic ostinati
are common. In ensembles, polyrhythms are used to create interest and excitement. Due to the
use of polyrhythms, syncopation, and multimetre, jazz rhythms are highly complex.
Note values Dotted rhythms are common, especially in swing styles. Most jazz pieces have an improvised
section and solos where performers use complex, fast note values (semiquavers,
demisemiquavers) contrasting with longer notes.

Now it’s your turn. Try to write your own summary of the use of duration in other styles and types of
music. You should be able to generalise about the style without hearing an actual excerpt.

Aspect of duration
Overture from a stage musical
such as West Side Story, Guys and Dolls or My Fair Lady.
Tempo

Metre

Describe rhythm

Note values

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 Aspect of duration
Rap / hip hop song
Tempo

Metre

Describe rhythm

Note values

Aspect of duration
African tribal drumming
Tempo

Metre

Describe rhythm

Note values

Aspect of duration
Film soundtrack of a chase scene
Tempo

Metre

Describe rhythm

Note values

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Duration: question template
Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form to the questions and prompts below.

TEMPO AND METRE What is the Tempo marking overall? (Allegro, Lento, Moderato etc)

Does the tempo change or remain constant throughout? If it changes, where does
this happen?

What is the time signature? Is there any use of multimetre?

Describe the beat - is it steady, strong, indefinite? Is there a backbeat?

FOR EACH SECTION IN THE EXCERPT, ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

INTRODUCTION How many bars in this section?

Describe the rhythm. Is it animated, lively, free, slow and ponderous, rigid and
march-like?

What instruments create the rhythm?

Describe the use of note values (long, short, dotted etc)

Syncopation? Ostinati? Polyrhythms? Use of imitation?

Describe and notate the main rhythms in this section.

SECTION A/ How many bars in this section?

VERSE 1
Describe the rhythm. Is it animated, lively, free, slow and ponderous, rigid and
march-like?

What instruments create the rhythm?

Describe the use of note values (long, short, dotted etc)

Syncopation? Ostinati? Polyrhthms? Use of imitation?

Describe and notate the main rhythms in this section.

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Duration: answer template
Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write your answers in point form. The prompts have been omitted to test
your knowledge of the duration concept!

TEMPO AND
METRE

INTRODUCTION

SECTION A/
VERSE 1

SECTION B

SECTION C

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 Chapter 2

Pitch
Table of contents
Melody and Harmony: Tonality, Western and non-Western 15
tonality; scale, octave, sub-dominant, dominant, leading note,
key, drone
Keys and Scales: semitone, tone, major, minor, chromatic, 16
pentatonic, mode, raga, modulation
Chords: chord progression, rate of harmonic change, cadences 17
- perfect, plagal, interrupted, imperfect
Blues scale; Consonance & Dissonance 18
Pitch match-up (Student activity) 19
Scales (Student activity) 20
Harmony checklist (Student listening activity) 21
Harmony question template (Student listening activity) 22
Harmony answer template (Student listening activity) 23
Melody: phrase, symmetrical, asymmetrical, motif, fragment 24
Range, intervals, contour; ascending, descending, steps, leaps 25
Drawing melodic contour (Student activity) 26
Describing a melody: imitation, repetition, ostinato, sequence, 27
ornamentation (trill, turn), improvisation
Types of melody: main, counter-melody, question and answer, 28
call and response, canon
Melody checklist (Student listening activity) 29
Using musical terminology (Student activity) 30
Melody question template (Student listening activity) 31
Melody answer template (Student listening activity) 32

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Pitch refers to the high-ness or low-ness of a sound. When people talk about “notes” they are usually
referring to “pitches”. For the purposes of the HSC exam, pitch is divided into two concepts: melody and
harmony. You could be asked to focus on melody or harmony in your answer, or to write about both.

Melody is a series of pitches, one Harmony is when three or more pitches occur at the same
after the other. It includes sub-concepts time. It includes sub-concepts such as tonality, scales, chords,
such as tune, contour, intervals, phrases, key, cadences. We’ll look at this concept first.
repetition and imitation.

Tonality Most compositions are based on one pitch which acts as a “home”.

Western and non-Western tonality Most of the compositions you will learn and hear are
based on Western Diatonic Tonality. This is a tradition starting in Europe in the Middle Ages with
Gregorian Chants, progressing through the Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, and Romantic Periods. In the
Twentieth Century, both art music and popular music are part of the Western Diatonic Tradition. The word
“diatonic” means based on major and minor scales. Many non-Western cultures, such as those in India,
China, Japan, Vietnam, South America, and Africa, use special scales, often created with quarter or eighth
tones that could not be played on a regular piano. The rules of harmony and tonality described in this book
do not always apply to music of non-Western cultures. However, you can still describe the musical events in
those pieces using Western terminology.

A scale is a series of pitches based on a main, or “home” pitch. Usually, there are eight pitches in a
scale, ascending and descending by step. We number the pitches in the scale from 1 to 8 (known as scale
degrees). The first note in a scale is called the tonic. If the tonic is C, for example, the numbering works like
this:

C D E F G A B C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
tonic dominant octave

sub-dominant leading note

You will notice that both 1 and 8 are C. This is called an octave. In Western Diatonic Harmony, the most
important pitches are 1, 4 and 5, the tonic, sub-dominant and dominant. The leading note is also very
important. It often rises to 8 at the climax of a melody. If you learn the official names of these pitches, it
will impress the markers and it will help you to describe exactly what is happening in a musical excerpt.

Key is the “home” pitch and scale used in a composition, for example, C minor, or F# major. Some
compositions do not have a key (see page 18).

Drone A drone is a long, continuous low pitch played to maintain a tonal centre. For example, on the
bagpipe, a low drone will play while the performer plays a melody on the pipes. In piano and orchestral
music, a drone is also called a pedal point. A long, low note is sustained while chords change above it.

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 A semitone is the distance between one pitch and another pitch closest to it. On a piano
keyboard, it is a step between a black and white note, eg. C to C#.
A tone is a distance of two semitones, eg. from C to D.
All scales have a set pattern of tones and semitones.
Major scale: tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone.
Minor scale: tone, semitone, tone, tone, semitone, tone & a half, semitone.
You will need to recognise the sound of major and minor scales and keys. Some people think that
major is happy-sounding and minor is sad, but this is not always so. Plenty of sad songs have been
written in major keys and vice versa. Experiment with tones, semitones, major and minor keys on the
piano.

Most people have heard of major and minor scales, but there are lots of other kinds of scales such as:
chromatic scale - consisting of all semitones (every black and white note on the piano)
pentatonic scale - consisting of five notes (penta means five), usually the scale degrees
12356. Pentatonic scales are often used in folk music and music of other cultures.
mode - scales with different patterns of tones and semitones. If you hear a piece and it’s not major
or minor, it could be modal. Folk songs use modes, as do many Medieval, Renaissance, and Twentieth
Century compositions. For example, Aeolian mode is ABCDEFG (similar to A minor, but with G natural)
and Lydian mode is FGABCDEF (similar to F major, but with a B natural).
raga - a type of scale used in Indian music, often with different patterns used for ascending and
descending parts. The world “raga” means “to please”, and each raga is intended to create a
particular mood or mental picture. Different ragas are played at different times of the day.

To create interest, especially in long compositions, a composition often moves away from the “home”
tonality or key, and then back again. This creates a satisfying feeling of resolution.
It is called modulation.
Modulation is more than just changing chords, it means temporarily changing the home key. Many
compositions modulate to one of the keys related to the home key:
 the subdominant IV
 the dominant V A min
 the relative minor vi I’m F
On a score, you will be able to see the modulation back!

