Communication Lab 18ECL67

CONTENT
Course Learning objectives:
This course will enable students to
 Design and test the communication Circuits for different analog
modulation Techniques.
 Design and test the digital modulation Techniques.
 Design and measure the wave propagation in microstrip antennas.
 Characteristics of microstrip devices and measurement of its
parameters.
 Understand the Probability of error computations of coherent digital
modulation schemes.

Sl. No Experiment Name

Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation:

1.
i) Standard AM
ii) DSBSC (LM741 and LF398 ICs can be used)
2. Frequency modulation and demodulation (IC 8038/2206 can be used)
3. Pulse Sampling, flat top sampling and reconstruction.
4. Time division multiplexing and demultiplexing of 2 band limited signals.
5. FSK and PSK generation and detection.
Measurements of frequency, guide wavelength, power, VSWR and
6.
attenuation in a microwave test bench.
Obtain the Radiation pattern and Measurement of directivity and gain
7. of Microstrip Dipole and Yagi Uda antennas antennas.

Determination of
(a) coupling and isolation characteristics of a microstrip directional
8. coupler.
(b) Resonance characteristics of a microstrip ring resonator and computation
of dielectric constant of the substrate.

HKBKCE 1 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

(c) Power division and isolation of microstrip 3 db power divider

PART B
Sl. No Experiment Name
1. To Simulate NRZ,RZ, Half Sinusoid and Raised Cosine Pulses
and generate eye diagram for binary polar signaling.
2. Pulse code modulation and demodulation system..

3. Computation of the Probability of bit error for coherent binary ASK,FSK

and PSK for an AWGN channel and compare them with their performance
curves.
4. Digital Modulation Schemes (i) DPSK Transmitter and Receiver (ii) QPSK
Transmitter and Receiver.
1. PCM generation and detection using a codec chip

2. Measurement of directivity and gain of antennas: microstrip patch antenna

QUESTION BANK

VIVA QUESTIONS

HKBKCE 2 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Cycle-1
Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation:
1.
iii) Standard AM
iv) DSBSC (LM741 and LF398 ICs can be used)
2. Frequency modulation and demodulation (IC 8038/2206 can be used)
3. Pulse Sampling, flat top sampling and reconstruction.
4. Time division multiplexing and demultiplexing of 2 band limited signals.
5. FSK and PSK generation and detection.

Cycle-2
Measurements of frequency, guide wavelength, power, VSWR and
6.
attenuation in a microwave test bench.
Obtain the Radiation pattern and Measurement of directivity and gain
7. of Microstrip Dipole and Yagi Uda antennas antennas.

Determination of
(a) coupling and isolation characteristics of a microstrip directional
8. coupler.
(b) Resonance characteristics of a microstrip ring resonator and computation
of dielectric constant of the substrate.

Cycle-3
1. To Simulate NRZ,RZ, Half Sinusoid and Raised Cosine Pulses
and generate eye diagram for binary polar signaling.
2. Pulse code modulation and demodulation system..

3. Computation of the Probability of bit error for coherent binary ASK,FSK

and PSK for an AWGN channel and compare them with their performance
curves.
4. Digital Modulation Schemes (i) DPSK Transmitter and Receiver (ii) QPSK
Transmitter and Receiver.

HKBKCE 3 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

AMPLITUDE MODULATION: (i) Standard AM

Aim: a) To design and construct the Collector Amplitude Modulation circuit for a given
carrier frequency (say 455 kHz) and modulation frequency (say 1 kHz).
b) To study the variation in modulation index as a function of modulating voltage
amplitude.

Components Required: Audio Frequency Transformer (AFT), Radio Frequency

Transformer (IFT), Capacitor 0.01µF (2), Transistor (BF-194), Resistors (120Ω, 470 KΩ),
Fixed Power Supply + 5 V, CRO, Signal Generator.

