Clauses and their

Functions

This is the house I was tel/ing you about.

~.;~;::':?;~ z;.rt~~:;.:
..t;Y:""'~.} 2~
ia:!. ~4" "C' ~"
5he was wearing a dress tltat was much too big (01' her.
~"i.'l""·'~'~··'.)
.Jl. J
:r. ¡ "
.4_~•• _·~¡ y¡'ü:.,.; .. h". ~

The person 01' thing that is described 01' identified by a relative

clause is its arttecedent:
Clauses and their FunctEons
Robert, who had been listening to their conversation, suddenly
Sentences may be linked by words such as and, but, laughed.
when, because, etc in larger structures that are also This is the house I was tel/ing you about.
sentences:
5he was wearing a dress that was much too big for her.
5he looked at him and they both smiled.
I don't know the answer but I'm going to find out. An ~dverbial dause is a clause that has the function of an
1'1/ see you when I come. adverbial in the main clause of its sentence:
I'm crying because I'm happy.
We can talk about that when I get home.
The smaller sentences that are linked to form a larger Put that one where you put the others.
sentence are called c1auses. A clause is a word-group He was driving as i( he was completely drunk.
which has the same structure as a sentence but which I( you don't have any tea, 1'1/ drink coffee.
is part of a larger sentence.
A ¡¡aun da use is clause that can fill the same slot in a sentence
Clauses that are linked by words such as and and but, as a noun 01' pronoun:
like links in a chain, are called cQ-ord¡n;ate dauS'es:
I know that she can', hear uso
I saw him and we discussed the matter but he What you think is of no concern to me.
disagreed with our point of view.
A non·f[nrte dause is one that is formed with an infinitive, a
Clauses that depend on other clauses are called participle 01' a verbal naun:
suboró¡nate dauses:
To go there on your own would be very foolish. (with an
The house seems very empty when you aren', here. infinitive)
1 Even i( ir's raining. I go for a walk because ir's good Being rather shy, she just stared at the man, saying nothing.
(01' me. .
(with a present participle)
[1 -'
O, l''''P C'
.":;.~,J j I The clauses that subordinate clauses depend on are In saying that, I don't mean any harm to him. (with a verbal
called main clauses 01' principal c1auses: noun)
Clauses I
.J
The house seems ve,-y empty when you aren't here . A verbless c!ause is one that has no verb in it at all:
Even if it's raining, I go (01' a walk because it's good
for me. When on holiday, Ilike to go {or long walks.
J 5he knew that she shouldn't be alone with him.
EHipsis occurs when an element of a sentence is left unsaid
A relative c1ause is a subordinate clause that because it can be deduced from the context in which the
I'\an-Finite and
Uer-t¡ ¡ess Clauses identifies someone 01' something 01' provides sentence is spoken:
information about them: !'ve cleaned ffle--et5H" and polished the cal'.
Robert, who had been listening to their
conversaríon, suddenly laughed. II
.I1I'P ,'QU Coming 7

.L
[ 64 ]
 y.\
Clauses and cheir
FuncCions
Similarly, Tom was reading, julie was writing letters, and Fred
~~lZfJE!2~313:JPJirs~0~l1ik~!{, was playing his guitar consists of three clauses:
'john was reading', 'julie was writing lettas' and 'and Fred was
[o-vrdin:a"!E []~U:SES, M:ain playing his guitar'.
Clauses ClDD SUbDrdinate C]auses 3 Since a clause is a 'sentence within a sentence', it normally
has the same range of possible structures as a sentence (see
page 46). For example, c1auses in a declarative sentence will
normally have both a subject and a verb:
Co-ordinate Clauses
You look in the garage and 1'11 try the garden hut.
l've looked everywhere but I just cannot find the spade.
It is not only words and phrases that can be co-ordinated.
Sentences can be co-ordinated too. However, when two or more clauses have the same subject,
the subject may often be omitted from all but the first clause:
J'm floing.
You re not going. The baby cooed and gurg/ed.
J'm going but you're not going. J bent down, patted the dog, and examined its paw.
Sue is painting the kitchen. The people either hid or ran away.
Richard is painting the bedroom.
Sue is painting the kitchen and Richard is painting the bedroom. (For more about this, see Unit 22 on Ellipsis.)

