UNIT –4

FOOD MAKING & GROWTH IN PLANTS

4.1. The parts of a plant

The body of a plant consists of:

. 1. Shoot system (consist of organs of plant stem, leaves, & flowers)

2. Root system

 Stem has leaves at interval & terminal bud at the growing point.
 The part of the stem from which leaves develop is called node.
 The distance b/n the node is called internodes
 Provides support & transport system for water, minerals, food from to leaves & flowers.
 Leaves; the major photosynthetic organ in flowering plants contains chlorophyll to
absorb sun light.
 Flowers: are reproductive organ of flowering plants
 Roots: which anchor plant to the ground & absorb water & minerals from the soil
External structure of the leaf
 Blade (lamina). A flat & broad surface of the leaves attached to the stem or branch by
stalk as petiole(a narrow stalk of the leaf)
 Midrib: is the main vein & consists of vascular tissues (xylem & phloem)
 Veins-the smaller vessels branching from the midrib.
 Petiole-joins the leaf to the stem
 Margin-the leaf border
 Apex –the tip of the leaf
Figure 4,1 page 143

Internal structure of the leaf

The Upper & lower epidermis

 Epidermal layer is composed of tightly fitting cells without chloroplast.

 They are with a water proof layer called waxy cuticle. This helps to prevent excessive
water loss by transpiration.
 Lower epidermal cells are modified into bean shaped cells called guard cells.
 Guard cells are the only cells in the epidermis that contain chloroplasts. Therefore, they
are photosynthetic.
 Stomata (sing-stoma) - are spaces b/n two gourd cells. It allows exchange of gases
during photosynthesis & respiration as well as evaporation of water(transpiration)
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 Carbon dioxide -diffuses in to the leaf & oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through the
stomata. The lower epidermis contains large number of stomata.
 Palisade mesophyl –consists of closely packed cells near the surface of the leaves.
 It consists of many chloroplasts. Thus it is the main photosynthetic tissue of the plant.
 Spongy mesophyl- has a lot of air spaces which provide a big surface area for gas
exchange.
 Spongy cells contains fewer chloroplasts, thus it is a photosynthetic tissue.
 It mainly serves for movement of CO2 needed during photosynthesis in the cell.
 Vascular bundles- consist of xylem & phloem tissues.
 Xylem (dead tissues)-helps to bring water from the soil to the leaves.
 Phloem (living tissues)- carries products of photosynthesis away from the leaves to all the
cells of the plant.

 Chloroplasts-is the organelle in the cytoplasm of plant cells where chlorophyll is stored
& photosynthesis takes place.
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis—is the process in which green plants synthesize organic substances
(sugar) from the inorganic raw materials found in their surroundings.
 During photosynthesis plants require:
o Chlorophyll—the light absorbing pigment found in the chloroplasts.
o Water --from the soil
o Carbon dioxide—from the air
o Light –from the sun
 The reaction of photosynthesis can be summarized as:
chlophyll
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
liht energy
 The process of photosynthesis occurs in two main stages. These are the light
dependent stages and light independent stage.
I. Light dependent stage
 This is the stage at which light is required.
 The sun light is used to split water molecules in to hydrogen ion & oxygen.
12H2O sunlight 24H+ + 6O2 →
Chlorophyll

 The hydrogen ions are trapped by a hydrogen acceptor substances called NADPH 2 in
order to be used in the light independent stage
 Some amount of light energy is changed in to a form a chemical energy called ATP
which serves as energy for the light independent stage.
 Takes place in the grana of the chloroplast.

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 II. Light independent stage
 This stage does not require light but does not mean it occurs at night time.
 Involves the use of products from lig6O2ht dependent stage & carbon dioxide from the
air to form sugar (glucose)
24H+ + 6CO2  C6H12O6 + 6H2O
 Takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast
The overall reaction of photosynthesis is:
Chlorophyll

→ +
12H2O sun light 24H + 6O2
24H+ + 6CO2  C6H12O6 + 6H2O
chlophyll C 6 H 12O 6+ 6 O2 ¿
6H2O + 6CO2 ¿
→

Sun light
 Glucose that is produced by photosynthesis is directly used to produce energy
(respiration) used for cellular activities, growth, reproduction etc
 Sugars produced by photosynthesis are:
 Built in to starch for storage
 Built in to molecules like fructose (fruit sugar) & sucrose (double sugar) to be
transported around the plant.
 Built up in to molecules like cellulose to make new plant cell walls.
 Used to make amino acids (building blocks of proteins) along with nitrates &
other nutrients.
 Built up in to fat & oils (lipids) for storage in seed & make part of cell
membranes.
 To build up important molecules such as chlorophyll
 Glucose molecule is mainly stored in the form of starch which is stable &
insoluble form of carbohydrate.
The need for photosynthesis
Testing a leaf for starch

 After photosynthesis starch is temporary stored in the leaf. Thus to check whether the
leaf is photosynthesizing or not, it is tested for starch through the following steps
 Detach a leaf from a plant
 Put the leaf in boiled water for 30 seconds to kill the leaf.

