Dr Manoj Acharya 31 August 2023

Text Books / Reference Books

1) O. G. Palanna, Engineering Chemistry, Tata McGraw Hill

Education
Chapter-II 2) Jain P. C. and Monica Jain, Engineering Chemistry,

Phase Equilibria Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company Ltd.

3) R. L. Madan, Physical Chemistry, McGraw Hill Education

By: Dr. Manoj Acharya 4) Dara S. S., Umare S. S., Engineering Chemistry, S. Chand
VIT, Bhopal & Company Ltd.
Copyright © VIT BHOPAL

Phase Rule
Phase Rule can be defined as
 Phase Rule was given by J. Willard Gibbs in 1875.
When equilibrium between any number of
 Phase Rule is applicable to heterogeneous System. phases is influenced by Temperature, Pressure
 Phase Rule is very useful to understand the effect of and Concentration but not influenced by gravity
intense variables like Temperature, Pressure or or electrical force or mechanical force or surface
Concentration on the equilibrium between Phases (Solid, action then Degree of Freedom (F) is related to
Liquid & Gas) as well as between the Chemical Number of Components (C) and Number of
Constituents. Phases by following relation
 Phase Rule can be used to determine the “Variance of
the System” or Degree of Freedom(F) for the system.
F+P=C+2

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Where
Phase Rule at Constant Pressure

 F = Degree of Freedom Condensed System do not have gas phase and the effect
of Pressure is negligible.
 C = Number of Component
Only one variable is required to define the system
 P = Number of Phases completely then Phase Rule at constant pressure is
defined as
 2 = Additional variables of Temperature and Pressure
besides Concentration F+P=C+1

It is also known as Condensed Phase Rule

Phase
A system containing only liquid
water is one phase system.
A Phase is defined as any homogeneous, physically
distinct and uniform in composition part of the system
having same physical and chemical properties through
out the system. It is denoted by “P”.

Examples A system containing only liquid

Pure substances (Solid, Liquid and Gas) are made up of water and Ice is two phase system.
one chemical specie only is considered as one phase
system, like Oxygen, Benzene and Ice is a One Phase
System.

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A system containing only liquid water, vapour and

solid Ice is Three phase system.

Component Examples
Total Number of Phases in Sulphur are rhombic sulphur,
The term component is defined as the minimum monoclinic sulphur, Liquid sulphur, Sulphur vapour.
number of independent chemical constituents in terms The composition of each phase is expressed in terms of
of which the composition of each phase can be chemical constituent i.e. Sulphur.
expressed by means of chemical equation. It is denoted Sulphur is a One Component System.
by “C”.
Lead and Silver are miscible in all proportions in molten
Examples
state.
Total Number of Phases in water are Solid (Ice), Liquid
Total number of Phases = 1
(Water) and Gas (Water Vapour)
Total number of Component = 2
The composition of each phase is expressed in terms of
So to define the composition of this homogeneous
chemical constituent i.e. Water.
molten single phase system, we need both the
Water is a One Component System.
constituents. Therefore it is a two component system.

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If the constituents chosen are CaCO3 and CO2

Decomposition of Calcium Carbonate
Phase Composition
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Total number of phases = 3 CaCO3 = CaCO3 + 0 CO2
(Solid CaCO3 , Solid CaO and CO2 ) CaO = CaCO3 - 0 CO2
CO2 = 0 CaCO3 + CO2
If the constituents chosen are CaO and CO2 If the constituents chosen are CaCO3 and CaO
Phase Composition
Phase Composition CaCO3 = CaCO3 + 0 CaO
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 CaO = 0 CaCO3 + CaO
CaO = CaO + 0 CO2 CO2 = CaCO3 - CaO
CO2 = 0 CaO + CO2 Total number of Component = 2

Total number of Component = 2 So to define each phase we require two components.

Hence it is a two component system.