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 1: Amplitude Modulation circuit

HKBKCE 4 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Pin diagram of BF194

Design:

Biasing circuit for class C operation

RC>> 1/fc, where fc is the carrier frequency.
Let C = 0.01μf
Let RC = 1000/fc
Then R = 1000 / (455x1000x0.01x10-6) = 470kΩ

Procedure:

1. The circuit is connected as shown in figure 1.

2. The output and gain of the circuit tuned to carrier is checked without the modulating
signal.
3. The modulating signal is switched on and the amplitude is adjusted to about two
volts and frequency to less than or equal to 1 kHz to obtain an undistorted AM wave.
4. Keeping the carrier amplitude constant, the modulating signal amplitude is varied in
appropriate steps and the Modulation index, m is calculated as shown below.
%m= [(Emax – Emin)/ (Emax + Emin)] x100
Also the modulated power with and without modulation is calculated.

HKBKCE 5 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Tabular Column:

Modulat E E Modula Total power

ma mi tion
ing x n
Pt = Pc(1 +
Signal vo vo Index, m2/2)
Amplitu lts lts %m watts
de
volts

Calculation:
Total power, Pt = Pc(1 + m2/2) where Pc is the carrier power . RL= 1K
Pc = (Emax + Emin)2/8RL

Unmodulated power, Pt = Pc and m = 0, Emax = Emin = Ec

 Pt = Ec2/8RL

HKBKCE 6 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Waveforms:

Result:

HKBKCE 7 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

(b).ENVELOPE DETECTOR

Aim: To construct an envelope detector circuit for an input AM signal and obtain the
detector characteristics

Components Required: Diode 0A79, capacitor 0.01µF (1), Resistor 10K (1).

Circuit Diagram:

Design:
Consider Fc=50kHz, Fm=10kHz (Fc>>Fm)
1/fc≤ RL C ≤1/W (W=message BW=Fm)
Let C=0.01μF
When RL C =1/Fm
RL =10k
When RL C=1/Fc
RL =2k
Hence Choose RL between 2k to 10k

Procedure:
1. The circuit is connected as shown.
2. AM input is applied from the function
HKBKCE 8 generator Department of ECE
 Communication Lab 18ECL67

3. The modulation index is varied in steps and Emax , Emin are noted from the Modulated
input signal. Also the corresponding AF (Audio frequency output) is noted at each step

Tabular Column:

Emax Emin AF Modulation

volts volts output Index, %m
volts

Calculations:
%m= [(Emax – Emin)/ (Emax + Emin)] x10

Waveform:

HKBKCE 9 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Trapezoidal Pattern:

E MAX EMIN

Result:

HKBKCE 10 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

(ii) DSBSC

Balanced Modulator

Aim:
To generate AM-Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal.

Components Required:
IC 1496, Resistors (6.8KΩ, 10 KΩ, 3.9KΩ, 1KΩ, 51 KΩ), Capacitor (0.1 μF), Variable
Resistor/Linear Pot (0-50KΩ), CRO, Function Generator, Regulated Power Supply

Theory:
Balanced modulator is used for generating DSB-SC signal. A balanced modulator
Consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged in a balanced configuration so
as to suppress the carrier wave. The two modulators are identical except the reversal of
sign of the modulating signal applied to them.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1. Balanced Modulator Circuit

HKBKCE 11 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1.
2. A Carrier signal of 1Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 83 KHz is applied as carrier
to pin no.10.
3. An AF signal of 0.5Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 5 KHz is given as message
Signal to pin no.1.
4. Observe the DSB-SC waveform at pin no.12.
5. Observe Phase reversal in DSB-SC Signal occurring at the zero crossing of
Modulating signal.

Sample readings:

Signal AMPLITUDE (Volts) Frequency (Hz)

Message signal 0.5V 5 KHz
Carrier signal 1V 83.3KHz
DSB-SC Signal 1.92V p-p ---------

Waveforms:

HKBKCE 12 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Result:

HKBKCE 13 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
FREQUENCY MODULATION

Aim: To obtain frequency modulation using IC 2206.

Components Required: IC-2206, Resistor 100KΩ (1), 150Ω (1), 47KΩ (2), 4.7KΩ (1),
22KΩ, Capacitor 0.1μf (1), 10nf (2), 10μf (1), Fixed Power Supply +12V,0,-12V, CRO, Signal
Generator.