john sings. :!J Clauses that function together as equal partners to form a
Mary dances.
john sings al1d Mary dances. sentence are known as co-ordinate c1auses.
john sings but Mary dances.
Either john sings or Mary dances. A sentence that consists of two or more co-ordinate clauses
Tom was reading. is called a compound sentence.
julie was writing letters.
Fred was playing his guitar. These are compound sentences:
Tom was reading. julie was writing letters. and Fred was
playing his guitar. john sings and Mary dances.
Anne lost her hat but / found it.
/, Did You KnOw?) The lambs were gambolling ih the field and the ewes were
/
When sentences are linked in this way in larger structures grazing contentedly.
The word 'clause' that are also sentences, the smaller sentences that form a
comes from Latin larger sentence are called c1auses. A sentence that is not linked to any other sentence to form a
claudere 'to close'. larger sentence is a simple sentence. (You could say that a
'Clause' originally A c1ause is a word-group which has the same structure as simple sentence consists of only a single clause.)
meant the end of a a sentence but which is part of a larger sentence: a clause
section of a speech
or formal argumento is 'a sentence within a sentence'. These are simple sentences:

-'< Grammar Hel P:) john sings but Mary dances therefore consists of two clauses:
john sings.
Anne has lost her hato
The /ambs were gambolling in the fie/d.
A conjunction is 'john sings' and 'but Mary dances'.
always considered to
be part of the clause
that follows it. [ 65 ]
&D
..m
 ~l:":?' Clauses and their
o".
Phrases, Clauses and Functions
Sentences
Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses
C"Grammar HelP)f.
Co-ordinate sentences can be formed by means of conjuncts (see page 41) r-
I
as well as conjunctions: A subordinate dause is a clause that depends on another
She was obviously upset. I asked her what was wrong. clauseo
She was obviously upset, so I asked her what was wrong.
She wanted to tell me what was wrong. For sorne reason she wouldn't tell me.
She wanted to tell me what was wrong, yet ror sorne reason she wouldn't tell me.
l__
I A subordinate clause is also called a dependent c1auseo

/ knew that she was very worriedo

lE Sometimes co-ordinate clauses are simply placed side by
She sereamed when she saw the bodyo
side without being linked by a conjunction:
What he told me made no sense at al/o
/ came, / saw, / conquered. Leave the books wherever you /ikeo
Cats chase mice, dogs chase cats, / chase dogso 00 you ever listen to anything that anyone says to you?
We laughed at his jokes, we wept for his pain, we cheered his / slipped on a patch of ice while I was running for the buso
courageo I'm more cautious now than I used to beo
This is known as asyndeton or parataxis (compare page 1 12)0
1­
Ii The clause that a subordinate clause depends on is called
r;¡ Rather than being repeated in a co-ordinate clause, a lexical
verb and other parts of the predicate may be replaced by an the main clause or p,dndpa[ dause.
auxiliary verb, sometimes along with the adverb so:
Either )ohn broke the window or his brother dido (= ... or his I knew that she was very worriedo
brother broke the window) She screamed whel1 she saw the body.
Sue left early but her sister didn'to (= o-o but her sister didn't Show me what you're doing.
leave early) This is the house where / was born.
Sue didn't leave ear/y, nor did her sistero (= and her sister
I wouldn't go to her party un/ess / was invited.
didn't leave early either)
A sentence that consists of a main clause and one or more
Mary was reading and so was )ohl1. (= .. o and John was
reading too) subordinate clauses is called a co mpíex sentence.