C
because of the accidentals, or extra sharps, flats and
naturals that show a new key signature is operating. In
the Course 1 Aural examination, you will not be given a
score, so you will have to practise listening for
modulations. In popular music, modulation is more likely
to be up a semitone, such as from C major to C# major.
When a pop song has many verses and choruses,
modulation is used to create interest without altering other musical elements.

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Chords consist of three or more pitches played at the same time. We can build a chord on top of any
note in a scale. The chords that define a key are the “home” chord based on the tonic, and the dominant
chord, based on the fifth scale degree. A chord can have more than three notes. Roman numerals are used
to describe chords, with capitals for major chords and lower case letters for minor chords.


 

I ii iii IV V vi vii

A chord progression is the name of a pattern of different chords.

Rate of harmonic change. In some pieces, the chords change quickly on every crotchet beat
(for example, a Bach chorale) so we can say it has a fast rate of harmonic change. In other pieces, the
same chord is used for a whole page of music, so we can say it has a slow rate of harmonic change.

A chord can appear in many different ways.

A triad: the three notes in the chord are played at the same time.
An arpeggio: where the notes in the chord are split up and played one at a time.
An Alberti bass: A type of arpeggio with a repeated pattern often in the left hand of a piano
accompaniment.
A tone cluster: a chord that is comprised of adjacent and dissonant notes.
TRIAD ARPEGGIO ALBERTI BASS TONE CLUSTER


A cadence is a two-chord progression that acts like a punctuation point in a musical phrase or section.
The most common cadence is called a Perfect Cadence, which is a progression from chord V to I, like a full
stop. It often marks the end of a piece. From Baroque to Pop music, perfect cadences are everywhere, and
it would be advisable for you to practise identifying them aurally. A Plagal Cadence is chord IV to I. It is
also called the “Amen” cadence due to its use in church music. The tonic note appears in both chords. An
Interrupted Cadence, chord V to vi, is quite easy to recognise because it sounds
unfinished and it is like a musical question mark. The last is an Imperfect Cadence,
from chord I to V, which is like a colon. The listener expects the music to continue.
Perfect Cadence: V I
Plagal Cadence: IV I
Interrupted Cadence: V vi
Imperfect Cadence: I V
Experiment by playing and listening to cadences. You will be surprised how many
cadences there are in music you listen to every day!

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 A new type of scale evolved in the early 20th Century in the U.S.A. It developed from the folk music of
Africans who had been sold into slavery in America. It is called “blues” because it describes the melancholy
mood of the captured slaves. The blues scale is used in many types of popular music, particularly gospel
and spirituals, jazz, rhythm and blues, and pop and rock compositions. In the blues scale, some notes are
lowered or flattened to create a mournful effect. Here is the blues scale in C, with the 3rd, 5th and 7th
notes flattened.

     

The blues scale is used as the basis of the melody, and the chord pattern is usually based on a 12 bar
progression, called Twelve Bar Blues. See the section on Structure to find out more about 12 Bar Blues.

Here are two words you can use in general descriptions of tonality.

Consonant Dissonant

based on major and intervals that sound intervals that clash or

minor scales “pleasant”(3rd, 6ths, sound “unpleasant”
Octaves) use major, minor (2nd, 4th, 7ths)
and chromatic
scales
use of chords I, IV creates a feeling of
creates a feeling of and V; triads use of chords with tension and unease
resolution and added notes, chromatic
stability notes, tone clusters

Some pieces don’t seem to have a key. Each pitch is as important as the others. There is no “home”, and no
recognisable scales or chords. In this case, the composition is said to be atonal. If you hear lots of chromatic
notes and clashes, with black and white notes played at the same time, it is dissonant. Dissonance creates a
feeling of tension in the music, pulling towards a resolution. No matter what the period or style of the music,
most compositions have aspects of dissonance which create interest and dynamism in the music. Many
Twentieth Century compositions are completely atonal, such as Schonberg’s Twelve Tone music and aleatoric
music which is based on chance, like the role of a dice to represent pitches and note values. It is unlikely that
you will know what technique a composer is using in an excerpt if you have not heard of him or her.
However, you should become familiar with a few Twentieth Century composition techniques to broaden your
general knowledge and your understanding of dissonant music.

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 18
Are you with us so far? Draw a line to connect the word with the definition to find out.
a distance, or interval, of two semitones
CHROMATIC
a distance, or interval, of 8 notes
SUB-DOMINANT
a series of pitches, ascending and descending which determine the key
MODULATION of a piece
OCTAVE a scale with 5 pitches
CADENCE the “home” pitch of a scale or key; first scale degree
SEMITONE a scale using all the 12 semitones within an octave
SCALE a two-chord progression at the end of a section or musical phrase
HARMONY
three or more pitches played at the same time
MODE the name of the fourth scale degree
DISSONANCE the distance, or interval, between a pitch and the one closest to it
PENTATONIC the note or chord starting on the 5th scale degree
TONIC a type of scale used in church music in medieval times; often used in
folk songs
CHORD
temporarily changing the “home” pitch, or key
TONE
the effect created by a clash of black and white notes
DOMINANT
a similar term to tonality

Write the scale degree names next to these numbers:

1 _______________ 4 ________________ 5 __________________ 7 __________________________

Write the letter names of these notes. eg. C major tonic: answer C
(To answer the questions, you don’t need to know how many flats or sharps are in the scales.)

D minor subdominant A major dominant

F minor tonic G minor subdominant
Bb major dominant F major leading note
Eb major tonic E minor dominant
C major leading note B major subdominant
G# minor tonic Ab major leading note
G major subdominant F# major tonic
Eb major leading note D major dominant

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 19
To complete this page, you need basic music notation knowledge and an understanding of the definitions on
pages 15-19.

1. Here is D major scale. Write the scale degree numbers under the notes. Circle the tonic, sub-dominant
and dominant notes.

 

2. Now write out F major scale, one octave ascending. Write the scale degree numbers under the notes.


3. Write out A minor scale. Write the scale degree numbers under the notes. Circle the dominant note.


4. Write out the pentatonic scale starting on C.


5. Write the tonic and dominant chords in these keys.
D major F major G major A minor E minor
I V I V I V I V I V


6. Here is a tune in the key of F major. Circle any notes that do not belong to F major scale.

 34
    

7. What are the three main keys this tune could modulate to?
_______________ or ___________ or ___________
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Your teacher will play four musical excerpts for you. Draw a tick in the column if the aspect of harmony
occurs in the music you hear.

ASPECTS OF HARMONY PRESENT IN THE EXCERPT 1 2 3 4

Tonality is major

Tonality is minor

Tonality is modal

Tonality is pentatonic

Atonal

The piece modulates

The piece does not modulate

Fast rate of harmonic change

Slow rate of harmonic change

Use of arpeggios

Use of triads

Use of alberti bass

Tone clusters

Blues scale is used

12 bar blues

Drone

Perfect cadence

Plagal cadence

Interrupted cadence

Imperfect cadence

Harmony is mostly consonant

Harmony is mostly dissonant

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 21
Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form to the questions and prompts below.

Tonality Describe the overall harmony / chords used (major/minor, atonal, modal, dissonant,
blues scales used?)

Does the piece modulate? If so when? (eg. after Section A)

ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS FOR EACH SECTION OF THE EXCERPT

INTRO/ Are there any repeated chord patterns / chordal ostinati?