If excess NH3 and HCl is introduced into the system then

Decomposition of Ammonium Chloride
it becomes two component system.
NH4Cl (s) NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
Fe(s) + H2O (g) ↔ FeO (s) + H2 (g); Find out P & C?
Total number of phases = 2
(Solid NH4Cl , Homogeneous gaseous mixture of NH3
and HCl present in same proportion in which they are
present in solid NH4Cl). If the constituents chosen are Fe, H2O and H2
Phase Composition
Phase rule do not distinguish between chemical
compound and its constituents present in same Fe = Fe + 0 H 2O
proportion in the homogeneous mixture. FeO = FeO + 0 H2
Composition of both the phases can be defined by H 2O = H2 O + 0 Fe
NH4Cl. So it is a one component system.
Total number of Component = 3

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(A) In a chemically reactive system where various

Activity
reactions takes place between chemical species the
number of components is calculated by following Activity-1
relationship- Explain why KCl – NaCl – H2O should be regarded as a
three component system whereas KCl – NaBr – H2O
C = S-R should be regarded as a four component system.
Where, S = Number of Chemical Constituents / Species
In KCl – NaCl – H2O system
R = Number of Chemical Reactions which
chemical constituent / species can undergo
Total number of species are-
(B) When ions are also present in the system then KCl, NaCl, H2O, K+, Na+, Cl-
condition of electroneutrality (Number of positive &
negative charges should be equal) then the number of
components is calculated by following relationship- S=6
C = S – (R+1)

Total number of reaction are-

In KCl – NaBr – H2O system
KCl K+ + Cl- Total number of species are-
NaCl Na+ + Cl-
KCl, NaBr, KBr, NaCl, H2O, K+, Na+, Br- , Cl-
R=2
S – (R+1) = 6 – (2+1) S=9
Total number of reaction are-
=3
KCl K+ + Cl-
Therefore KCl – NaCl – H2O system is a 3 component
NaBr Na+ + Br-
system
KBr K+ + Br-
NaCl Na+ +Cl-

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R=4 Degree of Freedom

S – (R+1) = 9 – (4+1) The minimum number of independent variables (such
as temperature, pressure and composition of phase)
=4 which must be specified in order to define the system
completely is called Degree of Freedom.
Therefore KCl – NaBr – H2O system is a 4 component
system It is also known as variance of the system.

If F = 0, System is invariant or non-variant

F = 1, System is univariant or monovariant
F = 2, System is bivariant
F = 3, System is trivariant

NON-VARIANT SYSTEM MONOVARIANT SYSTEM

Ice = Water = Vapour System
Water – Water Vapour System
In this system there are three phases of one component
This system consist of two phases of one component
(Water). These three phases can co-exist together in
(Water). If the temperature is fixed the vapour pressure
equilibrium at particular temperature and pressure. Any
is also fixed and vice versa.
change in one of these factor results in the
disappearance of one or more phases.
F =C–P+2
=1–2+2=1
F =C–P+2
=1–3+2=0
Hence the system is univariant or monovariant.
Hence the system is invariant or non-variant.

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BIVARIANT SYSTEM TRIVARIANT SYSTEM

For a Gas A mixture of two or more gases is completely defined

only when pressure, temperature and composition are
The temperature, pressure and concentration (volume) specified. If pressure and temperature are specified then
are related to each other according to PV = RT. the third variable composition may be varied.
So in order to define the system completely, any two So it is necessary to specify all the three variables to
factors (pressure, temperature or volume) must be fixed. define the system completely.

F =C–P+2 F =C–P+2
=1–1+2=2 =2–1+2=3

Hence the system is bivariant. Hence the system is trivariant.

Advantages of Phase Rule  According to phase rule different systems behaves

similarly if they have same degree of freedom.
 Phase Rule is applicable to Chemical & Physical
equilibria.  Phase rule helps in deciding under a given set of
 Phase Rule is applicable to macroscopic system and conditions:
hence no information is required regarding molecular / (i) Existence of equilibrium among various substances
micro structure. (ii) Inter convergence of substances
(iii) Disappearance of some of the substances
 We can classify equilibrium states in terms of phases,
components and degree of freedom.