 Place the leaf in ethanol solution to remove the chlorophyll pigment.

 Dip the decolorized leaf in to cold water to soften it.

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  Add iodine solution on to the leaf. If the color of the leaf turns blue black, it shows
the presence of starch in the leaf.
Refer fig 4.3 page 149
The need for light
 Light is needed for:
 Splitting water in to hydrogen & oxygen
12H2O sun light 24H+ + 6O2
→

Chlorophyll

 To form the chemical energy found in glucose molecule formed by photosynthesis,

 To demonstrate sun light is essential for photosynthesis:
1 Take a healthy plant, growing in a pot.
2 Destarch a plant by putting it in a darkness for few days, so that it loses its
starch. This process is called destarching.
3 Test one leaf for starch, in order to make sure that it does not contain starch
4 Cut a simple shape (for example “E”) from piece of aluminum foil or black
paper, the cut shape should allow light to pass through it.
5 Fasten the foil or black paper firmly over both sides of leaf.
6 Place a plant in sun light for 3—4 hours
7 Detach the leaf & test it for starch
Result –only the cut part “E” which receives light turns blue black showing
presence of starch. Therefore, it can be concluded that only the part which
received light turns blue black & photosynthesize,
Refer fig 4.6 page 151
The need for carbon dioxide
 Carbon dioxide is needed during photosynthesis to incorporate the carbon & oxygen
that is found in glucose molecule.
6CO2 + 24H+ C6H12O6 + 6H2O
 To demonstrate that plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
1 Take two plants growing in pot. Plant –A &plant-B.
2 Destarch both plants by placing them in a dark places for few days.
3 Put both plants in a bell jar which do not allow air to enter. Place potassium hydroxide
solution around plant –A.

Note: KOH has an ability to absorb CO2 from surrounding air.

4. Place both plants in light for few hours.

5. Test leaf from both plants for starch.

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Result: - the leaf of plant -A produces less starch while leaf from plant-B produces sufficient
amount of starch. Therefore, plant-B produced enough amount of starch by using the CO 2 from
respiration of the plant, but plant-A produce less amount of starch b/c the KOH absorbed the
CO2 which made the plant to face shortage of CO2 to make enough starch.

Refer fig 4.7 page 152

The need for chlorophyll

 Chlorophyll is needed to absorb sunlight which used as a main source of energy for the
process of photosynthesis.
 To demonstrate the need of chlorophyll for photosynthesis:
I. Take plant with a variegated leaf.

Note: variegated leaf is a leaf which is not completely green & has yellowish or white spots.

2. destarch a leaf by placing the plant in a dark place

3. Place the plant in light only for few hours

4. Take a leaf & test it for starch

Result. Only the greenish part turns blue black. Therefore, the variegated parts which have no
chlorophyll do not produce starch.

Refer fig 4.8 page 154

The need for water

 Water is absorbed during photosynthesis as a source of hydrogen ion found in glucose
molecule formed.
 To demonstrate the need for water in photosynthesis:
 Supply a plant with a heavy water containing the 18O isotope of oxygen. These atoms are
radioactive. The radiation they produce can be detected by radiation sensitive machine.
These substances are called radioactive tracers.
 The experiment only shows O2 produced during photosynthesis comes from the splitting
of water molecule.

Transport In plants

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 In simple plants like mosses transport materials like CO2, H2O, O2, mineral salts &
products of photosynthesis are transported from one cell to another cell by diffusion &
active transport. These plants have no special transport system.
 In higher plants gases move by diffusion, while transportation of water, mineral & food
takes place through special tissues called vascular bundles(xylem & phloem)
 Plants absorb water & minerals from the soil. Water is absorbed from the soil by
osmosis through specialized root hair cells.
 Root hair cells increase the surface area of the root for osmosis to take place.
 The soil has high water concentration than the root hair cells. Thus, water moves from
the soil to the by osmosis. Once the water entered the root hair cells, it moves from one
cell to another cell by osmosis; until it reaches xylem vessels.

Active transport in plants

 Plants need active transport during:

 Absorption of mineral ions from the soil.
 Translocation – transportation of food or organic substances from the leaf to parts of
the plant.
 Active transport involves the movement of molecules from very dilute solution to less
dilute solution. Therefore, the soil environment has relatively less ionic (mineral)
concentration the root hair, thus mineral ions move from the soil(less ionic
concentration) to the root hair (more ionic concentration) by active transport system.