SECTION A

Rate of harmonic change? (fast/slow chord changes)

What is the style of chords? (triads, arpeggios)

Identify any cadences you can hear. Where do they occur?

SECTION B Are there any repeated chord patterns / chordal ostinati?

Rate of harmonic change? (fast/slow chord changes)

What is the style of chords? (triads, arpeggios)

Identify any cadences you can hear. Where do they occur?

SECTION C Are there any repeated chord patterns / chordal ostinati?

Rate of harmonic change? (fast/slow chord changes)

What is the style of chords? (triads, arpeggios)

Identify any cadences you can hear. Where do they occur?

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 22
Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form in each section. No prompts have been
provided to test your understanding of Harmony.

Tonality

DISCUSS THE USE OF HARMONY IN EACH SECTION OF THE EXCERPT

INTRO/
SECTION A

SECTION B

SECTION C

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 23
A melody is a series of pitches that form a tune. You can use the words “tune” and “melody”
interchangeably. The melody can be played by any instrument or voice in an ensemble, but it is often
played by the highest instrument.

A phrase is a section of an instrumental or vocal line, similar to a musical sentence, containing part or all
of a melody. In a long piece or song, the whole melody can be broken into sections. Some parts repeat,
while others introduce new material. The mini-sections of the melody are called phrases. In a symphony, the
violins might be playing the main tune but all the other instruments may have their own phrases, contributing
to the overall sound. A phrase usually goes for 4-8 bars, although it can be shorter or longer. On a musical
score (written music notation), a phrase is marked by a slur, which is a curved line placed over the top of
the notes.

2 bar
phrases

4 bar
phrases

During the exam, you will need to count the bars to work out how long a phrase lasts. So how can you tell
where a phrase starts and finishes?
 Listen for natural resting points in the music. If there are pauses or gaps, it could indicate the end of a
phrase.
 Listen for resolution to the home pitch.
 Listen for repetition of a part of a melody - it could be a phrase repeating.
 Listen for new melodic material.

If phrases have equal numbers of bars, they are symmetrical.

If phrases have different numbers of bars, they are asymmetrical.

Symmetrical

Asymmetrical

A motif is a part of a melody that has an important role in a composition. It can be repeated, imitated,
transposed, and shared from instrument to instrument.

A fragment is a section of a melody that is shorter than a phrase. It does not

have significant musical value on its own. It can have a slur over it too, as in this
example. “Fragment” is a useful word to remember so you can use it when talking
about a small “bit” of the phrase. Here is an example of a fragment.

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Range. Every instrument or voice has a range - from the lowest note it can produce to the highest note it
can produce. For example a piano has an 88 note, 7 octave range. The flute has a range of 3 octaves
starting on middle C and ascending. The bassoon has a 3½ octave range starting on Bb two octaves below
middle C. The range of pitches in a piece can be wide or narrow. Some singers have a wide range, which
means they can comfortably sing notes across 2-3 octaves, while other singers can only comfortably sing a
few notes in a narrow range. You will be expected to compare the ranges of the performing media, or
sound sources, in the piece.
An interval is the distance between two pitches. We use numbers to indicate how many notes in
between two pitches eg. 2nd, 5th, 7th. Start counting the bottom note as 1. For example, starting with G as
1, intervals are numbered as follows:
1st 8th
(unison) 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th (octave) 9th etc


If you practise listening to intervals and identifying them, you should be able to describe exact intervals in

Contour means the shape of a melody. It can be ascending (going up) or descending
(going down) in pitch. If you look at a musical score and draw a line through the centre of each note in a
melody, you can see a shape. The contour can be described as smooth or jagged, depending on the
intervals in the melody.
A melody moves in combinations of steps and leaps. A step is an interval of
a 2nd (a tone or semitone), and a leap is an interval of a 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th,
8th, 9th, 10th etc.

You will be expected to draw the contour of the melody. Notating it would be
even better!

Here are two examples of melody contours and sample descriptions:

The melody starts with two ascending leaps, followed by three

notes of the same pitch. Then there is one descending step and
the last note is repeated.

The melody has a curved contour, with 4 descending steps

followed by 4 ascending steps back to the starting pitch. The
melody is symmetrical.

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 25
Practise drawing the shape of a melody then describe it. Talk about the overall shape. Use dots to indicate
individual pitches. Use these words:
smooth jagged symmetrical
asymmetrical
___________________________________________
1. ___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
3.
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
__________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
4.
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
__________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 26
Apart from the melodic contour, you need to describe the melody in more detail. Here are three concepts
which will help you describe a melody:

Imitation where a part of the melody or an entire melody is copied exactly by another instrument. The
imitation can be at the same pitch, or a higher or lower pitch. Often melodic fragments or motifs are
imitated and tossed between instruments. In your written response in the examination, make sure you
specify what is being imitated and how.

Repetition the main melody is likely to be repeated more than once in a composition so that it
creates a memorable impact. The main melody can be repeated, as can individual notes, or sections of the
melody. In your written response in the examination , make sure you specify what is being repeated, and
how many times.

Ostinato a repeated pattern of notes

Sequence a fragment or motif that is repeated at different pitches. A melodic sequence repeats in
the melody alone, while a harmonic sequence affects all of the parts. Here is an example of a melodic
sequence that descends in 3rds.

  3
4

Ornamentation Ornaments are frilly bits added to a melody to make it sound more interesting.
Often, ornaments are a kind of improvisation that relies on the skill and interpretation of the performer.
Ornaments are mostly used in Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, and Romantic music, as well as in Jazz. The
main ornaments you need to know about are:
tr
trill rapid alternation of two neighbouring pitches

turn a melodic figure that rises and falls by step

around the main pitch

Even if you are unable to identify the types of ornaments used in a melody, if you hear lots of frills you can
call it “heavily ornamented”.

Improvisation means to create music at the time of performance, rather than playing music already
composed. Improvisation is used in jazz music and in the cadenza sections of Classical and Romantic
concertos. Performers have the freedom to play whatever they like, as long as it is in keeping with the
musical style of the piece. Improvised sections sound fluid and free, and they are often ornamented.

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 27
Main melody The most prominent and memorable tune in a composition.

Counter melody A second contrasting melody that is played at the same time as the main melody.
“Counter” means “against” so the countermelody is heard against the main tune. Usually it is played by a
different instrument or voice.

Call and response A type of melodic construction where there are two sections of a melody. The
“call” is a melodic phrase that changes, and it is followed by a “response” that is the same each time. Often
the call is presented by a solo instrument or voice, and the response is played by a group of voices or
instruments. Call and response is used extensively in spirituals and gospel music, as well as in jazz.

Question and answer A type of melodic construction with two sections. The “question” is a
phrase that is not resolved, and ends in an interrupted or imperfect cadence. It moves away from the home
pitch. The “answer” is a second phrase that develops the melodic material provided in the question, and
resolves it back to the home pitch or tonic.

Canon A melodic construction where a theme or tune is introduced, then a few bars later, another
instrument or line plays the same melody, followed by another instrument, and another. In most cases, the
second, third and fourth entries of the melody occur at different pitches from the original, often an octave
lower or higher. Sometimes the melody is played a 5th or 4th higher or lower. A canon can be played by
two or more melodic lines, instruments or voices. The use of canons (often called canonic imitation) is used
extensively in Baroque music. One of the most popular and famous canons is Pachelbel Canon. J.S. Bach is
the master of canon. In his Preludes and Fugues, his use of complex and inventive canons in four or even five
lines is almost miraculous.