 The behaviour can be predicted under different

conditions.

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Limitation of Phase Rule

Application of Phase Rule
 It is applicable only for those systems which are in
equilibrium.

 Only three degree of freedom i.e. Pressure,  Single Component System – Water System and Carbon
Temperature and Composition are allowed to influence Dioxide System
the system.

 It is consider number of phases rather than their  Binary Component System – Lead-Silver System
amount.

 Under the same condition of temperature and

pressure, all the phases of the system must be present.

Single Component System-Water System Water System

 In Water System the
 In Single Component System the degree of freedom chemical compound is
depends on the number of phases Water. Hence C = 1.
 Water System consist
Number of Component (C ) = 1
of three phases i.e. Ice,
By Phase Rule: F+P=C+2
Liquid, Vapour.
F=1+2-P
Phase Rule with Single Component System
 Phase diagram
System No. of Phases Degree of Freedom Remarks
consist of :
Solid / Liquid / Gas 1 2 System is bivariant
Solid – Liquid 2 1 System is univariant
(i) Stable Curves OA,
Liquid – Gas OB, OC and OA’
Solid – Gas (ii) Areas BOC, COA
Solid – Liquid – Gas 3 0 System is invariant and BOA

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(iii) Triple Point ‘O’ Curve OB

Study of Curves: It is known as sublimation curve of ice. This curve starts
Curve OA from point ‘O’ and extend upto the ‘B’ absolute zero of
temperature (-273°C).
It is known as vapour pressure curve of water and
represent the equilibrium between liquid water and Along the curve OB for a particular temperature there can
vapour. be only one value of pressure and vice versa.
It starts from the point ‘O’ and ends at ‘A’, the critical The Ice = Vapour system is univariant and has one degree
temperature (374°C) beyond which the two phases merge of freedom.
into each other. Curve OC
Along the Curve OA: It is known as melting point curve or freezing point curve
No. of Component = 1, No. of Phases = 2 or fusion curve of Ice and represent the equilibrium
Degree of Freedom (F) = C + 2 – P = 1 + 2 – 2 =1 between Ice and Liquid water. This curve shows the effect
Hence the system is univariant. of pressure on the melting point of Ice.

The Curve OC is inclined towards pressure axis. The It is sometime possible to cool liquid water below the
negative slop of curve shows that melting point of Ice is point ‘O’ without solidification. The liquid below the
lowered with the increase in pressure. freezing point is in the Super-Cooled State, which is not
stable and known as metastable state
This curve starts from point ‘O’ and ends upto point ‘C’
(2000 atmospheres and -20°C). Study of Area:

The Ice = Liquid water system is univariant and has one The area BOC (Solid), COA (Liquid) and AOB (Vapour)
degree of freedom. represent three phases of Water.

Curve OA’ No. of Component (C ) = 1

No. of Phases (P) = 1
The curve OA’ is the continuation of curve OA and
Degree of Freedom (F) =C+2–P=1+2–1
represent water (l) and water (vapour) phases are in
= 2
metastable equilibrium.
Hence the system is bivariant.

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Both temperature and pressure must be specified to Single Component System- Carbon Dioxide
define the state of system. At 1 atm
Study of Point ‘O’ [Triple Point]: CO2 (s) CO2 (g)

At triple point all the three phases of water co-exist and

curve OA, OB and OC meet.
i.e. Solid = Liquid = Vapour
So, No. of Phases = 3
No. of Component = 1
Degree of Freedom (F) =C+2–P=1+2–3
= 0
Hence the system is invariant at the triple point ‘O’
(0.0098°C and 0.006 atm. or 4.58 mm Hg)

