FERM

MAJOR FOREIGN EXCHANGE

MARKETS ARE:
(a) Spot markets
(b) Forward markets
(c) Futures markets
(d) Options markets, and
(e) Swaps markets

The transactions in the interbank market may

place for settlement
(a) on the same day; or
(b) two days later; or
(c) some day late; say after a month

Where the agreement to buy and sell is agreed upon and

executed on the same date, the transaction is known as cash or
ready transaction. It is also known as value today.
Transactions where the exchange of currencies takes place two days
after the date of the contact are known as the Spot transactions. The
rate of exchange effective for the spot transaction is known as the
spot rate and the market for such transactions is known as the spot
market.
This requires the immediate delivery or exchange of currencies on the
spot i.e. within 48 hours. For instance, if the contract is made on
Monday, the delivery should take place on Wednesday. If
Wednesday is a holiday, the delivery will take place on the next day,
i.e., Thursday.
Rupee payment is also made on the same day the foreign currency is
received. It is estimated that about 90 per cent of spot transactions
are carried out exclusively for banks. The rest are meant for
covering the orders of the clients of banks, which are essentially
enterprises. This market functions continuously, round the clock. As
a matter of fact, certain length of time is necessary for completing
the orders of payment and accounting operations due to time
differences between different time zones across the globe.
According to a Bank of International Settlements (BIS) estimate,
the daily volume of spot exchange transactions is about 50 per
cent of the total transactions of exchange markets. London
market is the first market of the world not only in terms of the
volume but also in terms of diversity of currencies traded. The
New York market trades, by and large, US Dollar (75 per cent of
the total), Euro, Yen, British Pound, Swiss Franc, Canadian
Dollar, Australian and New Zealand Dollar only.

Currency forward market involves transactions in which the

exchange of currencies takes places at a specified future date,
subsequent to the spot date known as a forward transaction. The
forward transaction can be for delivery at a pre-agreed future point
in time at a specified price.
So we can say it is an agreement between two parties, requiring
the delivery at some specified future date of a specified amount
of foreign currency by one of the parties, against payment in
domestic currency to the other party, at the price agreed upon
in the contract. The rate of exchange applicable to the forward
contract is called the forward exchange rate and the market for
forward transactions is known as the forward market.

Forward market transactions are meant to be settled on a future

date as specified in the contract. Though forward rates are
quoted just like spot rates, but actual delivery of currencies takes
place much later, on a date in future.

Forward exchange facilities, obviously, are of immense help to

exporters and importers as they can cover the risks arising out of
exchange rate fluctuations by entering into an appropriate forward
exchange contract.
Forward Margin/Swap points: With reference to its relationship with
spot rate, the forward rate may be at par, discount or premium.

Forward rate may be the same as the spot rate for the currency. Then it
is said to be ‘at par‘ with the spot rate. But this rarely happens. More
often the forward rate for a currency may be costlier or cheaper than
its spot rate. The difference between the forward rate and the spot rate
is known as the forward margin or swap points.

If the forward margin is at premium, the foreign currency will be costlier

under forward rate than under the spot rate. The forward rate for a
currency, say the dollar, is said to be at premium with respect to the
spot rate when one dollar buys more units of another currency, say
rupee, in the forward than in the spot rate on a per annum basis.
If the forward margin is at discount, the foreign currency will be
cheaper for forward delivery than for spot delivery. The forward
rate for a currency, say the dollar, is said to be at discount with
respect to the spot rate when one dollar buys fewer rupees in the
forward than in the spot market. The discount is also usually
expressed as a percentage deviation from the spot rate on a per
annum basis.

Under direct quotation, premium is added to spot rate to arrive at the

forward rate. This is done for both purchase and sale transactions.
Discount is deducted from the spot rate to arrive at the forward rate.
The forward exchange rate is determined mostly be the demand for
and supply of forward exchange. Naturally when the demand for
forward exchange exceeds its supply, the forward rate will be quoted
at a premium and conversely, when the supply of forward exchange
exceeds the demand for it, the rate will be quoted at discount. When
the supply is equivalent to the demand for forward exchange, the
forward rate will tend to be at par.
Futures, Options and Swaps are called derivatives because they
derive their value from the underlying exchange rates.