Mineral ions are needed by plant to make important substances like protein & others.

 Active transport requires expenditure of energy from respiration.

A double transport system
 Transport in plants is important to move substances like carbon dioxide, water.
Oxygen, organic substances & mineral ions around the plant.
 Transportation in plants is known to be a double transport system.
 The two transport systems are phloem & vessels.
 Phloem –is a living tissue. Involved in transport of organic materials made by
photosynthesis from the leaf to different parts of a plant.
 Plants expend energy to move organic substances along the phloem. Thus,
transportation of organic substances in plants is an active transport system.
Refer fig 4.11 page 159
 Xylem- is known as a dead vessel. It carries water & mineral ions from the soil around
the plant.
 Transpiration - is the major factor responsible for movement of water in xylem vessel.

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  Movement of water through xylem vessel from the root to the leaves does not require
energy thus it is a passive transport system.
Refer fig 4.10 page 158
 In monocot plants xylem & phloem vessels appear in a scattered manner not in ring.
 In dicot plants xylem & phloem appear in rings, phloem vessels appear are found just
underneath the bark & xylem vessels found inner to phloem vessels.
 It complete ring of bark of a tree is nibbled (removed) especially in young plants; the
organic substances are prevented from reaching some parts in which the tree will di e.
The need for transport in plants
 Plants need glucose for cellular respiration which provides energy for the plant, thus,
sugar transport is important.
 Plants also store sugar (glucose) in the form of starch which is osmotically in active
(insoluble). The starch which is stored can be converted in to glucose (sugar) when
needed by the plant mostly when the plant is not photosynthesizing.
 Plants store starch at different storage organs. For example: root, stem, & leaves.
 Storage organs are important for plant to survive difficult conditions.
 Plants also store starch in their fruit & seeds, which are sources of energy for humans &
other animals.
 Minerals are needed for making proteins & other molecules within the cells.
 The water is needed for:
o Photosynthesis
o Keeping the plant cells turgid & firm.

The transpiration stream

 Water moves many meters along xylem vessel as a result of transpiration stream. It
does not involve active transport.
 Transpiration- the lose (evaporation) of water from a plant through the stomatal
opening. The opening & closing of stomata is controlled by guard cells.
Factors responsible for water movement
 The major factors responsible for water movement along the stem through xylem
vessels is transpiration stream(pull)
 The major forces water movement in transpiration stream are :
1 Adhesive force-is a force of attraction b/n xylem vessels & water molecules.
2 Cohesive forces-attraction b/n water molecules (polar substances). Water
molecules stick together in order to move along xylem vessels.
3 Capillarity-the ability of water to rise in fine (narrow) tubes.

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 4 Root pressure-is the pressure created in the root as a result of turgidity of
the root cells when water enters in to them from the soil.
 Water moves from xylem cells (high water concentration) to the leaf cells (less water
concentration) by osmosis.
Refer fig 4.16 page 164
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
 Temperature- as the temperature increases the rate of evaporation of the leaf
(transpiration) increases.
 Light – light makes stomata to stay open, which is for photosynthesizing. However,
when the stomata opens water evaporates from the leaf.
 Number of stomata- if a leaf has many stomata, it increases the exposure of the leaf to
lose more water.
 Air movement (wind)- water vapor around the stomatal opening is swept away from
the leaf by air movement or wind which increases the rate of water vapor to diffuse out

Humidity- when the concentration of water vapors in the atmosphere is saturated, less
amount of water diffuses (evaporates) into the atmosphere from the leaf.

Adaptations of plants to reduce water loss

 Plants lose most of the water they absorb from the soil by evaporation. Evidences show
that about 99% water absorbed from the soil are lost by transpiration. Thus plants need
to reduce the rate of transpiration through various adaptations.
1) Waxy cuticles- water proof structures found on the surface of the leaf.
Cuticles are thick & shiny in plants at hot climate.
2) Reduced number of stomata- which reduce water loss.
3) Stomata on under surface of the leaf-which reduce exposure of the leaf to the
sun.
4) Reduced number of leaves.

Transpiration & agriculture

 In order to save the water requirements, especially in areas where there is limited water
resource farmers must work for the mechanisms that reduce water loss.
 Transpiration can be reduced by:
o Growing plants which transpire less
o Reducing air movements over the over the crop by planting taller plants
in rows along the direction of wind break.
o Destroying unwanted weeds
o Removing dying or damaged leaves etc

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Response in plants

 Plants respond to changes in their surrounding environment through their own

coordinating mechanisms.
 Coordination & response in plants is managed by hormones. Plant hormones are
sometimes called phyto hormones.
 Phyto hormones have various effects on plants. These include:

o Coordination of flowering
o Cell division
o Cell elongation
o Fruit ripening, etc

 Germination –is the process by which a seed changes in to a seedling.