 Phase Diagram of CO2 resembles with that of H2O with Curve BD

some differences.
 Curve BD is the vaporisation curve along which Liquid
Study of Area: CO2 is in equilibrium with Gas CO2.
 The phase diagram of CO2 has three distinct area ABD
(Right Hand Side) consist of Vapour phase, Area above  This curve starts from Triple Point ‘B’ and ends at Point
CBD consist of Liquid phase and Area (Left Hand Side) ABC ‘D’ is known as Critical point (Temperature 31.1°C,
consist of Solid Phase Pressure 72.8 atm.)
Curve BC
Study of Curves:
 Curve BC is the fusion curve along which Solid CO2 is in
Curve AB equilibrium with Liquid CO2.
 Curve AB is the sublimation curve along which Solid CO2
is in equilibrium with Gas CO2.  This curve starts from Triple Point ‘B’ and ends at Point
 Point ‘C’’ is known as Sublimation point (Temperature - ‘C’.
78.5°C, Pressure 1 atm.)

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Study of Point ‘B’ [Triple Point]: Difference in the Phase Diagram of H2O and CO2

At triple point ‘B’ all the three phases of CO2 co-exist and  In CO2 phase diagram the melting poing curve slopes
curve AB, BD and BC meet. away from the pressure axis.
i.e. Solid CO2 = Liquid CO2 = Gas CO2
So, No. of Phases = 3  Solid CO2 can exist in equilibrium with Liquid CO2 only
at high pressure equal to 5.11 atm. While in H2O system
No. of Component = 1 Ice and Water can exist in equilibrium at low pressure.
Degree of Freedom (F) =C+2–P=1+2–3
= 0  Vapour pressure of Solid CO2 even at low temperature
is very high and many time higher than that of Ice.
Hence the system is invariant at the triple point ‘B’
(-56.6°C and 5.11 atm.)  At low atmospheric pressure CO2 gas can be directly
solidify without attending the liquid phase just by cooling
to -78.5°C, this is why the Solid CO2 is known as Dry Ice.

Phase Diagram of H2O Phase Diagram of CO2 Binary Component System

Two component system is one in which it is possible to
express the composition of each phase in terms of two
substances.
Number of Phases (P) = 1
Number of Components(C ) = 2
Degree of Freedom (F) =C+2–P
=2+2–1 = 3
So to define the system
completely three variables
temperature, pressure and
composition are required.
It is difficult to construct a phase
diagram in two dimension.

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Let us consider a system where Solid = Liquid and do not Types of Binary Component System
have gas phase and the effect of pressure is small on
equilibrium then such a system in which vapour phase is Two component system is of Three types involving solid-
not considered and effect of pressure is kept constant is liquid equilibria.
known as condensed system. Type-I: Two component do not react with each other but
mix with each other in molten state or in solution.
At constant Pressure the degree of freedom is reduced
For Example: Lead-Silver System, KI-H2O System
by ONE. For condensed system Reduced Phase Rule is
applicable.
i.e. F + P = C+1 Type-II: Two pure component react to form a compound
For two component system C=2 which is stable upto its melting point. At melting point it
F = 2 + 1 –P melts to gives a liquid of the same composition as that of
When P = 1, then F = 2 + 1 -1 = 2 solid compound. The compound formed is then said to
have congruent melting point.
Therefore Solid = Liquid equilibria are represented on For Example: FeCl3-H2O System
temperature composition diagram.