Lynn left early and so did her sistero (= .. o and her sister left ¡he word that links a subordinate clause to a main clausc
early too) may be a submodinaUng conjunct¡on, such as although,
as, because, before, how, if, since, that, though, till, unless,
A noun or noun phrase may be replaced by a pronoun in the
until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether and while:
second and later clauses of a compound sentence:
I knew that she was very worriedo
Either Mrs Jones lost her money or sl1e was robbed.
She sereamed when she saw the body.
/ picked up the baby and kissed ir al1d cuddled ito
How can / brush your hair if you won't stand stil/?

<. Grammar Hel p; Although she is only two years o/d, she has a very large vocabulary.
1'1/ come whenever / can.
Notice the inversion of the subject and the verb in the clauses with nor You'd better leave before she gets hereo
and so:
Sue didn't lea ve early, nor díd her síster.

1
Mary was reading and so was Johl1. O'.T
am-: Lynn lerr early and so díd her sister.

[ 66 ]
r :ases, Clauses and ClaLlses and their
Sentences Funetions
The linking word may, on the other hand, be a relative exactly the same way as tomorrow morning does in the simple sentence)
pronoun, such as that, what, which, who, whom, whose, Leave the books on rhe rabIe. (simple sentence, with on the table as an
whatever, whichever and whoever, an interrogative adverbial)
pronoun, such as who, whom, whose, what and which, Leave the books wherever you lihe. (complex sentence - the subordinate
clause wherever vou like is functioning as the adverbial in the same way as
or a determiner, such as what, whatever, which, whichever on the table does in the simple sentence)
and whose: Her behaviour surprised me. (simple sentence, with Her behaviour as the
subject)
Stand up the boy who made that rude noise. That she came to the party ar all surprised me. (complex sentence - the
subordinate clause That she carne to the party at all is functioning as the
I don't know who you're talking about. subject just as Her behaviour does in the simple sentence)
Where have you put the book that was here on the table? I heard that. (simple sentence, with that as the direct object)
I heard what you said. (complex sentence - the subordinate clause what
That's the man whose son is the local MP vou said is functioning as the direct object in the same way as that does in
Find out which route is the quicker. the simple sentence)

Take whatever you want. It is for this reason that subordinate clauses are said to be 'subordinate
to' or 'dependent on' main clauses - in a way they 'belong to' the main
Take whichever book you want.
clauses because they fill one of the slots in the main c1auses.

Sometimes there is no conjunction or relative pronoun linking (o-ordinate clauses, on the other hand, are linked together, but you
cannot say that any co-ordinate clause 'belongs to' or 'depends on'
the clauses at all:
any other - they are equal partners in their sentences.
I knew she was very worried. (= ... that she was very worried) .) Sometimes a main clause could form a complete sentence on its own:
You can come wirh usif VOL! like.
Where have you put the book I left on the table? (= ... that I left The match was cancelled beca use it was raining.
on the table)
But if the slot filled by the subordinate clause is an 'obligatory slot'
Who was that girl you were talking to 7 (see page 50), ::>uch as the subJect of a verb in a declarative sentence
or the direct object following a transitive verb, then it would not be
Lying is one thing I can't abide. possible for the main clause to form a complete sentence without the
I subordinate clallse:
I
I What she did amazed me. (amazed me is not a complete sentence because
( :Gramm-a-r He1 P-:) it has no sllbject)

.. In what way are co-ordinate clauses different from main clauses

I Oid you find what vou had lost 7 (Did vou find 7 is not a complete sentence
becallse there is no direct objeet for the transitive verb find)
and subordina:e dauses 7
(o-ordinate clauses are linked together as a series in a sentence, like I ':J A complex sentence consists of a main clause and one or
links in a chain:
I sing / and Moira sings / and Peter sings / but Peter's brother duesn't sing. I more subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause may precede,
follow, or be in the middle of the main clause:
Either Marv sings / or Peter sings / but his brother never sings.
The only thing connecting these co-ordinate clauses is the presence of When we arrived, the concert had already started.
the co-ordinating conjunctions. The clauses are of equal importance 1'11 send you a postcard when I get there.

