Lecture Chapter Subtopic Things to Note

1: Intro and 1: Intro Conduction • Conduction occurs primarily in solids but can occur in fluids when fluid is still
Overview Thermal Circuit modelling:
• Voltage analogous to temperature difference
• Current is analogous to heat transfer
• Resistance depends on thermal conductivity

Terminology
- q = heat flow/ power [W] or [J/s]
- q” = heat flux [W/m^2] or [kJ/m^2s]
- q = q”A
- q’ = q”L
1: Intro and 1: Intro Convection Local and Average Convection coefficients:
Overview Relation between local and average convection coefficients:
For the specific case of flow over flat plate:
• h varies by the distance x from leading edge
What does this mean in the context of a question?
When working with the conservation of energy equation, given h_x convection
coefficient local to x, you can manipulate the equation to look like the \bar h equation

e.g.,

Turbulent flow Re_x,c = 5 x10^5 (for flat plate, not pipe flow)

1: Intro and 1: Intro Radiation • Thermal resistance modelling for radiation is not as useful as conduction and
Overview convection
o Unlike conduction or convection, radiative heat transfer is not a linear
function of temperature
2: 6: Intro to Boundary Layer - Temperature gradient can be as simple as (T_2-T_1)/(x_2-x_1) if you know all these
Convective convection Profiles parameters for conduction - If steady state conditions apply, dE_st/dt is 0
Heat - If conduction is involved and you don't know the area, but you know length, just use q"
Transfer (so q"_in - q"_out = 0 or wtv ur eqn is)
- you need to use linear interpolation for metals etc. as well
2: 6: Intro to Heat Transfer - when plate is circular dA = 2πrdr
Convective convection Coefficients - when giving local h, q = ∫ (0 to L) hdA(T_s-T_infin) put the smaller temp first, the
Heat difference shd be positive
Transfer - {average h} = 1/A ∫ (0 to A) h dA

Parameters that affect h

h = (Nu)L/k: Affected by length of flow, velocity of fluid (from Re), fluid viscosity (from
Re), density of fluid (from Re), specific capacity of fluid (from Pr), thermal conductivity of
fluid

h and boundary layer thickness

The laminar h decreases as δ grows (like an insulating layer) until transition to
turbulence, where enhanced mixing makes h shoot up.

When flow is stopped (e.g. at no slip condition), thermal conductivity of fluid becomes
equal to convective coefficient:

2: 6: Intro to Boundary Layer - For flow over a flat plate, Re_D = 5*10^5 at the start of turbulent flow
Convective convection Transition
Heat
Transfer
2: 6: Intro to Similarity and - Know how to calc Re, h, Nu, Pr - recognize that Nu is the dimensionless temperature
Convective convection Dimensionless profile
Heat Parameters
Transfer
 - Pr is the ratio between kinematic viscosity and thermal diffusivity. Small value of Pr
implies thermal diffusivity dominates therefore boundary layer is thinner than velocity
boundary layer
- h is the convective heat coefficient
- Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial and viscous forces in a fluid
- in any question with a flat plate go straight to finding k, nu (v) and alpha (a)
- Nu is the dimensionless temperature gradient at surface

3: External 7: External The Empirical • based on whether the flow is <turbulent, laminar> and whether you need a local or
Flows Flows Method average coefficient, choose Nu correlation + calculate h.
• Film temperature: All properties evaluated at film temperature because fluid varies
with temperature across boundary layer and affects heat transfer rate.