Futures market is a standardised version of a forward contract

that is publicly traded on a futures exchange. Like a forward
contract it includes price and the time in the future to buy or
sell an asset. In terms of currency market it is a contract to deliver
or take delivery of a given amount of currency on a specific future
date at a price fixed on the date of the contract or A transaction
involving the exchange of two currencies at a rate agreed on the
date of the contract for value or delivery (cash settlement) at some
time in the future (more than two business days later). Like a
forward contract a future contract is executed at a later date but a
future contract is different from forward contract in many respects.
The major distinguishing features are: Standardisation, Organised
exchanges, Minimum variation, Clearinghouse, Margins, and
Marking to market.
Unlike forward contracts which are custom made, a future contract
has a standardized contract size and maturity date/s. Futures can
traded only on an organized exchange and they are traded
competitively. Margins are not required in respect of a forward
contract but margins are required from all participants in the
futures market and an initial margin must be deposited into a
collateral account to establish a future position.
Options: An option is a contract or financial instrument that gives
holder the right, not the obligation, to sell or buy a given quantity
of an asset as a specified price at a specified future date. An option
to buy the underlying asset is known as a call option and an option
to sell the underlying asset is known as a put option. Buying or
selling the underlying asset via the option is known as exercising
the option. The stated price paid (or received) is known as the
exercise or strike price. The buyer of an option is known as the
holder of the option or long position and the seller of an option is
known as the writer of the option, or the short position. The price
for the option is known as premium.
Types of options: With reference to their exercise characteristics,
there are two types of options, American and European.
An European option can is exercised only at the maturity or
expiration date of the contract, whereas an American option can be
exercised at any time during the contract.
Currency Options are derivative instruments that give a choice to a
foreign exchange market operator to buy or sell a foreign currency on
or up to a date (maturity date) at a specified rate (strike price).

Swaps, as the term suggests, are simply the instruments that permit
exchange of two streams of cashflows in two different currencies.
The term swap in currency market terms can be understood as
simultaneous sale of spot currency for the forward purchase of the
same currency or the purchase of spot for the forward sale of the
same currency. The spot is swapped against forward.
Operations consisting of a simultaneous sale or purchase of spot
currency accompanied by a purchase or sale, respectively of the
same currency for forward delivery are technically known as
swaps or double deals as the spot currency is swapped against
forward. Commercial banks who conduct forward exchange
business may resort to a swap operation to adjust their fund
position.

Arbitrage
Arbitrage is the simultaneous buying and selling of foreign
currencies with intention of making profits from the difference
between the exchange rate prevailing at the same time in
different markets
PARTICIPANTS OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE
MARKET

1. Dealers/Brokers/Arbitrageurs and Speculators

2. Central Banks
3. Commercial Banks
Dealers are basically involved in buying currencies when they are low
and selling them when they are high.
Dealers operations are wholesale and majority of their transactions
are interbank in nature although, once in a while, they may deal with
corporates and central banks. They have low transaction costs as
well as thin spreads which reflect their long experience in exchange
risk management as well as the intense competition among banks.
Dealers at the retail level cater to needs of customers willing to buy
or sell foreign exchange for education, travel and tourism purposes.
The spread is wide in these transactions and this constitutes a very
small portion of total trade.

Exchange brokers/ Brokers: Are not authorized to take a position

on the market. Their job is to find a buyer and a seller for the same
amount for the given currencies. Their remuneration is in the form
of brokerage. They are constantly in liaison with banks and in
search of counterparties.
A large portion of foreign exchange transactions is conducted through
brokers. While they tend to specialize in certain currencies, they
virtually handle all major currencies. Brokers exist because they lower
the dealers' costs, reduce their risks and provide anonymity. In
interbank trade, brokers charge a small commission of around 0.01 per
cent of the transaction amount. In illiquid currency dealings, they
charge higher commissions. Payment of commission is split between
trading parties. Banks are able to avoid undesirable positions with the
help of brokers.