How is canon different from imitation? In a canon, the melody is played and imitated exactly and in its
entire length. Here is an example of a canon. Parts enter after one bar and imitate exactly.

4
 4 
4
 4 
4
 4 
4
 4 

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Your teacher will play four musical excerpts for you. Draw a tick in the column if the aspect of melody
occurs in the music you hear.

ASPECTS OF MELODY PRESENT IN THE EXCERPT 1 2 3 4

Melody moves mostly by step

Melody moves mostly in leaps
Melody moves in steps and leaps
Jagged contour
Smooth contour
Melody has a wide range
Melody has a narrow range
Symmetrical shape
Asymmetrical shape
Even phrase lengths
Uneven / irregular phrase lengths
Imitation
Repetition
Ostinato is present
Ornamentation is used
Improvisation
Counter melody
Call and response
Question and answer
Canon
NOW ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS FOR EACH EXCERPT
How many bars are there in the main melodic phrase?
What instrument / voice / line plays the main melody?
How many times is the main melody heard?

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 29
In the HSC Music examination, you need to use sophisticated musical terminology to describe the sounds you
hear. You must learn the definitions of all the words in this book, and how to use them. Here are actual
examples of student responses. They are too simplistic and unclear. Guess what the writer meant to say and
re-write each sentence using musical terminology related to melody and harmony.
____________________________________________
The key sounds happy. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
The piece changes key at the end. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Chords change all the time. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
The piece is bluesy.
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
There are lots of clashing notes. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
The melody goes up then down. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
There is a tune that comes back a
____________________________________________
few times, sometimes high, ____________________________________________
sometimes low. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
The woodblock plays two different ____________________________________________
sounding notes. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
There are some jumps upwards. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
They only use a few notes in the ____________________________________________
melody. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
There is a main tune on flute, then
____________________________________________
the clarinet comes in with a second
____________________________________________
tune that goes with it. ____________________________________________

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 30
Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form to the questions and prompts below.

Main melody What instrument plays the main melody?

Is the range wide or narrow?
Describe the contour of the melody (smooth, jagged, steps, leaps, ascending,
descending, sequence?) Draw it. Identify any intervals if you can.

Are the phrases long, short, symmetrical, uneven in length?

Count the number of bars in each phrase

Is there any ornamentation, improvisation? If so, describe.

Counter melody; What instrument plays the counter melody, motif or fragment?
motifs or
fragments Describe the contour of the countermelody (smooth, jagged, steps, leaps,
ascending, descending, sequence?) Draw it. Identify any intervals if you can.

Are the phrases long, short, symmetrical, uneven in length?

Count the number of bars in each phrase

Is there any ornamentation, improvisation? If so, describe.

Other riffs or What instrument plays a melodic ostinato?

melodic ostinati How many notes in the ostinato?
Describe the contour of the ostinato (smooth, jagged, steps, leaps, ascending,
descending, sequence?) Draw it. Identify any intervals if you can.

Where does the ostinato appear in the piece? (eg. at beginning of each section)

How often is it repeated?

How do the Use of question and answer or call and response? (between what instruments?
melodies work where?)
together?
Use of repetition? (what is repeated? what instruments play it?)

Use of imitation? (what is imitated? by whom?)

Entry of counter melody or other melodic material (canon?)

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 31
Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form under these headings.

Main melody

Counter melody;
motifs or
fragments

Other riffs or
melodic ostinati

How do the
melodies work
together?

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 Chapter 3

Structure
Table of contents
Structure: form, introduction, Binary Form, Ternary Form, Rondo 34
Form, Theme and Variations, Strophic or through composed, Coda
Structure in Popular Music: verse, chorus, pre-chorus, bridge, solo, 35
outro,
12 bar blues form
Depicting structure (student activity) 36
Structure checklist (student listening activity) 37
Structure question template (student listening activity) 38

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 Structure
Structure is also called form. It refers to how the composition is constructed and how it is
divided into sections or parts.

Structure is one of the most important concepts for you to learn. In the HSC examination for Music
Aural, you need to use your knowledge of structure to answer EVERY question. You are required to
discuss the use of musical concepts in an excerpt, and it is easiest to do this if you divide the excerpt
into sections and discuss what is happening in each section. See the final chapter of this book for
more guidance on how to organise your exam responses.

In music, we use letters of the alphabet to describe events and sections in a composition. Section A is
the first part of a piece, Section B is the next part which contains new musical material, Section C is
the next new section, and so on.

How do you know where a new section starts?

 Listen for something new: a different melody, different instruments, new rhythm patterns etc
 Listen for changes: a change in tempo, a change in time signature, changes to the texture,
changes in the pitch of the melody (maybe it is played higher or lower than before) etc
 Listen for pauses: sometimes there is a pause or brief silence before a new section starts

Introduction is the beginning part of the piece before the main musical events are introduced.
Every popular song has an introduction, however not all art music has an introduction. An introduction
is usually 4 or 8 bars.

Binary Form refers to a composition with two main sections, called Section A and Section B.
The musical material from the beginning does not appear later in the piece.

Ternary Form has three sections, Section A, Section B, then a return to Section A. Sometimes
there may be modifications or additions to the concepts of music in Section A when it returns.

Rondo Form has many sections. It starts with a main theme or statement in Section A, followed
by a number of new sections. The form is A B A C A D etc.

Theme and Variations is similar to rondo form. The main theme is usually a distinctive
melody, which is then changed and adapted in subsequent sections. Theme and Variations is
different to Rondo Form because Section A need not return exactly as it appeared at the beginning.

Through composed means that the piece does not repeat any previous material. Many
examples of this form can be found in Schubert’s lieder, where the words of a poem are set to music,
and each line is different.

Strophic is a form where there are several verses, each with different words but the same basic
musical accompaniment. Hymns and blues pieces follow strophic form.

Coda means “tail” in Italian. It is the ending of a piece. In popular music, this is called an outro.

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 34
 Structure in Popular Music
There are several structure terms specific to popular music. Nearly every popular song has the following
form:

Intro
Verse 1
Chorus
Verse 2
Chorus
Bridge / Solo
Verse 3
Chorus
Chorus
(outro or fade)

Verse This is the part of the song that tells the story. It has different words each time, but often uses
the same melody. It builds to a climax towards the end to introduce the chorus.
Chorus The chorus contains the main ideas, riffs and melodies. It repeats several times during the
song, and it often contains the words that are found in the title of the song.
Pre-Chorus Some popular music has a chorus split into two sections. Even though the Pre-Chorus
always appears with the Chorus, it is completely different in melody and harmony to the main part of
the chorus.
Bridge A contrasting section, similar to a verse that has new melodic material, new words (if sung)
and often new chords.
Solo If the bridge is not sung, then it is likely to have an instrumental solo. Sometimes the electric
guitar, keyboard or saxophone will take over, playing new melodic material.
Outro Some songs have a coda, or concluding section of 4-8 bars. Many simply repeat the chorus
several times and fade out.

Another very common popular music structure is called 12 Bar Blues Form.
Many blues, jazz and rock’n’roll songs use the same pattern of chords to create a song structure. As we
know a pattern of chords is called an ostinato. In 12 bar blues, the same pattern of chords is used for
each section of the song. The chord pattern is as follows:

I I I I
IV IV I I
V IV I V
Practise playing this pattern in a variety of keys, with a number of different melodic ostinati.