•
in the sentence - none of them is more important than the others.
With main clauses and subordinate clauses, however, the relationship
I Anyone who knows anything about computers knows that.
That would be, as I have said, a grave mistake.
is quite different. Not only are the subordinate clauses linked to the
main clauses, they are in a way part ofthe main clauses - that is to
There's something funny going on here, you know.
say, they actually occupy one of the sentence 'slots' (subject, object,
complement, adverbial, etc) in the main clause. There may of course be more than one subordinate clause in
a sentence:
You can see this by comparing similar simple sentences and complex
sentences.
As I was walking home, I noticed (that) there was a queue
You can finish that romorrow morning. (simple sentence, with tomorrow of people outside the newsagent's.
morning as an adverbial)
You can finish that when we ger bade (complex sentence - the [ 67 ]
subordinate clause when we get back is functioning as the adverbial in While we were in town, we bought a new car, because we
: 1) wanted one with four doors. (ID
 .J, ..
Phrases, Clauses and
Sentences Clauses and their
Functions
If there is more than one subordinate clause in a complex
sentence, they may be linked either by subordiriating [ [ ) Combine the following sentences using the words in
conjunctions, relative pronouns etc alone: brackets, making any other necessary changes. /' . ---.......
~ Handy Hl nt )
My neighbour was looking after our daughter while I was Example There may be more
visiting my husband, who's in hospital at the moment for an Question: The children were playing. The children were than one possible
operation because he has injured his back. watching television. (either ... or) answer.

Or they may be linked by any of these words and by co­ Answer: Either the children were playing 01' they were
ordinating conjunctions as well: watching television.

1'11 go wherever I please and however I please.

1. You are crazy. I am crazy. (either ... or)
I gave her the money both because she needed it and
because she deserved it. 2. I don't want to go. , must go. (but)
3. You broke the vase. The dog broke the vase. (either ... 01')
A sentence that consists of two or more co-ordinate main 4. Fred plays the guitar. I play the guitar. (and so ... )
clauses along with at least one subordinate clause is called a 5. My mother is very keen on opera. My father is very keen on
compound-complex sentence: opera. (and so ... )
6. 1 didn't make that mess. She didn't make that mess. (nor)
john'll help you because he's a helpful sort of guy, and joyce'll
help you too. 7. ,'ve been searching for my boots. I can't fjnd my boots. (but)
8. She fell down. She was pushed. (either ... or)
I came because I had to bar my wife is here because she
wants to be. 9. John is taller than his brother. 1 am taller than John. 1 must be
taller than his brother. (and; so)
10. Cats can climb trees. Dogs can't climb Uees. (but)