3: External 7: External Flat Plate in - For laminar and turbulent flows, the equation to calculate boundary layer thickness is
Flows Flows Parallel flow in the formula sheet
- the value of h generally decreases over distance from leading edge until it shoots up at
x_c when flow becomes turbulent
- if plate is segmented, to find power of a segment, subtract power of all segments
beforehand

3: External 7: External Methodology - det. geometry (flat plate, cylinder etc) - properties of fluid at the given film
Flows Flows for a temperature
convection - calculate Re - decide whether to use local or average coefficient: for constant surface
calculation temperature or vapor density, the local coefficient is used to determine the flux at a
particular point on the surface, whereas the average coefficient determines the transfer
rate for the entire surface.
3: External 7: External Cylinder in
Flows Flows Cross Flow/
- equation 7.52, for Nu correlation for cylinder (P=0.7) Table
Spheres
7.3 shows how to use this eqn with other shaped bars in cross flow
3: External 7: External Tube Banks - For more than 20 tubes, Re = V_max*D/nu. Nu correlation, Eqn 7.58:
Flows Flows

- For less than 20 tubes, eqn 7.65:

(Find C_2 using Table 7.8)

 - Why use LMTD? Because T_s – T_infin would overpredict q’. LMTD:

- Thermal
3: External 9: Free
Flows Convection

4: Internal 8: Internal Hydrodynamic - Re is calculated with u_m , average velocity over cross section of the flow.
Flow Flow Consideration - Turbulent flow at Re_d>2300. Re_D>10 000 for fully developed turbulence
• For laminar flow, (xfd,h/D)lam = 0.05Re_D
• for turbulent flow 10 ≤ (xfd,h/D)turb ≤ 60
- equation for velocity at a certain point in the cross section of a tube
• u(x, r) = u(r) when x > xfd,h :after hydrodynamic entry length, u in the center
does not vary downstream
Boundary condition of fully developed pipe flow:
u(r_0) = 0 and du/dr = 0 (at r= 0)
u_m is maximum flow, flow a

4: Internal 8: Internal Thermal

Flow Flow Consideration:
Laminar flow thermal entry length:
Thermal
aboundary Turbulent flow thermal entry length:
For temperature, no constant T_infin, so use a mean:

q” = h(T_s – T_m)
For fully developed flow, h is constant with x.

Thermal Resistance in Polar Coordinates:

4: Internal 8: Internal Energy balance

Flow Flow - Confined flow so can use energy balance
- dE_gen/dt = 0= dE_st/dt

(S3)
- Obtaining T_m(x):
- constant heat flux, if you know q”_s, and h (local), then use eq S1. Use T_m,x and

q”_s to find T_s: (P = πD for a circular tube)

- constant surface temperature if you know T_s, and average h, then use eq S2 to find

T_m,x. Use S3 to calculate q_conv into fluid: .

- Turbulent flow: Dittus Boelter Eqn, for hydrodynamically fully developed (60>= L/D
>=10) turbulent flow; thermally developed: friction factor (Darcy); relation in ch8
 - laminar flow: hydrodynamicially developed: x_fd,h = 0.05 Re_D; thermally developed:
friction factor = 64/Re_d

All relevant equations are in the formula sheet

4: Internal 8: Internal Laminar flow in - Table 8.1 is for Nu for laminar flow with different cross sections as well.
Flow Flow a circular tube
5: Heat 11: Heat Types - Concentric tube heat exchangers: parallel flow, counter flow
Exchangers Exchangers - Crossed Flow heat exchangers: finned w both fluids unmixed, un-finned w one fluid
unmixed
- baffles increase convection coefficient of shell fluid by introducing turbulence
5: Heat 11: Heat Overall Heat Overall heat transfer coeff:
Exchangers Exchangers Transfer
Coefficients

5: Heat 11: Heat LMTD

Exchangers Exchangers
Parallel Flow:

Counterflow:

5: Heat 11: Heat Effectiveness-

Exchangers Exchangers NTU

C_r = C_min/ C_max

6: 2: Intro to Fourier's Law
Conduction Conduction
Heat
Transfer
6: 2: Intro to Thermophysical - Thermal conductivity: k is higher in solids than liquids because the mean free path of
Conduction Conduction Properties the energy carriers (electrons or phonons) is increased (same principle for electrically
Heat conductive and insulating materials)
Transfer - Thermal diffusivity: ratio of ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to
its ability to store thermal energy
6: 2: Intro to Boundary and Table 2.2: - constant surface temperature - constant heat flux - Finite heat flux -
Conduction Conduction Initial Adiabatic or insulated surface - Convection surface condition
Heat Conditions
Transfer
6: 2: Intro to Heat Equation - Equation 2.17 heat diffusion equation in cartesian coordinates
Conduction Conduction - Equation 2.19 simplified if thermal conductivity is constant
Heat
Transfer
6: 3: One- Plane Wall
Conduction Dimensional
Heat , Steady-
Transfer State
Conduction

6: 3: One- Contact Thermal Circuit: R_total,series = R_1 + R_2 ; (1/R_total,parallel) = (1/R_1) + (1/R_2)
Conduction Dimensional Resistance Series Circuit Resistor is a voltage divider: V = V_a – V_c
Heat , Steady- Parallel Circuit Resistor is a current divider: i = i_1 + i_2
Transfer State
Conduction

Contact Resistance: Table 3.1 and 3.2 for R”_t,c. Imperfect contact

Kapitza Resistance: . Perfect Contact

6: 3: One- Conduction Heat Equation:
Conduction Dimensional with Thermal Heat Equation:
Heat , Steady- Energy
Transfer State Generation General Solution:
General solution:
Conduction Boundary Conditions:
Boundary Conditions:
Coefficients:

7: Extended 3: Extended Table 3.4: Solutions for the 4 Boundary Conditions Fin arrays: overall surface
Surfaces Surfaces • when mL is small, the temperature drop efficiency
along your fin is low.
Real fins have variations, so define a fin efficiency
Another form:
that uses equations from table 3.4

Max: Sub q_f from 3.4

Fin kinds: table 3.5 Convective heat transfer rate:

8: 2D and 4: 2D Steady Separation of

Transient State Variables
Conduction
8: 2D and 4: 2D Steady Conduction Substitute S from Table 4.1 (find in formula sheet)
Transient State Shape Factors Semi-infinite medium: An idealized body that has a single plane surface and extends to
Conduction infinity in all directions. The earth can be considered to be a semi-infinite medium in
determining the variation of temperature near its surface.
For \delta T in q = Sk \delta T , \delta T = T_1-T_2 where T_1>T_2. So just pick whichever
of the two are higher. Note that direction of heat transfer is from T_1 to T_2
8: 2D and 5: Transient Lumped Characteristic length: Volume/Surface Area Bi<0.1
Transient Conduction Capacitance, - Low Bi means T_s1 is approx =
Conduction Validity T_s2

- high rate of conduction within

the body
Boundaries are rate limiting no
matter what T_infin may be
k_s is for a solid Assume temperature profile in
L is characteristic length = Volume/Surface area the body is uniform. Treat the
--- entire body as a single node in a
The following may be used to compute the thermal circuit w T_s1 = T_s2
temperature reached by the solid at some time t.

Use time constant during analysis to simplify the

math:

8: 2D and 5: Transient 2D Finite Numerical Methods: Mesh and nodes

Transient Conduction Difference (4.4
Conduction and 4.5)

Analytical
solutions and
Num. erical
methods

- PDE converted to a series of algebraic equations; solved by matlab/ python

- mesh network divides domain of interest into small regions
- smaller delta x, more accurate, more computationally expensive (time consuming)
- intersections called nodes. Address then with m,n co-ords.
- Each node has a temperature T_m,n which represents average temperature across the
control volume
10: Boiling 10 Nukiyama’s
and Results
Condensatio
n

10: Boiling 10 Boiling

and
Condensatio
n
If you want to change T_sat then you control vapor pressure such that it is set to the
pressure at T_sat,desired. This can be found in table A.6

C_p and and h_fg should be in Joules not kJ.