In India, banks may deal directly or through recognized exchange

brokers. Accredited exchange brokers are permitted to contract
exchange business on behalf of authorized dealers in foreign exchange
only upon the understanding that they will conform to the rates, rules
and conditions laid down by the Foreign Exchanges Dealers
‘Association of India’ (FEDAI). All contracts must bear the clause
subject to the Rules and Regulations of the FEDAI.
Arbitrageurs make gains by discovering price discrepancies that allow
them to buy cheap and sell dear. Their operations are risk-free, in a free
and open market, the scope for currency arbitrage tends to be low and it
is, by and large, accessible only to dealer banks. Unlike arbitrageurs,
speculators expose themselves to risk. Speculation gives rise to
financial transactions that develop when an individual's expectations
differ from the expectations of the market. Speculators transact in
foreign exchange primarily because of an anticipated but uncertain gain
as a result of an exchange rate change. An open position denominated in
foreign currency constitutes speculation. Banks or corporates, when they
accept either a net asset or a net liability in foreign currency, are
indulging in speculation.
Speculators are classified as bulls and bears. A bull expects a currency to
become more expensive in the future. He buys the currency either Spot or
Forward today in the belief that he can sell it at a higher price in the
future. Bulls take a long position in the particular currency. A bear
expects a particular currency to become cheaper in the future. He sells
either Spot or Forward today in the hope of buying it back at a cheaper
rate in the future. Bears take a short position on a particular currency.
Central Banks participate to control their money supply, interest
rate and inflation in order to stabilize the home money market.
Central banks intervene in the market to reduce fluctuations of the
domestic currency and to ensure an exchange rate compatible with
the requirements of the national economy. Their objective is not to
make profit out of these interventions but to influence the value of
national currency in the interest of country's economic well being.
For example, if rupee shows signs of depreciating, central bank
may release (sell) a certain amount of foreign currency. This
increased supply of foreign currency will halt the depreciation of
rupee. The reverse operation may be done to stop rupee from
appreciation.
Commercial banks are intermediaries between seekers and
suppliers of currency. The role of banks is to enable their clients
to change one currency into another. Also, they operate on these
markets to make a profit through speculation and the process of
arbitrage. Big commercial banks serve as market-makers. They
simultaneously quote, bid and ask prices, indicating their
willingness to buy and sell foreign currencies at quoted rates.
The purchases and sales by large commercial banks seldom
match, leading to large variation in their holdings of foreign
currencies exposing them to exchange risk. When they assume
the risk deliberately, they act as speculators. However, banks
prefer to keep their exposure low and not get into unduly large
speculations. Banks communicate between themselves through a
network of telephones, faxes and the means of communications
supplied by Reuters, Telerate, Bloomberg etc. Commercial
banks also participate on behalf of corporates who trade with
other corporates based out of different countries.
SETTLEMENT OF TRANSACTIONS
Foreign exchange markets make extensive use of the latest
developments in telecommunications for transmitting as well settling
foreign exchange transaction. Banks use the exclusive network SWIFT
to communicate messages and settle the transactions at electronic
clearing houses such as CHIPS at New York.
 SWIFT: SWIFT is a acronym for Society for Worldwide Interbank
Financial Telecommunications, a co-operative society owned by
about 250 banks in Europe and North America and registered as a
cooperative society in Brussels, Belgium. It is a communications
network for international financial market transactions linking
effectively more than 25,000 financial institutions throughout the
world who have been allotted bank identified codes. The messages are
transmitted from country to country via central interconnected
operating centers located in Amsterdam and Virginia. The member
countries are connected to the centre through regional processors in
each country. The local banks in each country reach the regional
processors through the national networks.
The SWIFT System enables the member banks to transact among
themselves quickly (i) international payments (ii) Statements (iii) other
messages connected with international banking. Transmission of
messages takes place within seconds, and therefore this method is
economical as well as time saving. Selected banks in India have become
members of SWIFT like Bank of India, Allahabad Bank, Andhra Bank,
Bank of Baroda, Bank of Maharashtra, Canara Bank, Central Bank of
India, Dena Bank, Indian Bank, HDFC Bank Limited, Export Import
Bank of India, ICICI Bank Limited, Reserve Bank of India, State Bank
of India, Syndicate Bank, UCO Band, Yes Bank Limited etc.. The
regional processing centre is situated at Mumbai.
CHIPS: CHIPS stands for Clearing House Interbank Payment System.
It is an electronic payment system owned by 12 private commercial
banks constituting the New York Clearing House Association. A CHIP
began its operations in 1971 and has grown to be the world‘s largest
payment system. Foreign exchange and Euro dollar transactions are
settled through CHIPS. It provides the mechanism for settlement every
day of payment and receipts of numerous dollar transactions among
member banks at New York, without the need for physical exchange of
cheques/funds for each such transaction.
EXCHANGE QUOTATIONS
We have seen that exchange rates can be quoted in either of the two
ways;
(a) Direct quotation (b)