(~~j~'9Pl~.~fE.~f··,~>"
~~~~~~~}~~~·d~::-~ (TI Pick out the main clauses and subordinate clauses in the
following sentences:
Handy Hint
_._0'
00 Divide the following sentences into the clauses that form
them.
l. I could see that she was worried.
Remember that, for 2. As I drove towards his house, I was hoping that he would be out.
the purposes of
1. It's olle o'clock and we should be on our way by now. 3. 1'11 come whenever I can.
sentence division, a
conjunction is 2. I don't like him but 1'11 give him my support. 4. Do you know what she did whell I told her what you'd said 7
considered to be 3. He put his hand on her arm and said nothing. c; \.vr~1 r1on't \'le h::'.'e 2 Ci}~ [lf t:'~ v··hile we're waiting 7
pan of the clause
that follows it. 4. You go round to the back of the house and take a look and "/1 6. 1 don't know whether we should be doing this.
try the front door again. 7. The children laughed at the antics of the clowns.
5. It's Saturday so I needn't get up so early. 8. The children laughed as the clowns poured water over each
6. I've tried and I've tried but J've never managed it. other.
7. She both loves him and hates him. 9. Stay whcre you are until I come.
8. The government promised reforms but has done nothing. 10. If you go, I will go too.
1 1. Whenever I run, my leg hurts.
12. 1 didn't like what 1 was doing but 1 had no choice.

C'IDE 1
CID Describe the functions (subject, direct object, adverbial,
etc) of the subordinate clauses in the above sentences. ~

J
~~

[ 68 ]
 Clauses and their
Functions

~~r:t!~Et;~?:SZLit~5T~:i:ii:1;5Il~?~~~:;:;1
You'd be surprised at the number of children in this school
whose parents are divorced.

~ , -
,-, ReJ-atJu€ []auses The conjunctions where, when and why can also be used
to form relative clauses whose antecedents are nouns
referring to places, times and causes respectively:

I often walk past the house where I was born.

00 you remember that time when you fel! into the swimming pool?
Gramma r He1 p.:> Relativ2 CJa:us-es
1 don't remember the reason why 1 went there.
Relative clauses are
~.metimes called A relative c1ause is a subordinate clause that identifies
,-ljectival c1auses someone or something or provides information about them, ~~ Gramma r He1p:J)
t ..,ócause, like
When referring to people, the relative pronouns to use are who, whom,
'jectives, they whose and that:
identify or describe A mole is an animal that Uves underground.
the man who spoke OR the man that spoke ('Who' is preferred as a subject
, ,uns. We were driving along a rough jungle track that was never pronoun, though both are correct.)
meant (or cars. the man whom I saw OR the man that I saw ('That' is preferred as an object
pronoun, though both are correct.)
Patrons who arrive late may not be admitted to the concert. the man whose son is an MP
A psychiatrist is a doctor who treats disorders o( the mind, the man to whom I spoke
He was aman whose qreatest pleasure was lookinq a(ter When referring to animals or things, the pronouns to use are which, rhar
his garden. and whose:
She was someone on whom you could always re/y. the cat wJ!iciJ was :;illin"j on the mat OR lhe uil Chat was sirting on the mat
the book which I mentioned OR the book that I mentioned
That is an option which / have always rejet:ted. che buok whose cover was torn
el book ro which I often refer
This is a list of people who were abducted by the terrorists
and about whose (ate nothinq is yet known. When referring to things, you can use of which instead of whose:
a book the cover of which was 10m
.::1 The noun, pronoun, phrase or clause that is identified,
:"-rammar Hel p:J) described or commented on by the relative clause is called
r r a verb in a the antecedent /Lmu'si:d;:mt/: :.:3 The relative pronouns who/whom, which and that can
relative clause, it is generally be omitted:
, :; antecedent that Voters whose names begin with the letters M to Z should go to
rnakes the verb Room 2.
Have Y0L! still got the book / qave you? (= the book that I gave
;).,lgular or plural: That photo is a reminder of someone who was very important you)
e boy who was to me.
15 that the man you saw? (= the man that you saw)
plaving outside is mv
Hands up everyone who would like a drink.
1. 15 that the man you were speaking t0 7 (= the man that you
T~e boys who were A mole is an animal that lives underground. were speaking to, or the man to whom you were speaking)
, ¡ying outside are mv
sonso He was accused of beinq drunk in charqe o( a vehicle, Who was the girl / saw you with last night 7