Circuit Diagram

HKBKCE 14 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Design:
Let the frequency of oscillation fo = 1KHZ
fo = 1 / R7C
Select R7 = 100KΩ
To get C = 10nF

Let the output sine wave amplitude be 0.75V p-p

Therefore R3 = 4.7KΩ
(Since for each KΩ value of R3 , the output will be approximately 160mV) For sinusoidal FM
generation the switch between 13 & 14 is to be closed with a small resistance.
Let R = 150Ω
Let the FM output be switched between two frequencies f1=1 kHz and f2 = 2 kHz
Therefore f1 = 1 / R7C &
f2 = 1 / R8C
Using f1, f2 and C values in above equations,
R7 = 100KΩ
R8 = 47KΩ

Procedure:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Without giving the modulating signal m (t) to the input of the frequency modulator,
observe the undistorted sinusoidal carrier wave output generated at the output point (pin
no.2) and measure the frequency of the carrier signal fc .
3. Apply a modulating signal m (t) of maximum voltage amplitude Vm of 5 volt (peak-to
peak) and frequency fm of 1 kHz at the modulation input of the frequency modulator.
4. From the FM signal waveform displayed on the CRO, measure the maximum frequency
fmax and minimum frequency, fmin present in the FM wave
5. Calculate the maximum frequency deviation fmax and fmin from the center carrier
frequency fc according to the formula:

HKBKCE 15 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Δf = (f max – fc) = (fc – f min)

6. Calculate the frequency modulation index  from the formula:
β = Δf / f m ; where fm is frequency of modulating signal.
7. Calculate the bandwidth of operation BT from the formula:
BT = 2 ( Δf + fm ).

Waveforms:

Result:

HKBKCE 16 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
PULSE SAMPLING & FLAT TOP SAMPLING
Aim: To demonstrate Pulse sampling, Flat top sampling and reconstruction

Components Required: IC LF398, 47KΩ resistor, 0.01µF capacitor, Power supply,Signal

generator, CRO Probes and CRO.

Theory:
There are two types of signal exist, continuous time signal and discrete time signals. In
spite of having large number of continuous time signal we prefer processing of discrete
signal. Thus conversion of continuous to discrete time signal is required. This
phenomenon is obtained by fundamental mathematical fool known as Sampling
Theorem. Here in this post, we emphases the concept of Sampling, Sampling theorem,
Sampling techniques and its effects in details.

Sampling is the process of converting analog signal into a discrete signal or making an
analog or continuous signal to occur at a particular interval of time, this phenomena is
known as sampling.

Sampling Theorem:-Sampling theorem states that a band limited signal having no

frequency components higher than fm hertz can be sampled if its sampling freq is
equal to or greater than Nyquist rate.

Sampling Techniques:

There are basically three types of Sampling techniques, namely:

1. Natural Sampling
2. Flat top Sampling
3. Ideal Sampling

1. Natural Sampling:
Natural Sampling is a practical method of sampling in which pulse have finite width
equal to τ. Sampling is done in accordance with the carrier signal which is digital in
nature.

2. Flat Top Sampling:

Flat top sampling is like natural sampling i.e: practical in nature. In comparison to
natural sampling flat top sampling can be easily obtained. In this sampling techniques,
the top of the samples remains constant and is equal to the instantaneous value of the

HKBKCE 17 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

message signal x(t) at the start of sampling process. Sample and hold circuit are used
in this type of sampling.

Procedure:
1. Build the circuit as shown below. Use a signal generator to generate analog input
and sampling (square wave signal). The analog input will be set to 1 kHz Sine wave
(or triangular wave) and sampling signal will be 15-20 kHz Square-wave of 80% duty
cycle.
2. Turn on the supply of the circuit and enable signal generator that is feeding signal to
the circuit. Connect the DSO probe – CH1 at analog input (pin # 3 of LF398IC), CH2
at sampling signal input (pin # 8 of LF398 IC) and CH3 at output (pin # 5 of the
LF398 IC), Perform Auto set on DSO and capture the output signal.

3•Configure PEAK-to-PEAK measurement on the input and output signal. Record the
measurement and Observe – input, output on DSO.