Indirect quotation.

The quotation in which exchange rate is expressed as the price per unit of
foreign currency in terms of the home currency is known as Home
currency quotation or Direct quotation. It may be noted that under direct
quotation the number of units of foreign currency is kept constant and any
change in the exchange rate will be made by changing the value in term of
Rupees. For instance, direct quote for India is INR 68 = 1 USD. US
dollar quoted at INR 68 may be quoted at INR 66 or INR 69 as the case may
be.

The quotation in which the unit of home currency is kept constant and the
exchange rate is expressed as so many unit of foreign currency is known
as Foreign Currency quotation‘ or Indirect quotation i.e. INR 1 = 0.015
USD. Under indirect quotation, any change in exchange rate will be effected
by changing the number of units of foreign currency.
Two Way Quotations
Typically, the quotation in the interbank market is a two way quotation.
It means the rate quoted by the market maker will indicate two prices.
One at which it is willing to buy the foreign currency, and the other at
which it is willing to sell the foreign currency. For example, a Mumbai
bank may quote its rate for US dollar as under
USD 1 = INR 68.1525/1650
More often, the rate would be quoted as 1525/1650 since the players in
the market are expected to know the big number i.e. INR 68. In the
given quotation, one rate is INR 68.1525 per dollar and the other rate is
INR 68.1650 per dollar.

It will be obvious that the quoting bank will be willing to buy dollars at
INR 68.1525 and sell dollars at INR 68.1650. If one dollar bought and
sold, the bank makes a gross profit of INR 0.0125. The buying rate is
also known as the bid rate and selling rate as the offer rate. The
difference between these rates is the gross profit for the bank and is
known as the Spread.
Interpretation of Interbank quotations
The market quotation for a currency consists of the spot rate and the
forward margin. The outright forward rate has to be calculated by
loading the forward margin into the spot rate. For instance, US dollar is
quoted as under in the interbank market on 25th March as under:
Spot USD 1 = INR 68.4000/4200
Spot/April 2000/2100
Spot/May 3500/3600