vvnere is the book that
which is a serious offence. She was someone you could a/ways rely on.
here on the table?
''''15

'.-Vhere are the books JI The word that links the relative clause to its antecedent is a That is an option / have always rejected.
11 were here on the rela tive pronolJn. The words that, which, who, whom and
tuble 7 But ifthey are the subject of the clause, they cannot be omitted:
whose are relative pronouns:
A mole is an animal that lives underground. that the man who saw you 7
15

I have a friend who once sailed across the Pacific in a smal! yacht. [ 69 ] that the man who was speakinq to James 7
15
L.J You're starting down a path which can only lead to unhappiness. Who was the girl who was with you last niqht? OD
,,_l
 Phrases, C1auses and
Sentences
1. 0

:'"
Clauses and lheir
Functions
', and whoever may mean' the person who ... ', 'anyone
c::::: Grammar Hel P> 1
that
who ' or 'everyone who oo.': eE:Grammar HelP:¡
I
Strictly speaking, who is a subject pronoun and whom an object pronoun,
comparable to he and him, rheyand rhem, etc: What I want ro know is where she hid the money. (= the thing In this unit we are
the man who was there (compare 'he was there') that I want to know ... ) looki ng at these
the man whom 1 saw (compare '1 saw him') clauses as a type of
I'm throwing all these old dresses out. You can keep whatever relative clause; in
However, whom is nowadays used only in rather formal English. In you want. (= ... anything that you want) Unit 20 (on Noun
everyday speech and writing whom is generally replaced by who: Ciauses), we shall
the man who 1 saw You can have either of these cakes. Take whichever you want. look at them again,
the man who you were speaking ro (= ... the one that you want)
to sée how they
Whom cannot be replaced by who when it immediately follows a Whoever said that must be erazy! (= the person who said behave like nouns.
preposition (but again, this is really only found in formal language): that ... )
the man ro whom you were speaking
They elected Smith chairman, rhan whom there could have been no better choice. I'm very grateful to whoever found my keys and handed
them In to the police. (= ... to the person who found my keys
... )

;; Notice that the relative pronoun may not always be the first What, whatever and whichever can al so be used as determiners
word in its clause. Sometimes it is preceded by a in nominal relative clauses, that is, they can be followed by a
preposition: noun or a pronoun:

the man ro whom you were speaking The villagers took what possessions they could carry with
them when they fled into the foresto (= ... took all the
a Job for which I was paid handsomely possessions that they could carry ... )
the hammer with which rhe woman was bludgeoned ro dearh
They built shelters in the forest with whatever suitable
materials they couiá (ind. (= ... with anything suitable that
And the pronoun may be preceded by both a preposition they could find)
and also a word such as sorne, severa!, al!, both, most, etc or
a number: Take whichever one you like. (= ... the one that you like)

The men, borh of whom are lorry-drivers, were charged with

theft. Restt'ictl"e a.na ¡'¿Ü'ít'l"'estrfctfvE. ReraUve C[é'tuse.s
She was attacked by a group of boys, most of whom were in
their teens.
Relative clauses that identify, pick out ordescribe a
He has a large collection of photographs, some of which are particular person or thing are called restrictive or defining
very old. relative clauses.
I bought half a dozen eggs, four of which were broken by the
time 1 got home.
Have you still go't the book I gave you? (This identifies one
particular book.)

([)id You Kno~?) Nominal Re!ative Clauses I have a neighbour who comes from Italy. (This identifies one
particular neighbour.)
'Nominal' means 'Iike In so me relative clauses, the relative pronoun does not fol!ow
a noun', an antecedent but in a sense inc!udes the antecedent in itself. Who is that man you were talking t0 7 (This identifies a
particular man.)
A nominal relative This applies to what, whatever, whichever and whoever.
cJause is a 'noun­ He's engaged to a girl who's the daughter of an MP.
like' relative clause, As pronouns, for example, what, whatever and whichever
may mean 'the thing that ... ', 'anything that ... ' or 'everything ~
~
mi
[ 70 ]
 --
--T-------­
C/auses and their
~ .. rases, Clauses and Functions
1tences I T;:I"'7 t as a SJJbordirL3tj n9 CO:njlJ]1 c"tJOIJ andas a }~-~].ative