Flat top Sampling

1. Now modify the circuit as shown in fig 2 (to get flat-top sampled signals)
2. Use a signal generator to generate analog input and sampling (square wave signal).
The analog input will be set to 1 kHz Sine wave(or triangular wave) and sampling signal
will be 15-20 kHz Square-wave of 20% duty cycle.
3. Turn of the supply of the circuit and enable signal generator that is feeding signal to
the circuit.
4. Connect the DSO probe – CH1 at analog input (pin # 3 of LF398IC), CH2 at sampling
signal input (pin # 8 of LF398 IC) and CH3 at output (pin # 5 of the LF398 IC).

5. Perform Auto set on DSO and capture the output signal. Configure PEAK-to-PEAK
measurement on the input and output Signal

8. Record the measurement and Observe – input and output on DSO and record the signal

HKBKCE 18 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Circuit diagram for Pulse Sampling ( Natural Sampling)

Circuit diagram for Flat top Sampling

Figure2: The circuit used to generate ‘flat top sampled’ waveform

HKBKCE 19 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Expected waveform for Natural Sampling

Expected waveform for flat top Sampling

HKBKCE 20 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Result:

HKBKCE 21 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING OF TWO BAND LIMITED SIGNALS
AIM: To demonstrate the multiplexing and demultiplexing of two band limited signals using
discrete components and also to observe and record the waveform.
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: Transistor- SL100, SK100, Resistor-
1K & 10K, Capacitor- 1 F, IC 741, Signal Generator, CRO, Power Supply- +/- 15V, Bread
Board, Wires and probes

THEORY:
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is widely used in digital communication
networks to transmit multiple signals simultaneously through the same channel. Different
signals are transmitted in a time shared manner. Each signal is allotted a fixed time slot
and a sample of the corresponding signal is transmitted during that period. After one
sample each of all the signals is sent, the time slot is given back to the first signal and this
process repeats.

TDM Multiplexer
A simple TDM multiplexer circuit using an NPN-PNP transistor pair and an Op
amp is shown in figure. The transistors work as switches and the Op amp works as an
adder. The signals to be sent are fed to the collectors of the two transistors. The switching
signal is applied to the bases the transistors. During the ON time of the switching signal,
the NPN transistor is ON and the PNP transistor is OFF. Signal 1 alone is connected to
the adder input and reaches the output. During OFF time of the switching signal, the NPN
transistor is OFF and the PNP transistor is ON. Signal 2 alone is connected to the adder
input and reaches the output. Thus the two signals reach the output one after the other as
the switching signal changes state. The resulting signal is a time division multiplexed one.
The on-off period of the switching signal decides the time slot.

TDM Demultiplexer
In the demodulator circuit the two transistors act as switches. They connect the input TDM
signal to the respective outputs alternately as the switching signal changes state. A square
wave signal with the same phase and frequency as the one used at the TDM modulator is
used as the switching signal. During the ON time of the switching signal, the NPN
transistor is ON and the PNP transistor is OFF. TDM input is now connectedto signal 1
output. During the OFF time of the switching signal, the NPN transistor is OFF and the
PNP transistor is ON. TDM input is now connected to signal 2 output. The RC networks
act as low pass filters.

PROCEDURE:
• Test all the components and probes.
• Set up the circuits on the bread board as shown in figure.
• Connect 5Vpp, 2KHz square wave signal as the switching input.

HKBKCE 22 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

• Connect 2Vpp, 100Hz sine wave as signal 1 and 2Vpp, 100Hz square wave as signal
2.
• Observe the TDM output on CRO and plot the waveforms.
• Feed this TDM output to the input of the demultiplexer. Use the same square
wave signal used at the modulator as the switching signal.
• Observe signal 1 and signal 2 outputs of the demultiplexer on CRO.
• Plot the waveforms.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TDM Multiplexer

Figure. 1(b)

TDM Demultiplexer

Figure. 1(b)
HKBKCE 23 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

WAVEFORM:

Figure. 1(c)

RESULT:

HKBKCE 24 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMEMT NO. 5

FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING GENERATION AND DETECTION

FSK MODULATION

AIM: FSK generation and detection.