Type-III: Two pure component react to form a compound

Application of Eutectic Mixture
which is unstable upto its melting point. On heating it
starts decomposing before melting point to gives a new
solid and a solution with composition different from that Alloys which are known to form eutectic mixture are used
of solid phase. The compound is said to have incongruent as ‘Fail Safe’ devices in boilers & domestic water geysers,
melting point. as plug in automobiles.
For Example: Na2SO4-H2O System
Eutectic mixtures has low melting point, so they are used
Eutectic Mixture for joining two metal pieces together. For example Lead-
Solid solution of such two component system which has Tin solders.
lowest melting point of all the possible mixtures of the
components is known as Eutectic mixture and the Eutectic mixtures of Sodium & Potassium are liquid at
corresponding freezing point temperature is known as room temperature and are used as coolant in nuclear
Eutectic point. reactors.
For Example: Cu – Ag, Pb-Ag, Bi - Cd

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Lead & Silver are completely miscible in all proportions in

Binary Component System-Lead-Silver
their molten state, they don’t react chemically and each
component has the property of lowering each other’s
freezing point.
Various phases are
(a) Solid Lead
(b) Solid Silver
(c ) Solution of Lead & Silver in molten state
(d) Vapour
Small changes of pressure has negligible effect on the
equilibrium between lead and silver in solid state or in
molten state and hence vapour phase will not exist.
Thus Reduced Phase Rule can be applied.
F = C+1–P
Phase Diagram of Lead – Silver System F = 2 + 1 -P

In Pb – Ag system, two components are present i.e. Lead &

Study of Curves:
Silver. Hence C = 2
Lead – Silver system consist of Curve OA (Solid Silver Molten Liquid)
This is called the freezing point curve of silver to which
successive quantities of lead are added.
1) Curves OA and OB.
Point ‘A’ indicate the melting point of Pure Silver (961°C).
2) Areas AOD, Melting point of silver is lowered gradually by the addition
Area BOE, of lead to it.
Area above AOB, Along the curve OA added Lead goes into solution and
Area below DOE. separation of Silver occurs when point ‘O’ is reached.

3) Point ‘O’. At point ‘O’ no more Lead goes into solution as the
solution becomes saturated with respect to Lead & hence
the melting point of Silver do not fall.

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Along the Curve OA two phases, Solid Silver and Liquid Along the curve OB added Silver goes into solution and
(melt) are in equilibrium. So, P = 2 separation of Lead occurs when point ‘O’ is reached.
No. of Component (C ) = 2
By Reduced Phase Rule F = C + 1 –P
At point ‘O’ no more Silver goes into solution as the
=2+ 1–2 =1
solution becomes saturated with respect to Silver & hence
Hence the system is univariant.
the melting point of Lead do not fall.
Curve OB (Solid Lead Molten Liquid)
This is called the freezing point curve of Lead to which Along the Curve OB two phases, Solid Lead and Liquid
successive quantities of Silver are added. (melt) are in equilibrium. So, P = 2
No. of Component (C ) = 2
Point ‘B’ indicate the melting point of Pure Lead (327°C).
By Reduced Phase Rule F = C + 1 –P
Melting point of Lead is lowered gradually by the addition
=2+ 1–2 =1
of Silver to it.
Hence the system is univariant.

Study of Area: Number of Phases = 1

Area AOD and BOE Number of Component = 2
Degree of Freedom = C + 1 –P = 2 + 1 – 1 =2
Each area has two phases, Solid Silver + Liquid in area
AOD and Solid Lead + Liquid in area BOE. Hence the system is bivariant.
Number of Phases = 2
Number of Component = 2 Area below DOE (Pure Silver & Pure Lead)
Degree of Freedom = C + 1 –P = 2 + 1 – 2 =1 In this area only solid phase is present i.e. Pure Silver and
Pure Lead. So, No. of Phases (P) = 2
Hence the system is univariant.
Area above AOB (Liquid Phase) Number of Phases = 2
Number of Component = 2
In this area only liquid phase is present as the Degree of Freedom = C + 1 –P = 2 + 1 – 2 =1
temperature is above the melting point of any mixture i.e.
P=1 Hence the system is univariant.