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 35
To help you remember and understand these concepts, create your own drawing, picture, or diagram to
represent these structures. You might like to draw blocks, line diagrams or graphs, and use colours to
differentiate sections.
BINARY FORM TERNARY FORM

RONDO FORM 12 BAR BLUES FORM

POPULAR SONG FORM (verse, chorus etc) THEME AND VARIATIONS FORM

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 36
Your teacher will play four musical excerpts for you. Write responses and answers in the columns provided.
You can use point form for your answers.

ASPECTS OF STRUCTURE PRESENT 1 2 3 4

IN THE EXCERPT
Number of bars in the introduction
How can you tell when the first
section starts?
How many sections are there?

Is the excerpt Binary Form?

Is the excerpt Ternary Form?
Is the excerpt Rondo Form?

Is the excerpt Theme and Variations?

Is the excerpt strophic?
Is the excerpt through composed?

Does the excerpt use popular song

form?
Is the 12 Bar Blues pattern present?
Does melodic material repeat in the
excerpt?
Does rhythmic material repeat in the
excerpt?
Are there any repeats of entire
sections?
Are ostinati present?
Identify the structure of the excerpt
by using letters (A, B, C, etc)

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 37
If you are asked a question about structure, it is also implied that you will discuss EVERY concept. Work out
where the sections start and finish and count how many bars and/or phrases in each section. Then describe
the concepts in each section.

There are two ways to lay out an answer. They will both contain the same information so try each one and
decide what suits you. Of course you will have to draw them larger so you can write lots and lots of
accurate points.

CHART 1
Make general statements about the structure

SECTION Number of bars DURATION PITCH TEXTURE TONE COLOUR DYNAMICS &
or phrases EXPR.TECHN.
INTRO

SECTION A

SECTION B

SECTION C

SECTION D

CHART 2
Make general statements about the structure

CONCEPTS INTRO SECTION A SECTION B SECTION C SECTION D

# bars # bars # bars # bars # bars
DURATION

PITCH

TEXTURE

TONE COLOUR

DYNAMICS &
EXPRESSIVE
TECHNIQUES

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 38
 Chapter 4

Texture
Table of contents
Texture: layers of sound, thin texture, thick texture 40
Types of texture: monophonic, homophonic, 41
polyphonic, unison, doubling, imitation, call and response.
Graphic notation (Student activity) 42
Lines and layers: similar motion, contrary motion 43
(Student activity)
Texture match up (Student activity) 44
Texture checklist (Student listening activity) 45
Texture question template (Student listening activity) 46
Texture answer template (Student listening activity) 47

Senior Music Aural Concepts Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 39
Texture refers to the layers of sound in a composition.

This is a complex concept to understand. Imagine that you are listening to a soloist
singing a Gregorian chant. There is one melodic line, one voice, and one layer. Even if a
full choir of a hundred voices sings the melody in unison, there is still one layer only.
Now imagine that you are listening to a duet played by saxophone and clarinet. There
are two melodic lines and two layers of sound. On the piano, a Bach Two Part invention
has two layers, with the left hand playing one melody and the right hand playing
another. Now imagine you are listening to a jazz quintet. With five players, there are at
least five layers of sound and five melodic lines. There may be even more than five
layers if the piano plays several lines. When the full orchestra plays, there are dozens of
melodic lines, and many layers of sound.

When one instrument or melodic line plays, it is called a thin texture.

When several instruments or melodic lines play, it is called a thick texture.

It is tempting to think that many instruments equals a thick texture and one or two
instruments equal a thin texture. This is often the case, however there are exceptions,
such as when all instruments are playing a melody in unison, or where a single
instrument plays more than one layer, such as a melody and counter melody.

flute solo Thin texture

unaccompanied vocal
duet

guitar duet

trumpet trio fanfare

string quartet

4 part choir

rock group with singer

jazz quintet

percussion ensemble
Thick
orchestral tutti texture

Senior Music Aural Concepts Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 40
Texture can be represented graphically, with each layer drawn as a line or bar on a
graph. You should practise drawing graphic notation of texture to use in the HSC
examination. Here are two examples of simple graphs explaining the texture in the
piece. Answer the questions next to each graph.

How many sections are in the piece? __________

flute How many instruments play? _________________
Which section has the thinnest texture? _______
clarinet Which section has the thickest texture? _______
Which instrument plays throughout the entire
saxophone piece? _______________________________________
Which instruments play in only one section?
violin ______________________________________________
In Section A, how many layers of sound are
there? _______________________________________
piano
In Section B, how many layers of sound are
voice there? _______________________________________
In Section C, how many layers of sound are
there? _______________________________________
Section A Section B Section C

+ How many sections are in the piece? _________

choir How many instruments play? ________________
keyboard
Which section has the thinnest texture? ______
+ Which section has the thickest texture? ______
bass guitar Which instruments play throughout the entire
distorted
electric piece? ______________________________________
+
guitar Which instruments play in only one section?
vocals _____________________________________________
In the Intro, how many layers of sound are
claves there? ______________________________________
snare
fingerclick In Section A, how many layers of sound are
there? ______________________________________
In Section B, how many layers of sound are
there? ______________________________________
Intro Section A Section B Section C In Section C, how many layers of sound are
there? ______________________________________

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When talking about the texture of an excerpt, it’s not enough to simply say that the
texture is thin or thick, and to draw a graph. You also have to explain the relationship
between the layers and lines. There are several ways that lines work together. You can
use your knowledge of pitch and melody to describe texture. As you will soon realise,
musical concepts are all related and it is impossible to discuss one without mentioning
others.

Monophonic texture a single layer, one melodic line, unison (same pitch)
MONO comes from the Greek word
4
 4
“monos” which means “alone”.
PHONIC comes from the Greek word
“phone” meaning sound.

Homophonic texture a melody line with a chordal accompaniment.

4
 4 HOMO means “same”. In
homophonic texture, all of the lines
are playing along with the same
melody, often with the same rhythm.
4
 4

Polyphonic texture many melodic lines playing at the same time, complex
melodies and counter melodies.
I
  
4
 4
II

etc.
POLY is a prefix used in many
English words. It is from the Greek
word “polloi” which means “many”.
Polyphonic writing refers to several
independent lines. This style is also
4
 4
III
  called counterpoint.

Unison means when two or more instruments play the same note at the same pitch.
Doubling occurs when the same melody is played by more than one instrument an
octave apart (for example, on high C and low C).
Imitation occurs when a melody or melodic fragment is copied by another
instrument (see section on Pitch).
Call and response texture occurs when a solo instrument makes a melodic
statement or “call” and a larger group replies with a different statement. (See the section
on Pitch).

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There are several technical musical words that you can use to describe how the melodic
layers work against each other.

Similar motion occurs when the melodic contour of two melodies is the same. If
one ascends, they both ascend, and if one descends, they both do.

Contrary motion means that melodies move in opposite directions. If one

ascends, the other descends. The two lines are like a mirror of each other.

3 3
 4  4
similar contrary

 3
4  3
4
 
Now it’s your turn to write some musical lines.
1. Add a second layer in similar motion.

4
 4

4
 4

2. Add a second layer in contrary motion.

3
 4

3
 4
3. Add a second layer using imitation.

4
 4

4
 4

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Below you will find several drawings and music notation excerpts. Choose a word from
the box that describes the type of texture and write it on the line provided. Then draw
the melodic contour of each example in the space provided.

similar motion contrary motion call and response

monophonic homophonic
polyphonic doubling imitation canon

   Answer Draw the melodic contour here.