The following points should be noted in interpreting the above

quotation;
1. The first statement is the spot rate for dollars. The quoting bank
buying rate is INR 68.4000 and selling rate is INR 68.4200
2. The second and third statements are forward margins for forward
delivery during the months of April and May respectively. Spot/April
rate is valid for delivery end April. Spot/May rate is valid for delivery
end May.
3. The first rate in the spot quotation is for buying and second for
selling the foreign currency. Correspondingly, in the forward margin,
the first rate relates to buying and the second to selling. Taking
Spot/April as an example, the margin of 20 paise is for purchase and 21
paise is for sale of foreign currency.
4. Where the forward margin for a month is given in ascending order as
in the quotation above, it indicates that the forward currency is at
premium. The outright forward rates arrived at by adding the forward
margin to the spot rates.
FACTORS DETERMINING SPOT EXCHANGE RATES
 Balance of Payments: Balance of Payments represents the demand
for and supply of foreign exchange which ultimately determine the
value of the currency. Exports, both visible and invisible, represent
the supply side for foreign exchange. Imports, visible and
invisible, create demand for foreign exchange. Put differently,
export from the country creates demand for the currency of
the country in the foreign exchange market. Conversely,
imports into the country will increase the supply of the
currency of the country in the foreign exchange market.
 Inflation: Inflation in the country would increase the domestic
prices of the commodities. With increase in prices exports may
dwindle because the price may not be competitive. With the
decrease in exports the demand for the currency would also
 decline; this in turn would result in the decline of external value of
the currency. It may be noted that unit is the relative rate of
inflation in the two countries that cause changes in exchange rates.
If, for instance, both India and the USA experience 10% inflation, the
exchange rate between rupee and dollar will remain the same. If
inflation in India is 15% and in the USA it is 10%, the increase in prices
would be higher in India than it is in the USA. Therefore, the rupee will
depreciate in value relative to US dollar.

 Interest rate: The interest rate has a great influence on the short –
term movement of capital. When the interest rate of a country
rises, it attracts short term funds from other countries. This would
increase the demand for the currency of the home country and
hence its value. Rising of interest rate may be adopted by a
country due to tight money conditions or as a deliberate attempt to
attract foreign investment. The effect of an increase in interest
rate is to strengthen the currency of the country through larger
inflow of investment and reduction in the outflow of investments
by the residents of the country.
FUNCTIONS OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE
MARKET
 Transfer of Purchasing Power: The primary function of a
foreign exchange market is the transfer of purchasing power
from one country to another and from one currency to another.
The international clearing function performed by foreign
exchange markets plays a very important role in facilitating
international trade and capital movement.
 Provision of credit: The credit function performed by foreign
exchange markets also plays a very important role in the
growth of foreign trade, for international trade depends to a
great extent on credit facilities. Exporters may get pre shipment
and post shipment credit. Credit facilities are available also for
importers. The Euro dollar market has emerged as a major
international credit market.
 Provision of Hedging Facilities: The other important function
of the foreign exchange market is to provide hedging facilities.
Hedging refers to covering of foreign trade risks, and it
provides a mechanism to exporters and importers to guard
themselves against losses arising from fluctuations in exchange
rates.
ROLE OF FEDAI IN FOREIGN EXCHANGE
Authorized Dealers in Foreign Exchange (ADs) have formed an
association called foreign Exchange Dealers Association of India
(FEDAI) in order to lay down certain terms and conditions for
transactions in Foreign Exchange Business. AD has to give an
undertaking to Reserve Bank of India to abide by the exchange control
and other terms and conditions introduced by the association for
transactions in foreign exchange business.
Accordingly FEDAI has evolved various rules for various transactions in
order to protect the interest of the exporters, importers general public and
also the authorized in dealers.
1. 1st Rule of FEDAI deals with hours of business of banks which is the
normal banking hours of ADs. On Saturdays no commercial
transaction in foreign exchange will be conducted except
 purchase/sale of traveller's cheques and currency notes and
transactions where exchange rates have been already fixed.
2. 2nd Rule deals with export transactions export bills
purchased/discounted negotiation, export bills for collection export
letters of credit, etc.
FIXED VS FLEXIBLE EXCHANGE RATE
Fixed exchange rate is the rate which is officially fixed by the
government or monetary authority and not determined by market
forces. Only a very small deviation from this value is
permissible.

Flexible exchange rate is a rate which is determined by forces of

demand and supply of foreign exchange market. Here the value
is allowed to fluctuate freely according to the change in demand
and supply of foreign exchange.
BASIS STOCK MARKET FOREX MARKET

Commodity Of Securities Currencies

Trade ( Shares, Debentures etc.)

Trading Most stock market operates No downtime in forex

Hours for 8 hours. trading. Forex market
operates 24 hours a day.

Stock Market are centralized. Not geographically tied

Trading down. It is an over the
Market Place counter market.

Smaller as compared to forex

market.
Size of the Largest market of the
market world in comparison to
any other market.