APPARATUS: Transistor SL100 and SK100, resistors, capacitors, op amp μA 741, 0A79
diode, Power supply, CRO.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure. 3 (a)
HKBKCE 25 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

DESIGN:
Ic = 2.5mA
VRE = 2.5V
RE = VRE / IE = 2.5 / 2.5mA = RE = 1KΩ
VRB = Vm(t)p-p / 2 –VBE(sat) – VRE(sat)
= 3.5 – 0.7 – 2.5
VRB = 0.3V
Ib = Ic / hfe = 2.5 / 100 = 2.5µA
Ib(sat) = 1.2Ib
Ibsat = 30µA
RB = Vrb / Ibsat = 0.3 / 30 = Rb = 10KΩ

FSK DEMODULATOR:

Figure. 3(b)

HKBKCE 26 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

fm = 1 / 2RC
C = 0.1µF
R = 15.9KΩ
fm = 100Hz
fc1 = 1 / 2R1C1
fc1 = 1 KHz
R1 = 1.59 KΩ
C1 = 0.1µF

PROCEDURE:

Modulation:

1. Connection is made as shown in circuit diagram [figure. 2(c)]

2. The modulating signal m(t) is chosen to be low freq (50 Hz to 300Hz) square wave.
3. The 10K pot is varied so as to get proper FSK output.
4. Record the results by tracing the waveforms obtained.

Demodulation:

1. Rig up the circuit as shown in figure 2 (d).

2. Feed the FSK input from the FSK modulator output to the OPAMP peak detector.
3. Adjust the reference voltage suitably (between 0 to 1 Volt) to get an undistorted
demodulated output. Compare it with the data input used in modulation. Record all the
waveforms as observed

HKBKCE 27 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

WAVE FORMS:

MODULATION WAVEFORMS:

HKBKCE 28 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

DEMODULATION WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:

HKBKCE 29 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

PHASE SHIFT KEYING GENERATION AND DETECTION

AIM: To study Phase Shift keying generation and detection.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Transistor SL100, resistor, capacitor, OP Amp µA 741, signal

generator, diode.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PSK MODULATOR:

Figure. 4(a)

HKBKCE 30 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure above.

2. Give square wave signal frequency 200 to 500Hz and 5V peak-to-peak amplitude as the
binary digital data input.
3. The carrier signal of frequency 2 to 5KHz sine wave is applied
4. Observe the PSK output waveform obtained on the CRO.
5. Connect the PSK signal to the PSK demodulator circuit shown in figure below and also
the carrier.
6. Observe the demodulated output of the decision logic on the CRO. Compare this with
the original modulating signal used in the PSK modulator. Record the results.

PSK DEMODULATOR:

Figure. 4(b)

HKBKCE 31 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:

HKBKCE 32 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 6

MEASUREMENTS OF FREQUENCY, GUIDE WAVELENGTH, POWER, VSWR AND

ATTENUATION IN A MICROWAVE TEST BENCH.

AIM: Measurements of Frequency, Guide Wavelength, Power, VSWR and Attenuation in a

Microwave Test Bench

COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Micro Wave Test Bench, CRO, VSWR meter, Klystron
power supply, cooling fan, wave guide stand, matched termination, detector mount, cables.

SET UP OF MICROWAVE TEST BENCH:

Tunable
VSWR
probe
Meter

Klystron Klystron Variable Frequency Slotted

Isolator
power Mount attenuator meter line Termination
supply

Movable
short
Figure. 5(a)

THEORY:

For dominnant TE10 mode rectangular wave guide λo, λg, λc are related as below:
1/λo2 = 1/λg 2 + 1/ λc2
Where λo is free space wavelength
λg is guide wavelength
λc is cutoff wavelength
For TE10 mode, λc, = 2a where ‘a’ is broad dimension of waveguide.

HKBKCE 33 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure.
2. Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as given below:
Range : 50 db
Input switch : crystal low impedance
Meter switch : Normal position
Gain (coarse & fine) : mid position
4. keep the control knobs of Klystron power supply as given below
Beam voltage : OFF
Mod – switch : AM
Beam voltage knob : fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage : fully clockwise
AM – Amplitude knob : fully clockwise
AM –Frequency knob : fully clockwise
5. Switch ‘NO’ the Klystron power supply, VSWR meter, and cooling fan switch.
6. Switch ‘NO’ Beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300 V with help of beam
voltage knob.
7. Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power
supply.
9. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum deflection.
10. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
11. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
12. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘Dip’ on the VSWR scale and note down the
frequency directly from the frequency meter.
13. Replace the termination with movable sort, and detune the frequency meter.
14. Move the probe along the slotted line. The deflection in VSWR meter will vary. Move
the probe to minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading. If necessary increase
the VSWR meter range db switch to higher position. Note and record the probe position.