4
1.
 4 

2
2.  4 

3
3  4

4
4
 4

4
5  4

2
6
 4

6
7  8

3
8  4

3
9  4



3 
 4

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Your teacher will play four musical excerpts for you. Draw a tick in the column if the aspect of texture
occurs in the music you hear.

ASPECTS OF TEXTURE PRESENT IN THE EXCERPT 1 2 3 4

Texture is mostly thin

Texture is mostly thick

Texture is of moderate thickness

There are sudden changes in texture during the

excerpt
There is a gradual build up of layers in the texture

Lines move in similar motion

Lines move in contrary motion

Lines are doubled

Call and response

Imitation occurs

Canon

Polyphonic texture

Monophonic texture

Homophonic texture

How many layers of sound can you hear in each

section?
Intro
Section A
Section B
Section C
How many bars are there in each section of the
excerpt?
Intro
Section A
Section B
Section C

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Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form to the questions and
prompts below.

OVERALL DENSITY Describe the use of texture overall. Is the texture the same all the way
AND LAYERS through? Does the texture build up gradually, or does it contrast thick and thin
textures?

TEXTURE CHANGES Describe any sudden changes in texture. Where do they occur?

What is the effect of texture changes in this piece? Surprise, building

excitement and tension, climax etc.

FOR EACH SECTION OF THE EXCERPT, ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

INTRODUCTION How many bars in this section?

How many layers?
What instruments play each layer?

What kind of texture is operating here (polyphonic, monophonic etc)?

Describe the function of each layer (melody, accompaniment etc)

How do the layers interact with each other (similar motion, contrary motion,
question and answer, imitation, call and response, canon)

SECTION A How many bars in this section?

How many layers?
What instruments play each layer?
What kind of texture is operating here (polyphonic, monophonic etc)?

Describe the function of each layer (melody, accompaniment etc)

How do the layers interact with each other (similar motion, contrary motion,
question and answer, imitation, call and response, canon)

DRAW A DIAGRAM
OF THE TEXTURE
IN THE PIECE

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Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form. No questions have
been provided so that you can test your understanding of the texture concept.

OVERALL DENSITY
AND LAYERS

TEXTURE CHANGES

FOR EACH SECTION OF THE EXCERPT, DESCRIBE THE TEXTURE

INTRODUCTION

SECTION A

SECTION B

SECTION C

DRAW A DIAGRAM
OF THE TEXTURE
IN THE PIECE

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 Chapter 5

Tone
Colour
Table of contents
Tone colour pitch, sound waves, frequency, amplitude, 49
harmonics
Performing media aerophones, chordophones, 50
membranophones, idiophones, range, register
Sound sources (student activity) 51
Tone colour words 52
Words for tone colour (student activity) 53
Using tone colour words (student activity) 54
The role of performing media main melody, counter 55
melody, harmonic accompaniment, rhythm
Analysing performing media 56
(student listening activity)
Tone colour checklist (student listening activity) 57
Tone colour question template 58
(student listening activity)
Tone colour answer template 59
(student listening activity)

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Tone colour is one of the most difficult concepts to discuss in an examination, because it is the
most subjective. This means it is open to interpretation by each listener.

Tone colour means the quality of the sound. It is also called timbre (tam-bruh).
In your class, have three students play the note “A” on different instruments. Even though the note
is at the same pitch and volume, it sounds different when played for example, on xylophone, violin
and piano.

Why do instruments sound different from each other? Why is each singer’s voice unique?
To answer this question, we have to take a look at physics and acoustics. This is a complex
discussion, and you will not be asked about it in the examination. However, it helps to understand
the reason behind variations in tone colour. As you know, sound is a vibration of an elastic body,
such as a column of air, or a string. The vibrations create sound waves. The shape of the sound
wave determines the pitch , volume and tone colour. Pitch is determined by frequency - the faster
the wave vibrates, the higher the pitch. Amplitude determines volume. The larger the wave, the
louder the sound.

Sound wave
Amplitude
determines volume

Frequency
determines pitch

When you hear the pitch “A” you are not hearing one pure sound, but a fundamental pitch and a
series of harmonics. Harmonics are sound waves that have frequencies that are related to the
fundamental frequency, but not as strong. When you play “A” you hear the fundamental “A”, plus a
mixture of higher harmonics related to “A”. It is the number and relative proportion of harmonics in
a sound that determine the shape of the sound wave. That’s why each person’s voice sounds
different. The vocal chords create a variety of vibrations which combine to give a unique tone colour
to a person’s voice.

violin sound wave clarinet sound wave piano sound wave

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Performing media means the sound source, or the instrument, voice or object that created
the sound.

You will need to learn about and listen to a huge variety of performing media, from Western and non
-Western cultures.

There are three elements that determine the tone colour of performing media.

1. Construction. What is the instrument made from? Instruments with similar construction have
similar sound qualities. For example, all instruments made of metal have common features,
as do all instruments made of wood.
2. How sound is produced. All instruments with strings have similar features, as do all those
that are blown to produce a sound, as do those that are hit or shaken.
3. Dynamics and expressive techniques also determine the tone colour. The performer can
have a huge impact on the sound by changing the way the instrument is played. For example,
a string can be plucked or bowed, softly or loudly. Dynamics and expressive techniques is
considered a separate concept of music and will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.

In Western Music we divide music according to the families of the orchestra:

Strings violin, viola, cello, double bass, guitar, harp and piano
Woodwind flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, cor anglais, saxophone
Brass trumpet, trombone, tuba, french horn
Percussion woodblock, triangle, bells, timpani, drums, gong, xylophone, marimba etc.

A useful classification of instruments for world music was devised by Hochbostel.

Aerophones: wind instruments
Chordophones: stringed instruments
Membranophones: drums covered by a membrane
Idiophones: percussion
To this group, we have to add electronic sounds.

Each instrument has a range of pitches it can comfortably play, from 8 octaves on a piano, to 3
octaves on the flute, to around an octave and a half for a singer.

Register. Within each instrument’s range, there are different registers. Singers use a “chest”
voice for low notes in their range (which means that the voice resonates mostly in the chest) and a
“head” voice for higher notes in their range (which means that the voice resonates mostly in the
head). Most pop singers use chest voice, while opera singers use head voice. Male pop singers can
create interesting effects by using their head voice, called “falsetto”. (Think of Michael Jackson
and the Bee Gees!) There are also different registers on wind instruments requiring special
techniques. When all instruments play at the very top or very bottom of their range, interesting
effects can be created. Experiment on the instruments you have at school.