Relative clauses whose purpose is not to identify a particular Pr;onoun
person or thing but simply to provide so me further
information about them are called non-restrictive or non- That can be both a subordinating conjunction and a relative
defining relative clauses. pronoun. There are, however, several ways of distinguishing
between the two uses of the word:

My neighbours, who come from Ita/y, make wonder{ul pasta 1 If that is a relative pronoun, it will have an antecedent:
dishes. (The relative clause does not identify the neighbours
but makes a comment about them.) She had lost the ring that I had given her {or Christmas.
'The Hobbit', which was written by Tolkien, is the story of Penguins are birds that swim.
the adventures of Bilbo Baggins.
If that is a conjunction, there will be no antecedent:
He's engaged to Daisy Smith, who~ the daughter of an MP.
I know that she doesn't like me.
The book, which was Jying on the rabIe, was something to do I don't believe thar she is telling the truth.
with UFOs.
2 If that is a relative pro·noun, it can -be replaced by which; if
• Who and which can be used in both restrictive and non­ it is a conjunction, it cannot be replaced by which:
restrictive relative clauses, but that can only be used in
restrictive relative clauses: She had lost the ring that I had given her (or Christmas.
OR She had lost the ring which I had gíven her (or Christmas.
Is this the book that you lent me?
These are the plants that I was talking about. I know thar she doesn't like me.
BUT NüT I know which she doesn't like me.
And it is only in restrictive relative clauses that the relative
pronoun can be omitted altogether: 3 If thar is a conjunction, then what follows it in the subordinate
clause can make a complete statement on ;ts own:
Is this the book you lent me?
These are the plants I WC1S talking about. I don't think that she is coming wirh uso
We found out that Ricardo had won the prize.
Bart told me that Janet~s looking {ar a new jobo
Punctuation oi Restrictj'i2 and Non-restrjctive Reiative
Claus-es If that is a relative pronoun, then what folJows it in the clause
will nat be a complete statement:
A restrictive relative clause is not separated from its antecedent
She had lost the ríng that she had been given (or
and the rest of the sentence by commas: Christmas.
The book that was on the rabIe was mine. Where's the book that I Jett on the rabie?
She had lost the diamond ring that I had given her (or
(She had been given far Christmas and I left an the table are
Christmas.
not complete statements - they don't say what she had -been
A non-restrictive relative clause, on the other hand, is separated given for Christmas or what I left on the table.)
off by commas:
The book, which was on the table, was mine.
She had lost her diamond ring, which I had given her (or I
f¡
Christmas.
dlJ 1 [ 71 ] 1m
 Clauses and their
Phrases, Clauses and Functions
Sentences
Appositive Clauses 6. The reason for the delay is that there is no driver for the train.
7. The company that she set up has gone bankrupt.
8. It is very surprising that she didn't come with uso
Appositive /;:¡'POZltIV/ c1auses are clauses that are in
apposition to the words they relate too
m Combine the following pairs of sentences into a single ( Handy Hi nt~
Appositive clauses provide information about a preceding noun sentence by means of a relative pronoun, etc. There may be more
such as be/ief, thought, saying, possibi/ity, fee/ing, etc: than one correct
Example answer to some of
The belief that tl1e wor/d is flat was w;despread in the Question: Cinderella had a wicked stepmother. The the questions.
M;ddle Ages. (the belief = that the world is flat) stepmother was very unkind to her.
The thought that my mocher miqht find out horr;f;ed me. Cinderella had a wicked stepmother, who was very
(the thought = that my mother might find out) Answer:
unkind to her.
The saying tha! absel1ce makes the heart grow fonder ;s
absolute nonsense. l. Co and see the nurse. She will check your blood pressure.
2. That is the nurse. That nurse checked my blood pressure.
Appositive clauses look very similar to relative clauses, but
3. Penguins are birds. Penguins cannot fly.
there are some differences between them:
4. My aunt is coming to visit uso She lives in London.
1 In an appositive clause, rhar is a subordinating conjunction, 5. The coat was hanging in the hall. The coat was badly stained.
not a relative pronoun, so it cannot be replaced by which: 6. I want the spade. The spade is in the tool shed.