HKBKCE 34 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

15. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again.
16. Calculate the guide wavelength as twice the distance between two successive minimum
positions obtained as above.
17. Measure the wave guide inner broad dimension, ‘a’ which will be around 22.86 mm for
X- band.
18. Calculate the frequency by following equation.
F = C/ λ
Where C= 3* 108 meter / sec. i.e. velocity of light and 1/λo2 = 1/λg 2 + 1/ λc2
19. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency meter.
20. Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.

CALCULATIONS:

Guide Wavelength:
(i) λg 1 = 2( dmin 1≈ dmin 2)
(ii) λg 2 = 2( dmin 1≈ dmin 2)

VSWR:
(i) VSWR 1 = Vmax / Vmin

(ii) VSWR 2 = Vmax / Vmin

Frequency:

F = C/ λ = C*
λg λc
Where

C= 3* 108 meter / sec

λo = λg λc

RESULT:
HKBKCE 35 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 7

MEASUREMENTS OF DIRECTIVITY AND GAIN OF ANTENNAS: STANDARD

DIPOLE (OR PRINTED DIPOLE), MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA AND YAGI
ANTENNA (PRINTED).

AIM: To find the directivity and gain of Antenna.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Microwave Generator
2. SWR Meter
3. Detector
4. RF Amplifier
5. Transmitter and receiving mast
6. Mains cord
7. Antennas

o Yagi Antenna (Dielectric Constant: 4.7) - 2 no.

o Dipole Antenna (Dielectric Constant: 4.7) - 1 no.
o Patch Antenna (Dielectric Constant: 3.02) - 1 no.

THEORY:

If a transmission line propagating energy is left open at one end, there will be radiation from this
end. The Radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field strength or more often the power
intensity as a function of the aspect angle at a constant distance from the radiating antenna. An
antenna pattern is of course three dimensional but for practical reasons it is normally presented
as a two dimensional pattern in one or several planes. An antenna pattern consists of several
lobes, the main lobe, side lobes and the back lobe. The major power is concentrated in the main
lobe and it is required to keep the power in the side lobes arid back lobe as low as possible. The
power intensity at the maximum of the main lobe compared to the power intensity achieved from
an imaginary omni-directional antenna (radiating equally in all directions) with the same power
fed to the antenna is defined as gain of the antenna.

As we know that the 3dB beam width is the angle between the two points on a main lobe where
the power intensity is half the maximum power intensity. When measuring an antenna pattern,

HKBKCE 36 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

it is normally most interesting to plot the pattern far from the antenna. It is also very important

to avoid disturbing reflection. Antenna measurements are normally made at anechoic chambers
made of absorbing materials. Antenna measurements are mostly made with unknown antenna as
receiver. There are several methods to measure the gain of antenna. One method is to compare
the unknown antenna with a standard gain antenna with known gain. Another method is to use
two identical antennas, as transmitter and other as receiver. From following formula the gain can
be calculated.

Where

Pt is transmitted power

Pr is received Power,

G1, G2 is gain of transmitting and receiving antenna

S is the radial distance between two antennas

o is free space wave length.

If both, transmitting and receiving antenna are identical having gain G then above equation
becomes.

HKBKCE 37 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

In the above equation Pt, Pr and S and o can be measured and gain can be computed. As is
evident from the above equation, it is not necessary to know the absolute value of P t and Pr only
ratio is required which can be measured by SWR meter.

SETUP FOR DIRECTIVITY MEASUREMENT

Figure. 6(a)

PROCEDURE:

Directivity Measurement:
1. Connect a mains cord to the Microwave Generator and SWR Meter.
2. Now connect a Yagi antenna in horizontal plane to the transmitter mast and connect it
to the RF Output of microwave generator using a cable (SMA to SMA).
3. Set both the potentiometer (Mod Freq & RF Level) at fully clockwise position.
4. Now take another Yagi antenna and RF Amplifier from the given suitcase.
5. Connect the input terminal of the Amplifier to the antenna in horizontal plane using an
SMA (male) to SMA (female) L Connector.
6. Now connect the output of the Amplifier to the input of Detector and mount the detector
at the Receiving mast.
7. Connect one end of the cable (BNC to BNC) to the bottom side of receiving mast, and
another end to the input of SWR meter.
8. Now set the distance between Transmitter (feed point) and the receiver (receiving point)
at half meter.