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 IDIOPHONES
CHORDOPHONES

MEMBRANOPHONES
AEROPHONES

Write the names

of these instruments
in the section where they belong.
flute violin keyboard woodblock
guitar piano drum kit
electric guitar xylophone trumpet
bongos oboe charango (Andean guitar)
shakuhachi (Japanese bamboo flute) clarinet
chimes electric bass bells tuba
lute panpipes gong organ banjo
didgeridoo erhu (Chinese violin)
duff (Arabic hand drum)
gudugudu (kettle drums from Nigeria)
maracas
khaen (Thai mouth organ)
ili ili ( a pair of pebbles clicked together)

ELECTRONIC SOUNDS

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You will need to get used to using tone colour words. Sometimes they are similar to mood words
you might use in English. Here is a list of lots of different tone colour words you might find useful.
They have been grouped into sets with related meanings.

mellow warm sweet

resonant smooth sensual

bright sparkling
glittering shimmering majestic powerful
brilliant silvery grand strong
clear pure booming ringing

distorted breathy airy wheezing

aggressive panting muffled muted
coarse
dark
muddy

piercing
metallic
nasal reedy brassy
haunting eerie blazing
sombre thin
murky leaden

artificial synthetic dry percussive

electronic futuristic hollow rumbling
buzzing beeping

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We use adjectives and verbs to describe tone colour. On this page you will find a list of instruments
and sound sources, and several headings with tone colour descriptions. Under the headings, write
the names of the instruments that have the matching tone colour. You may write the name of an
instrument more than once.

trumpet clarinet xylophone piccolo timpani woodblock

cello gong bells siren snare drum synthesiser claves
bass drum chimes recorder guiro metallophone cabaza
castanets triangle double bass oboe violin tenor saxophone electric guitar

majestic
sparkling

warm

metallic
dry

mellow
reedy

synthetic

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Now it’s your turn to choose some words to add to these sentences. Even though you will not hear
the musical excerpt to which the sentences refer, you should be able to tell what kind of mood the
music is creating by the context of the sentence.

1. The high pitched trumpets and clarinets make a _____________ sound, like a scream.
2. The section begins with a low, quiet _____________ from the timpani.
3. Suddenly, the bass guitar enters with a loud, _____________________ riff.
4. The bells, chimes and triangles make a ___________________ sound.
5. A synthesiser is used to create ____________________ effects.
6. At the climax of the excerpt, the full string section enters to create a
_____________________ sound.
7. There is an interlude with an 8 bar trumpet fanfare creating a ___________________
tone colour.
8. The mood is sinister and mysterious with an _________________ low drone and a
ticking sound.
9. The performing media used are percussion instruments made of wood, which create a
________________________ tone colour.
10. The bass drum plays an ostinato of 4 loud ________________ crotchet beats.
11. The vocalists create a variety of interesting ___________________________________
sounds with their mouths, tongues and air streams.
12. The strings and woodwind instruments play rapid descending runs to create a
_____________________ effect.
13. Block chords are played by the brass instruments in a march like tempo to create a
________________ tone colour.
14. The jazz vocalist is a female who sings mostly in her lower register, creating a
____________ _________________ sound.
15. All of the sounds in the excerpt are created by synthesisers, electronic instruments and
digital samples, creating _____________________ effects.
16. In Section B, the tone colour is _______________________. The melody is played by
low brass and low strings playing in their low registers.
17. The main melody enters in Section A played by a virtuosic soloist on the alto
saxophone. It has a ______________________ tone colour.
18. The piece used contrasting tone colours to create variety and interest, as the
______________ strings are contrasted with the _____________ brass instruments, the
____________________ woodwind instruments and the low _________________
percussion section.
19. The melody is played by an Asian stringed instrument, like a violin (possibly an erhu). It
plays a heavily ornamented, lyrical melody that sounds _________________________.
20. Several types of drums are used in the excerpt, from the ________________ snare
drum, to the _________________ timpani, and the ____________________ bongos.

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After describing the sound quality of the performing media, you have to explain its role in the
music. Just like a play, each sound source has a function or responsibility in the music. You need to
explain the role of each sound source, and how the roles swap and change during the excerpt.

One performing media usually takes the main melody. (See the pages on Melody for more details
on how to describe melodies and phrases). The instrument or voice can have the main melody the
whole way through the excerpt, or just for a section.

A different role is taken by a performing media playing a counter melody. It is a different tune that
complements the main melody and adds an extra element to the sound.

Some instruments or voices may provide a harmonic accompaniment. Their role may be to
establish the tonality of the music, and to play the chords. (See the pages on Harmony for more). To
support the harmonic progressions, one instrument may take the bass line. This role is usually
taken by a low pitched instrument such as a double bass, a bass guitar, or low brass.

Another role in the excerpt may be to establish the rhythm, metre, beat and pulse. A drum kit or
drum machine takes this responsibility in popular music, but in art music, another sound source
such as strings may establish the rhythm. Any instrument that introduces a rhythmic ostinato has
an important role in the music.

In the HSC examination, you will be expected to specify the role of each performing media in the
excerpt. You will also have to say how the role changes. For example, the flute may play the main
melody in Section A, but in Section B the strings take up the main melody while the flute plays a
counter melody.

You will also have to specify how the performer creates the sound by using dynamics and
expressive techniques. All of the concepts of music are related, and you can’t discuss tone
colour without mentioning the way the sound source is used by the performer. Read the next
chapter for details on how to describe performing techniques.

If you are asked a question about tone colour, you will have to:
1. list the performing media in each section of the music
2. describe the quality of sounds created (tone colour words)
3. explain the role of each sound source in the music (role of performing media)
4. explain how these sounds are created (dynamics and expressive techniques)

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Listen to three short musical excerpts. For each, write the specific role of each performing media in
the excerpt. Then use the tone colour words to describe the effects created.
EXCERPT 1
Section Name of performing media Role Tone colour

EXCERPT 2
Section Name of performing media Role Tone colour

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Your teacher will play four musical excerpts for you. Draw a tick in the column if the aspect of tone colour
occurs in the music you hear.

ASPECTS OF TONE COLOUR PRESENT IN THE EXCERPT 1 2 3 4

Aerophones
Chordophones
Membranophones
Idiophones
Electronic sounds
Overall mood is bright and energetic
Overall mood is calm and mellow
Overall mood is sombre and dark
Metallic sounds
Brassy sounds
Dry sounds
Majestic sounds
Sparkling sounds
Distorted sounds
Warm sounds
Breathy sounds
Rumbling sounds
Tone colour changes during the excerpt
Tone colour does not change during the excerpt
NOW ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS FOR EACH EXCERPT
Which performing media has the main melody?
Which performing media has a harmonic accompaniment role?
Which performing media has a rhythmic role?
Which performing media provides a counter melody?
Which performing media plays an ostinato or riff?

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Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form to the questions and prompts below.

Describe the overall Describe the mood, atmosphere and tone colour in each section.
mood and
atmosphere of the
piece.
How does the tone colour change from section to section?

Role of performing List each performing media and specify its role in the music. (main melody,
media counter melody, ostinato, riff, accompaniment, harmonic or rhythmic role etc).
Then write about the tone colour of each performing media.

Performing Are there specific techniques used to create effects on the instruments or voices?
techniques
(see Dynamics and
Expressive
Techniques section)

Contrasts of mood Are there any contrasts of mood and sound? Which instruments cause these
and sound contrasts? Where do they occur? Describe the tone colour of each and how it
changes.

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Listen to a short musical excerpt. Use point form to write responses to the prompts below.

Describe the overall

mood and
atmosphere of the
piece.

Role of performing
media

Performing
techniques
(see Dynamics and
Expressive
Techniques section)

Contrasts of mood
and sound

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 Chapter 6

Dynamics &
Expressive
Techniques
Table of contents
Dynamics pianissimo, piano, mezzoforte, forte, 61
fortissimo, sforzando, crescendo, diminuendo, subito
Expressive techniques legato, staccato, accent, 62
vibrato, tremolo, tenuto, glissando
Expressive techniques by performing media 63
strings, brass, woodwind, percussion, electronic sounds
Vocal effects bend, slurp, drop, doink, scat, falsetto, 64
vibrato, glottal stop, word painting
Dynamics and expressive techniques checklist 65
(student listening activity)
Dynamics & expressive techniques question 66
template (student listening activity)
Dynamics & expressive techniques answer 67
template (student listening activity)

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You need to learn several Italian terms to describe Dynamics and
Expressive techniques. Learning all the words on this page is a
start...