 Germination of a seed requires necessary conditions. These include:

o Oxygen- is needed for respiration of a seed to produce energy for

germination.
o Moisture (water) –is used for hydrolysis of insoluble substances (starch)
stored in a seed.
o Optimum temperature –for the action of enzyme called diastase, they
converts starch in to sugars. And also an enzyme lipase converts stored
fats in a seed in to fatty acid & glycerol

 A seed contains the following structure:

o Endosperm a food storage tissue of a seed.

o Embryo –a part which develops in to a main plant, has three main parts;

i. Plumule (embryonionic)-apart which later develops in to the shoot

system.
ii. Radicle (embryonic root) develops in to a root system.
iii. Cotyledons (seed leaves)- serves for storage of starch mainly in dicot
plants.

o Testa (seed coat)- the outer protective cover of seed.

o Microphyle- tiny whole through which water & oxygen enters the
seed.

Monocot seed Dicot seed

Has one cotyledon Has two cotyledons
The main food storage is endosperm The endosperm move food in to cotyledon

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 which is a main food store.
The embryo remains a very small part of a The embryo takes most of the seed parts.
seed

Types of germination
i. Epigeal (dicot)germination
o It is a type of germination in which the cotyledons are carried above the soil.
o The hypoco tyl carries the cotyledons & plumule above the soil surface.
o Hypocotyls –is the first leaf- like structure that appears on a germinating seed. It
grows upwards in response to light. This type germination occurs in dicot plants.
E.g. Bean, groundnut, cotton etc.
ii. Hypogeal germination (monocot) germination-
 It is a type of germination in which the cotyledons remain under ground. The plumule
pushes out the soil by leaving the cotyledons in the ground.
 This type of germination is exhibited by monocot plants. E.g. maize, wheat, sorghum etc.
Refer fig 4.22 (a & b) page 172

Plant growth hormones

 Growth hormones are regulated by plant hormones,
 .the main hormones involved in growth of plants are:
o Auxin Ethylene
o Gibberellic acid Absicisic acid.
o Cytokinin
 These plant hormones can affect growth in plants differently.
1) Auxin (IAA) – the best known plant hormone. It is involved in general plant growth.

Auxin affects the growth of plants in various ways

i--it stimulates elongation of new plant cells

ii-- induce the formation of roots on cuttings
iii--seed germination
iv—it allows the plant to grow taller, to increase its exposure to the sun.
V—Prevents falling of before ripening.
 IAA (Indole-Acetic acid)- the main type of auxiin which is well known.
2) Gibberellins—it affects growth of plants in different ways
 It is largely involved in the growth of plant stems.
 It helps seeds to break their dormant period & start to germinate.
 It stimulates production of enzymes used to break down food stored in a seed.

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  It makes dwarf plants grow in to normal size.
3) Cytokinins—it stimulates the cell division in plants
 Together with auxin are used to cause differentiation of roots, stems, leaves &
buds of the plant.
 They also involved in breaking seed dormancy
4) Ethylene –is gaseous hormone which is involved in the following activities.

i . Ripening of fruit

ii .prevents failing of leaves & fruits in some plants

5. Abscicic acid(ABA)- it inhibits growth

 It plays role in leaf fall
 It also involved in seed dormancy & may involved in geotropism
Refer figures on page 176 & 177

Tropic responses
 Tropism – a directional growth movements of plants in response to stimuli
 Tropism can be:
o Positive tropism-- growth movements towards the stimuli.
o Negative tropism—growth movements away from the stimuli
 Some examples of tropic responses are:
o Photo tropism – is a directional growth movement in response to light.
o Geotropism – is a directional growth movement of plants in response to gravity
o Chemo tropism-- a directional growth movement of plants in response to
chemicals.
o Hydrotropism—is a directional growth movement of plants in response to
water.
o Tigmotropism—growth in response to touch.
E.g. Plant roots grow down ward the soil & shoots grow up the ground.
Therefore;
1 The growth of root is an example of positive geotropism & negative
phototropism.
2 The growth of shoot can be an example of positive phototropism &
negative geotropism.
 The response of seedlings (plants) to gravity can be detected by an apparatus
called clinostat, which can stop gravity from being a unilateral (one directional)
force on the earth.

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  Another important example is growth of root towards water in a damper soil.
This is positive hydrotropism
Refer fig 4.24 & 4.24 page 174 & 175 respectively

Tropic response can be summarized as

Tropism Stimulus
Phototropism Light
Geotropism Gravity
Tigmotropism Touch
Hydrotropism Water
Chemotropism chemicals

Nastic movements

 Nastic movements are non- directional growth of plants in response to

stimuli.
 Some examples of nastic movements include;
o Opening of flowers
o Falling of fruits & seeds

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