HKBKCE 38 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Figure. 6(b)

9. Now set the receiving antenna at zero degree (in line of Transmitter) and Switch on the
power supply for Microwave Generator, SWR Meter. Also connect DC Adapter of RF
Amplifier to the mains.
10. Select the transmitter for internal AM mode and press the switch “RF On”.
11. Select the range switch at SWR meter at – 40dB position with normal mode.
12. Set both the gain potentiometers (Coarse & Fine) at fully clockwise position and input
select switch should be at 200 Ohm position. In case if reading is not available at – 40dB
range then press 200 kOhm (Input Select) to get high gains reading.

HKBKCE 39 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

13. Now set any value of received gain at – 40dB position with the help of -
o Frequency of the Microwave Generator.
o Modulation frequency adjustment.
o Adjusting the distance between Transmitter and Receiver.
14. With these adjustments you can increase or decrease the gain.
15. Mark the obtained reading on the radiation pattern plot at zero degree position.
16. Now slowly move the receiver antenna in the steps of 10 degree and plot the
corresponding readings.
17. Using the formula, Directivity = 41253/ (E x H) Determining the directive gain of the
antenna. Where E is the E plane 3db beam width in degrees and H in the H plane.
18. Directivity of the antenna is the measures of power density an actual antenna radiates in
the direction of its strongest emission, so if the maximum power of antenna (in dB) is
received at θ degree then directivity will be ....................dB at ........................ Degree.
19. In the same way you can measure the directivity of the Dipole antenna.
20. For directivity measurement of the transformer fed Patch antenna connect transmitter
Yagi antenna in the vertical plane (Patch Antenna is vertically polarized). Since it is
comparatively low gain antenna distance can be reduced between transmitter and
receiver.

HKBKCE 40 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Radiation Patterns of Different Antennas:

90
90

-60 -56 -52 -48 -44

180

0
60 -56 -52 -48 -44
180

Yagi Antenna Patch Antenna

90

-60 -56 -52 -48 -44

180

Dipole Antenna

Figure. 6(c)

HKBKCE 41 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Gain Measurement:
1. Connect a power cable to the Microwave Generator and SWR Meter.
2. Now connect a Yagi antenna in horizontal plane to the transmitter mast and connect it
to the RF Output of microwave generator using a cable (SMA to SMA).
3. Set both the potentiometer (Mod Freq & RF Level) at fully clockwise position.
4. Now take another Yagi antenna from the given suitcase.
5. Connect this antenna to the detector with the help of SMA (male) to SMA (female) L
Connector.
6. Connect detector to the receiving mast.
7. Connect one end of the cable (BNC to BNC) to the bottom side of receiving mast, and
another end to the input of SWR meter.
8. Now set the distance between Transmitter (feed point) and the receiver (receiving point)
at half meter.
9. Now set the receiving antenna at zero degree (in line of Transmitter) and Switch on the
power from both Generator & SWR Meter.
10. Select the transmitter for internal AM mode and press the switch “RF On”.
11. Select the range switch at SWR meter at – 40dB position with normal mode.
12. Set both the gain potentiometers (Coarse & Fine) at fully clockwise position and input
select switch should be at 200 Ohm position. In case if reading is not available at – 40dB
range then press 200 kOhm (Input Select) to get high gain reading.
13. Now set the maximum gain in the meter with the help of following -
o Frequency of the Microwave Generator.
o Modulation frequency adjustment.
o Adjusting the distance between Transmitter and Receiver.
14. Measure and record the received power in dB.
Pr =.................. dB
15. Now remove the detector from the receiving end and also remove the transmitting Yagi
antenna from RF output.
16. Now connect the RF output directly to detector without disturbing any setting of the
transmitter (SMA-F to SMA-F connector can be used for this).
17. Observe the output of detector on SWR meter that will be the transmitting power Pt.