 • Here, properties are evaluated at T_sat
• Critical heat flux is where burnout happens

Geometry specific constant

For q”_max
For large horizontal cylinders, for spheres, and for many large finite heated surfaces,
use of a leading constant with the value C= π/24= 0.131 (the Zuber constant) agrees with
experimental data to within 16%

For large horizontal plates, a value of C = 0.149 gives better agreement with
experimental data.

For q”_min
C = 0.09 for a large horiztonal plate and is similar to the result for horizontal cylinders

The correlation constant C is 0.62 for horizontal cylinders [17] and 0.67 for spheres
10: Boiling 10 Condensation
and
Condensatio
n
Fluid mechanics
1. Turbomachinery
Reaction Turbines: Kaplan, Francis, Centrifugal Pump

Francis Turbine

Inlet Flow Outlet

Diagram shows impeller with forward facing blades

u_1 and u_2 are peripheral speeds

 In the case that flow rate is increased, but rotational speed needs
to be maintained, adjustable guide vanes to give the desired
rotational speed. By partially closing the guide vanes to maintain
rotational speed.

Euler’s head equation Euler’s head equation pt2

Blade Design

Axial Flow Turbines: E.g. Kaplan Turbines

Centrifugal Pump
Impeller Orientations: Euler Head:
This version is found by manipulating the whirl equation to be in
terms of u_2, V_f2 and cotb_2. Then Q_2 = V_f2*A_2 is substituted
to finally obtain this:

H(Q) = A − BQ form, Euler head (power ideally gained by the fluid)

is negatively corelated to flow rate for backward facing. (IRL it’s
usually parabolic)

Ideally, no whirl at inlet (eye of the impeller) and no shock at exit.

Some pumps have diffusers which correspond to guide vanes in the
Francis turbine. If misaligned, can cause shock and reduce efficiency
but in reality, they almost always increase efficiency.

The gain in pressure head across the pump is known as the

manometric head, Hm:
- difference in the pressure head (∆p/ρg) recorded by a manometer
connected across the inlet and outlet flanges of the pump

Manometric efficiency: Ratio of manometric head (actual

measurement) to Euler head (ideal, no losses) is called the
manometric efficiency

Angle:

*Note, most common values of outlet blade angles for centrifugal

pumps are β2 = 15◦ − 90◦ and for fans β2 = 15◦ − 140◦.
 Pump/System Combinations Pump in Series and Parallel

Equation (53) represents how much head the pump can deliver
if the rotational speed N is set and the flow rate is known. After H_z,
first term is pipe losses, second term is secondary losses. K_L is the
loss coefficient. Summation is over all losses (pipes, bends, entrance,
exits). Losses are found by subbing h_f for pipe + secondary then
replacing V with Q/A:

Equation (55) represents the head lost in the system when a fluid is
transported through it at the know flow rate Q. The operating point
of a pump-system combination is therefore obtained by solving these
two equations simultaneously for H and Q.

Design Consideration
5.1 Dimensional Analysis 5.2 Specific Speed
- specific speed is independent of size (D)

You can rearrange flow coefficient for a missing value K_q1 = K_q2
etc
This holds provided that:
either ⇒ Re, Ma, k/D (roughness ratio inside machine) are fixed;
or ⇒ the effect of changes in Re, Ma, k/D are negligible (i.e. the
performance of the machine is insensitive to changes in these
parameters).
Dimensionless versions:
Impulse Turbines
A jet of water (typically at atmospheric pressure throughout the jet) which is forced over a rotating runner

Pelton turbines

Pelton wheel efficiency against bucket to jet

speed ratio
 u/V_1 needs to be kept constant. So alter power Turgo: horizontal turbines used in click miles. Water strikes runner on one side and
by altering the flow rate Q while keeping H_E exits another. Designed to pass large diameter jet water relative to mean diameter,
gives high specific speed for design

Crossflow turbines: Drum like rotor with solid disks at each end and curved blades like
slats joining the discs. Jet of water enters the top of the roto throught the curved
baldes and emerges and the far side of the rotor by passing thru blades a second time.
The math is complex for this one.