I have a feeling that someth;ng ;s wrong. 7. ¡'II catcil tile number 52 bus. The number 52 will take me right
to the theatre door.
BUT NOT I have a fee.i;ng wh;ch someth;ng ;s wrong.
8. The professor of French was a tall thin mano I forget his name.
2 In an appositive clause, the words that follow rhar make a 9. We visited the farm. Robert Burns once lived there.
complete statement on their own: 10. The man is my daughter's father-in-Iaw. The man won a prize
for the best chrysanthemums.
I have a feel;ng that something is wrong. 1 l. The man is my daughtcr's father-in-Iaw. They gave the man the
In a relative clause, the words that follow thar do not make prize for the best chrysanthemums.
a complete statement: 12. People need their cars. People live in rural areas.

The feelings that I had for her amounted almost to an obsess;on.

~.

( Handy Hi nts ) 00 State whether that is a subordinating conjunction or a

relative pronoun in the following sentences.
Can that be replaced
by which7 Could l. She prefers dictionaries that have pictures in them.
what follows that
2. I can hardly believe that you said that.
make complete
sense on its own? 3. You had better phone the office to say that I'm not well.
Could that be 4. We walked down the path that led to the lake.
omitted 7 Em
5. We did enjoy the fruit that you sent uso
~
[ 72 ]
 ». \
Clauses and their
Functions
:.~ An :advubial daus",= of pla(e is a subordinate clause that
- ~f"'74i'r:1'l''';:V''''~t'.''''f1''''l!l~;W4''~''~''''''''''fiF,,;;r1
l.'
:,:;:~~~5J,~,~i'lCr¡ij~it;;;i;;¡;~';i~r;iiftiZli1~~:*; says where something happens.

Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions

fldlJErbia] [JausEs where and wherever:
Put that rock where you put the other ones.
Put it wherever you like.

:m An auverbi¿:¡l daus~ uf manner is a subordinate clause that

Adverbial Claus25
says how something happens.
1­
An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause that functions Adverbial clauses of manner are introduced by conjunctions
such as as, as if, as though, how, however and Iike:
as an adverbial in the main clause.
C1~le the pieces together as I showed YOU.
An adverbial clause may, for example, say when or where or
Sav it as if you meant it.
how about the action described in the main clause.
You must do it exactlv as I told YOU.
1'11 do it however I like.
I will come tomoYrow. Mould the e/a V just how I showed you.
I will come after I have been to the shops.
Leave the books there. :7J An adv2rb~alcbuse of reélson tells Y0L! why something
Leave the boo!<s wherev,er you like. happens or why it should happen.
00 the Job this way. ¡ !
00 the Job however you lihe. I! Adverbial clauses of reason are introduced by conjunctions
;-< ¡ such as as, beca use, in case, seeing, seeing as, seeing that
~ Adverbial clauses can, like other adverbials, be modified by .,:3.f and since:
':-'~I
adverbs: ¡-~ I Thev didn't go on a picnic after all because it was raining.
00 exacrly as vou are told.
She left jusr before vou carne in. l:1 As ir was raining, we decided not to go.
Take an umbrella in case it rains.

Types of Adverbial Claus e

I Seeing that ir's raining, vou'll have to plav indoors. <"Grammar Hel PJ
As with adverbs and adverbials (see page 56), adverbial clauses
can be categorized according to their meanings and uses.
I
I < Grammar Hel P=:>
Notice that certain conjunctions may introduce more than one type of clause:
Conjunctions such as
in order that, so
that, as soon as, as
long as, on
As I was leaving my office, I heard an explosion in the street. (timp - says when) condition that and
JI An adverbial clause of tim€ is a subordinate clause that As I am just leaving, you can have my seat. (reason - says why) as if, which consist
Do as / do. (manner - says how) of more than one
says when something happens.
He has been very depressed since his wife died. (time - says when)
word, are called
Since / have nothing berteY 10 do, /'11 come with VOL/o (reason - says why) complex
Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by conjunctions conjunctions.
such as after, as, as soon as, before, once, since, till, until,
Compare the note on
when, whenever or while: complex
:a An adv-erbial dause of purpose also tells you why something prepositions on
1'11 come when I'm ready. is happening, but states the aim or purpose of it rather than page 74.
I'm not leaving till I know the rruth.
the reason for it or cause of it.
Alwavs wash vour hands before you handle food. [ 73 ] cm
WI You'll be al! right once you get to rhe hotel.