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Study of Point ‘O’ [Eutectic Point]: Desilverisation of Lead (Pattinson’s Process)

At point ‘O’ the curve OA and OB meets Knowledge of Phase diagram of Lead & Silver is useful to
understand the process of desilverisation of Lead and
At point ‘O’ all the three phases i.e. Solid Silver, Solid Lead enrichment of silver in argentiferrous Lead.
and Fuses mass (Molten Liquid mixture) co-exist.
In the phase diagram of Pb-Ag the curve OB represent the
Number of Phases = 3 decrease of m.p. of Pb with different amount of Ag.
Number of Component = 2
Lowering of temperature of molten liquid result in the
Degree of Freedom = C + 1 –P = 2 + 1 – 3 =0
change in the composition of the two components till
Hence the system is invariant. constant composition (Eutectic Point “O”).

If the molten liquid of argentiferrous lead is cooled

gradually the solid lead will separate out. The crystalize
lead is removed by wooden ladles.

An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other

element.

Adding other elements to a metal changes its structure

and also changes its properties.

Alloys The final alloy may have very different properties to the
original metal.

By changing the amount of each element in an alloy, we

can custom-make alloys to fit a given job.

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Steel: Steel is a common example of Amalgam: An alloy of mercury and silver

an alloy. It contains iron mixed with or tin. It is used in filling dental fillings
carbon, nickle, chromium and other because it can be shaped when warm and
elements. resist corrosion.
Gold: Pure gold is soft, adding small
Brass: An alloy of copper and zinc. It
amount of other metals makes the gold
does not tarnish and is used for
hard enough to use in jewellery.
doors, knobs, buttons and musical
Alloying of gold with different metals
instruments.
affects it colour
Yellow gold is an alloy of gold with
Solder: An alloy of zinc and lead. It is
copper.
used in electronics to attach
White gold is an alloy of gold with nickle,
components to circuit boards.
platinium or palladium

The atoms in pure iron are

arranged in densely-packed layers.
These layers can slide over each
other. This makes pure iron a very
soft material. Classification of Alloy based on
The atoms of other elements are number of components
of different sizes. When other
elements are added to iron, their
atoms distort the regular
structure of the iron atoms.
Binary Ternary Quaternary
Alloy Alloy Alloy
It is more difficult for the layers
of iron atoms in steel to slide
over each other and so this alloy
is stronger than pure iron.

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Types of Alloys Properties of Alloys

Substitution Alloys: The atom of parent metal are Pure metals may posses useful properties like good
replaced with the atoms of other element having roughly electrical conductivity, high tensile strength, hardness,
same size. For e.g. Bronze, Brass. malleable, sharp melting point, heat resistance and
corrosion resistance.
Interstitial Alloys: The atom of parent metal are replaced
with the atoms of other element having different size. Alloys properties are different from those of its
For e.g. Steel. component elements.

Combined Alloys: Alloys that combine the mode of

formation substitution alloy and interstitial alloy. For e.g. Metal Alloys combine these beneficial properties in order
Stainless Steel. to create a metal that is more useful for a particular
application.

Significance of Alloying Lower the melting point: Pure metals have a high
melting point. The melting point lowers when pure
Pure metals possess few important physical and metals are alloyed with other metals or nonmetals.
metallic properties, such as melting point, boiling This makes the metals easily fusible. This property is
point, density, specific gravity, high malleability, utilized to make useful alloys called solders.
ductility, and heat and electrical conductivity. These
properties can be modified and enhanced by alloying it Enhance tensile strength: Alloy formation increases the
with some other metal or nonmetal, according to the tensile strength of the parent metal.
need.
Enhance corrosion resistance: Alloys are more
Alloy are made to: resistant to corrosion than pure metals. Metals in pure
Enhance the hardness of a metal: An alloy is harder form are chemically reactive and can be easily
than its components. Pure metals are generally soft. corroded by the surrounding atmospheric gases and
The hardness of a metal can be enhanced by alloying it moisture. Alloying a metal increases the inertness of
with another metal or nonmetal. the metal, which, in turn, increases corrosion
resistance.