Volume level word abbreviation

very soft pianissimo pp
soft piano p
moderately loud mezzoforte mf
loud forte f
very loud fortissimo ff
loud and forcefully sforzando sf

Gradual changes in volume

crescendo gradually getting louder diminuendo gradually getting softer
abbreviation is cresc. abbreviation is dim.
When notating music, use these symbols

Sudden changes
subito suddenly (a useful word to describe any dramatic changes, eg. subito piano, suddenly soft). This
word can be applied to other concepts as well eg. subito allegro, suddenly fast.
Texture can achieve dynamic change
Sometimes composers achieve dynamic change by varying the number of instruments. Even if all
performers are playing mf, the more instruments playing, the louder the overall volume will be. Read the
Chapter on Texture for more on this topic.

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Expressive techniques means how the performer plays the instrument, and how the sound is created and
adapted by the performer to create certain effects. This concept is closely related to Tone Colour, as
using expressive techniques has an impact on tone colour. On this page you will find several expressive
techniques that apply to nearly all performing media. Again, they include Italian terms, so you’ll need to
build your Italian vocabulary.

 smoothly and well connected

legato  refers to a melody or chords that are played by moving immediately

from one note to another, without a gap.
 this term often also implies a graceful and expressive style of playing
 on a score, a legato indication is a curved line called a slur over the
notes

 short and detached

staccato  refers to a melody or chords that are shorter than their note
value
 this term often also implies a light and lively style of playing
 on a score, a staccato indication is a dot under or above the note

 stressing or emphasising the note or chord

accent  a direct attack on the note or chord

 make the note or chord louder and stronger

 vibrating or slightly shaking the sound, creating a tiny variation in pitch

vibrato
 on a stringed instrument, vibrato is created by a shaking motion of the left
hand. On a wind instrument or voice, the air flow is altered to create puffs
of air, like mini crescendo and diminuendo
 vibrato is used to increase the expressive and emotional quality of the
playing. Some instruments cannot achieve vibrato eg. piano

tremolo
 the quick repetition of the same note
 on a wind instrument or voice, an extreme vibrato becomes a tremolo
 on a stringed instrument, the bow plays the same string rapidly
 on the piano, you press the same key as quickly as possible, alternating
fingers to increase the speed.

 drawing out the full length of each note

tenuto  implies a slight stress on each note

 indicated by a line under the note

 a rapid scale played in a sliding motion

 on the piano, a glissando is created by running the
thumb nail over the keys

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STRINGS WOODWIND
arco played with the bow vibrato
pizzicato plucked with the tongued hitting the tongue
fingers against the roof of the mouth
col legno strike the strings with with a “t” sound to create
the wood of the bow separate notes
con sordino with a mute (a slurred to play legato, moving
piece of wood placed over the the fingers to create different
strings at the bridge to minimise notes, without tonguing
the strings’ vibration) flutter tonguing creating a
double stopping playing two BRASS whirring effect by rapidly hitting
strings at once mute a cup that is the roof of the mouth with the
strummed moving a finger or placed in the bell of the tongue
plectrum over several strings, one instrument to mute the
after the other sound. Sometimes the
slap a technique mostly used on cup is held by the
the bass guitar where the player performer and pushed in
hits the strings and out to create a
vibrato “wah wah” effect (used
tremolo in jazz).

ELECTRONIC SOUNDS
distortion altering the “natural” sound of an
instrument by running it through an electronic filter.
PERCUSSION Often distortion makes the sound “dirtier”.
Drum roll alternating drum delay an echo effect
strokes rapidly to create a attack the start of a sound, from the moment you first
rolling effect hear it.
Rim shot playing the edge of decay how the sound resonates, echoes and dies
the snare drum away.
Electronic music experiments with attack and decay
effects.

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The human voice is one of the most versatile performing media. The voice can create a wide array of tone
colours, dynamics and expressive techniques. And, what’s more, every person’s voice is unique. Vocal
examples are popular in the HSC examination, so it would be helpful to learn these words. Listen to a
variety of vocal excerpts to identify these.

You may hear vocal effects such as screaming, laughing,

shouting, clicking, gulping, yelping, breathing,
screeching, yelling, speaking, whispering and
panting.

There are several vocal effects used in jazz and blues.

bend changing the pitch of a note by sliding around the
correct pitch
vibrato
slurp starting the pitch lower than it should be and
sliding up to the correct pitch
drop sliding down away from the correct pitch
doink sliding upwards in pitch at the end of a note A glottal stop is like
a gulp. It is where the
upper end of the
bend slurp drop doink
windpipe closes briefly
interrupting the flow
of air from the lungs.

Word painting. Singers

may reinforce the words of a
Scat is a style of singing made song by matching the meaning
popular by the jazz singer, Cab of the word with the
Calloway. It means singing performing technique. For
nonsense syllables, usually in a example, if the word is
fast, improvised way. “tremble” the vocalist will use
vibrato to shake the sound,
or the word “happy” might
be sung like a laugh.

Falsetto is a method of singing used by

males, to obtain notes higher than their
normal range. By singing in the upper
register of the voice the vocalist can create a
comical or interesting tone colour. (see
section on tone colour)

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Your teacher will play four musical excerpts for you. Draw a tick in the column if the aspect of Dynamics
and Expressive Techniques occurs in the music you hear.

ASPECTS OF DYNAMICS & EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUES 1 2 3 4

PRESENT IN THE EXCERPT
The volume level is constant
The volume level changes during the excerpt
Crescendo
Diminuendo
Overall dynamic level is piano
Overall dynamic level is moderately loud
Overall dynamic level is forte
Legato
Staccato
Accents
Vibrato
Tremolo
Tenuto
Glissando
Pizzicato
Use of a mute
Strumming
Drum roll
Distortion
Double stopping
Note bending
Vocal effects
Falsetto
Scat

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 65
Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form to the questions and prompts below.

Overall Intro: (p, mf, f, ff, crescendo, diminuendo?)

dynamics
Section A: (p, mf, f, ff, crescendo, diminuendo?)

Section B: (p, mf, f, ff, crescendo, diminuendo?)

Section C: (p, mf, f, ff, crescendo, diminuendo?)

Are there sudden changes or gradual changes?

How are Do instruments play softer/louder? or are dynamics related to the texture
dynamics (more instruments = louder)
achieved?

Expressive General comments: What is the feel of the piece - improvised vs strict, jazz,
techniques march-like? How does this impact on the performing technques used?

Performing For each performing media in the piece answer the following questions:
techniques 1) how is it played? (bowed, strummed, pizzicato, drum roll, double
stopping etc)
2) accents (are there accents? if so, how are they created?)
3) articulation (legato, staccato, tongued, slurred)
4) intonation (note bending, slides, falsetto, changes to pitch)
5) ornaments (trills, glissando, slides)
6) special effects (distortion, any effects with attack and decay of notes)

Performing media 1

Performing media 2

Performing media 3

Performing media 4

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 66
Listen to a short musical excerpt. Write responses in point form to the questions and prompts below.

Overall
dynamics

How are
dynamics
achieved?

Expressive
techniques

Performing Performing media 1

techniques

Performing media 2

Performing media 3

Performing media 4

Senior Music Aural Concepts Literacy Works Copyright © 2003. This page may be copied for classroom use. 67