constant

Efficiencies of Rotodynamic
7.0 Efficiencies
Cavitation
Why: low inlet pressure, high pump speed,
When: fluid pressure drops below vapor pressure, causes vapor
bubbles or ‘cavities’ in fluid
Where: Suction side where suction is the lowest; inlet (eye) of the
impeller; impeller blades, also a low pressure areas
1. Effect: Erosion and Pitting: The collapse of cavitation
bubbles against solid surfaces, such as impeller blades or
pump casings, generates intense localized forces. This
repeated collapse and impact can lead to erosion, pitting,
or surface damage on the pump components, reducing
efficiency and eventually leading to pump failure.
2. Noise and Vibration: Cavitation can produce distinct noise
and vibration in the pump system, which can be audible
and felt by operators. These vibrations can further
damage pump components and surrounding structures.
3. Reduced Pump Performance: Cavitation disrupts the
smooth flow of fluid through the pump, reducing its ability
to generate the desired flow rate and pressure. This
results in decreased pump performance and efficiency.
4. Increased Operating Temperatures: The energy
dissipated during the collapse of cavitation bubbles can
lead to localized heating of the fluid and pump
components, potentially causing thermal damage and
accelerating wear.

Centrifugal pump Pelton Turbine

Q* = Q+Q_loss

Propellers and wind turbines

8.1 Aero foil Theory 8.2 Wind Turbines
V_R = velocity relative to the moving aerofoil
A = bc planform area (this is the surface area looking above the
aerofoil which is equal to the chord c multiplied by the span of the
blade b)
C_L is lift coefficient

C_D is drag coefficient

On the underside of the aerofoil the pressure is positive (in relation to

the free-stream pressure), and on the top part the pressure is
negative, which means there is a net force vector acting on the
aerofoil, which through integration, can determine the exact lift force.

F_b,x = Force on the fluid in the x direction

F_p,x = Force on the rotor in the x direction (reaction force)
p_b = pressure upstream
p_a = pressure downstream
P_atm = atmospheric pressure
P_extract = power extracted from fluid (no losses i.e no effects of
blade friction, whirl of air stream in wake, tip and root losses)
F_R = -F_b,x is the force on the rotor
V_1 = fluid velocity upstream
V_2 = fluid velocity downstream
P_avail = available power based
C_P = power coefficient
a = V_2/V_1
C_P,max = maximum power coefficient

Control volume around entire stream tube:

• Lift and drag coeffiicents usually obtained using

experiments or CFD simulations
• Research focuses on optimizing aerofoil shapes for specific
flow conditions.
• At low angles of attack (𝛼α), increasing the angle increases
both lift (𝐶_L) and drag (𝐶_D).
• Continuous increase in angle of attack leads to separation at
the top of the aerofoil near the trailing edge.
• Separation reduces the rate at which lift increases with
angle of attack.
• Further increase in angle of attack shifts the point of
separation forward until reaching stall.
• Stall is a point where further increase in angle of attack
causes a substantial drop in lift.
• Operating the wing/blade before stall is crucial in most
applications to avoid sharp drop in lift, despite increasing Power Extracted:
drag with angle of attack.

8.3 Propellers
- for equation of C_D, use characteristic length for L.
Power Available:
 Power coefficient:

Inflow factor:

Thrust:

Negative thrust indicates thrust is pointing to the left which is the

direction we expect aero plane to go.

Propulsive efficiency:

C_p,max

8.4 Rotational momentum theory 8.5 Blade element theory

If you neglect inflow factors, dT/dr = constant

c =chord at radius r

Rotational inflow factor:

For N blades, thrust gradient:

8.6 Propeller pitch

 Propeller pitch p approximately constant along blade. Blade is
twisted. Tan(theta) = const/r

8.7 Dimension Analysis

Can be applied to propellers and wind turbines
Reynolds, mach and advance ratio are dimensionless
Better propulsive efficiency:
Can find on page 1 of formula booklet