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Modify color: The color of pure metal can be modified Ferrous Alloys
by alloying it with other metals or nonmetals containing
Ferrous alloys are iron based alloys that has extensive use
suitable color pigments.
in wide range of industries because of its flexibility to meet
Provide better castability: One of the most essential strength, toughness, and impact of diverse industrial
requirements of getting good castings is the expansion applications.
of the metal on solidification. Pure molten metals For Example: Carbon steels, Alloy steels, Stainless steels,
undergo contraction on solidification. Metals need to Tool steels, Cast iron, Cast steel, Maraging steel.
be alloyed to obtain good castings because alloys
expand.
Types of Ferrous Alloys
 Carbon steels are ferrous alloys that contain carbon
and small levels of other alloying elements, such as
manganese or aluminum.
 Alloy steels contain low to high levels of elements
such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium and nickel.

 Stainless steels are highly corrosion resistant, ferrous

alloys that contain chromium and/or nickel additions.
 Cast iron, a ferrous alloy, contains high amounts of
carbon. Ductile iron, gray iron and white cast iron grades
are types of cast iron.
 Cast steel alloy grades are made by pouring molten
iron into a mold. Nichrome

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Properties of Nichrome
Nichrome (NiCr, nickel-chrome, chrome-nickel, etc.) are
alloys of nickel, chromium, and often iron (and possibly Property Value
other elements or substances).
Modulus of Elasticity 2.2 × 1011 Pa
Density 8400 kg·m−3
Nichrome, a non-magnetic alloy that is commonly made
up of 80% nickel and 20% chromium, has very high Melting Point 1400°C
boiling point (~1400 °C) and high corrosion resistance.
Electrical Resistivity at Room (1.0—1.5) × 10−6 Ω·m
Temperature
The properties of nichrome vary depending on its alloy. Specific Heat 450 J·kg−1·K−1
Any variations are due to different percentages of
nickel or chromium. Thermal conductivity 11.3 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal Expansion 14 × 10−6 K−1

Uses of Nichrome  Nichrome is used in the explosives and fireworks

industry as a bridgewire in electric ignition systems,
 Any conductive wire can be used for heating, but most such as electric matches and model rocket igniters.
metals conduct electricity with great efficiency, requiring Industrial and hobby hot wire foam cutters (a tool used
them to be formed into very thin/ delicate wires in order to cut polystyrene foam) use nichrome wire.
to create enough resistance to generate heat. Once Nichrome wire is commonly used in ceramics as an
heated, most metals then oxidize quickly, become brittle, internal support structure to help some elements of
and break when heated in air.
claysculptures hold their shape while they are still soft.
Nichrome wire is used for its ability to withstand the high
 When heated to red hot temperatures, nichrome wire, temperatures that occur when clay work is fired in a.
however, develops an outer layer of chromium
Nichrome wire can be used as an alternative to
oxide, thermodynamically stable in air, mostly impervious
platinum wire for flame testing by colouring the non-
to oxygen, and protects the heating element from further
luminous part of a flame to detect cations such as
oxidation.
sodium, potassium, copper, calcium etc.

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Nickle based superalloys are Ni base, Ni-Fe base, Ni-Co

base having high concentration of Cr with Ti and Al in
addition to Mo, Co, B, Fe.

Stainless Steel

Steel is an iron based alloy that contains carbon less than Based on Carbon content
1.2%.
Properties of Stainless Steel
When Chromium is added to steel the alloy is called
Stainless Steel (12% - 30%). High Oxidation Resistance.

Classification of Stainless Steel Acid and Alkali Resistant

Based on lattice arrangements Poor Conductor of Electricity
Ferritic (bcc)- Below 910°C is High Toughness and ductility
stable
Austenitic (fcc)- From 910°C
to 1390°C is stable
Martenistic (bct)- Above
1390°C is stable.

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Dr Manoj Acharya 31 August 2023

Uses of Stainless Steel

Architectural Use

Thank
You

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