2. Viscous Fluids
Introduction

Navier Stokes
Hydrodynamic Forces on Bearings
Idealized Slipper Tilted Bearing

dp/dx = 0 because h is uniform, pressure at both ends of slipper is

atmospheric, q is constant by continuity along x of slipper. If bearing
is designed this way, it cannot support any load

Assumptions:
• The Navier-Stokes equations are applicable only to
laminar flow problems.
• The lubricant film thickness is small enough to ensure Assumptions
laminar flow, despite high velocities. • Slipper is tilted to the bearing surface, creating a variation
• Idealized geometry: Slipper is infinitely wide into the in the clearance ℎ with 𝑥.
paper, and exactly parallel to the bearing plate. • Continuity of volume flow rate 𝑞 along the slipper's width.
• Steady flow and no changes in density or viscosity.

Rayleigh Bearings Journal Bearing

U(h_1-h_2) >0 because p _s>0

to be able to support load: • "Fluid into wedge" phenomenon requires misalignment
lubricant must flow from the between outer housing and shaft in journal bearings.
larger clearance to the smaller.
L = L1 + L2
• Lubricating film thickness can be extremely thin, possibly
𝑅/1000, varying with angle 𝜃.
• Pressure distribution around the journal follows
Sommerfeld boundary condition, supporting load on
rotating shaft.
Assumptions • Challenges arise with lubricant in low-pressure regions,
leading to dissolved air release and cavitation concerns.
 • Infinite width of the slipper and no changes in density or • Constant pressure 𝑝0 is maintained above atmospheric
viscosity. pressure, necessitating inlet for pressurized lubricant.
• Continuity of volume flow rate 𝑞 along the slipper's width. • Inlet ideally positioned at point of minimum pressure but
• Steady flow and no changes in density or viscosity. typically located at larger angles 𝜃to avoid high-pressure
regions (0<𝜃<𝜋)

4.0 Boundary Layer Theory

4.2 Laminar Boundary Layer
*eta is not efficiency

New boundary conditions:

Simplifies equation to:

4.1 Momentum Integral Equation

Apply MIE:
Obj: det velocity profile and boundary layer thickness
Assumptions:
• 2D, steady incompressible flow inside the BL.
• Consider flow over a flat plate Rewrite limits:

Sub back into MIE:

Control volume approach:

Another torque equation:

Equate both to get boundary layer thickness equation

Continued from above:

- Derivation of drag coefficient by integrating torque from 0 to L wrt dx
- equate to drag eqn (in formula sheet w drag coeff).
Continued from above:
- obtain drag coefficient for laminar flow over entire plate

- local drag coeff based on local torque:

4.3 Boundary Layer Transition to Turbulence

Transition region:
 4.5 Modelling both laminar and turbulent

4.4 Turbulent
MIE Equation and shear stress:

PIPE FLOW
5.1 Development length 5.2 Velocity distributions in pipe flows
- For laminar flow (𝑅𝑒<2300) in a circular pipe:
- Development length (𝐿_𝑒) represents the distance along a pipe
required for flow to reach a fully developed state.

For laminar flow: 𝐿𝑒≈0.06,

with maximum possible laminar entrance length at 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑟=2300 (138

times pipe diameter).
- For turbulent flow: velocity distribution less defined, power law
profile used:

Traverse pitot static tube across diameter of pipe

\rho_p is pitot static manometer fluid density

5.3 Pulsating flow 5.4 Connecting pipes in parallel/serial
- Pulsating flow solutions depend on Navier-Stokes equations with
sinusoidally varying pressure gradient.

Womersley parameter (𝛼) determines profile shape:

-
Pipes in series: additive pressure loss, same flow rate.
Pipes in parallel: additive flow rate, same pressure loss. Loss
coefficient (𝐾𝐿) used for connectors.

low α (of the order 1) = parabolic, high α (10 or above) = piston-like

motion.

6. Momentum equation for moving bodies

• Common questions involve a propellers and rafts where there is drag and thrust