HKBKCE 42 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Pt = ................. dB

18. Calculate the difference in dB between the power measured in step 14 and 17 which
will be the power ratio Pt/Pr.
Pt/Pr =........................
Pr/Pt =........................
19. Now we know that the formula for Gain of the antenna is:

Where:

Pt is transmitted power

Pr is received Power,

G is gain of transmitting/receiving antenna (since we have used two identical antennas)

S is the radial distance between two antennas

o is free space wave length (approximately 12.5cm).

20. Now put the measured values in the above formula and measure the gain of the antenna
which will be same for both the antennas. Now after this step you can connect one known
gain antenna at transmitter end and the antenna under test at receiver end, to measure the
gain of the antennas.

21. Gain can be measured with the help of absolute power meter also (Recommended Model
NV105). For this, detector will not be used and directly the power sensor can be connected
to both the ends as described earlier.

RESULT:

HKBKCE 43 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 8(a)

DETERMINATION OF COUPLING AND ISOLATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF A STRIPLINE (OR MICROSTRIP)
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
AIM: determination of coupling and isolation characteristics of a stripline (or microstrip)
directional coupler

COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Microwave signal source with modulation (1 KHz) and

frequency (2 – 3 GHz)

1. VSWR meter

2. Parallel line microstrip directional coupler (DUT).

3. Detector

4. Matched loads

5. Cables and adapters

Provided in the Kit, is a parallel line (backward wave) directional coupler (15dB). The impedance
of input/output lines is 50. The length of the parallel coupled line region is quarter wavelength
at the centre frequency (around 2.4 GHz). The ports are decoupled by bending the auxiliary line
and main line at either ends of the parallel coupled section. For the experiment, anyone of the
ports can be chosen as the input port. With respect to this input port, identify the direct output
port (port 2), the coupled port (port 3) and the isolated port (port 4). Measurement of coupling
involves measuring the transmission response between the input port (port 1) and the coupled
port (port 3). Similarly, measurement of isolation of the coupler involves measuring the
transmission response between the input port and the isolated port (port4). While making the
measurement between any two ports, the remaining two ports will have to be terminated in
matched loads.

HKBKCE 44 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

LAYOUT OF A PARALLEL LINE (3db) DIRECTIONAL COUPLER:

Figure. 7(a)

TEST BENCH SET UP FOR MEASURING THE TRANSMISSION LOSS OF DUT

Figure. 7(b)

HKBKCE 45 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

PROCEDURE:
1. Assemble the set up shown in Fig. 1. Connect the output of the frequency meter directly
to the directional coupler (connect P to Q directly).

2. Switch on the source and the VSWR meter.(Before switching on the source, ensure that
there is sufficient attenuation to keep the RF output low) Set the frequency of the source
to 2.2 GHz. Adjust the power output of the source for a reasonable power indication on
the VSWR meter. Note the reading of the VSWR meter. Increase the frequency of the
source in steps of 0.1 GHz to 3 GHz and note the corresponding readings of the VSWR
meter.

3. Record the Frequencies in column 1 and VSWR meter readings (P indB) in column 2 of
Table 1. This is the reference input power.

4. Insert the parallel line coupler (DUT) between P and Q with input port (port 1) connected
to P and the coupled port (port 3) to Q. Terminate ports 2 and 4 of the parallel line coupler
in matched loads. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at the above frequencies as
P3out dB in column 3 of Table 1.

5. In order to determine the isolation property of the coupler, connect port 4 to the output
end (at Q). Record the readings of the VSWR meter at the same frequencies as P 4out dB in
column 4 of the Table.

Coupling, Isolation and Directivity of Parallel Line Microstrip Coupler

VSWR meter Coupling Directivity

Freq. readings dB) Isolation
C (dB) = D (dB) =
f(GHz) S41(dB)
S31(dB) S43(dB)
Pin P3out P4out
2.0
2.1
:
:
3.0

Table. 7.1

HKBKCE 46 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

CALCULATIONS:
Coupling in dB = Pin (dB) - P3out (dB). Denote this coupling as C (dB) = S31 (dB) and enter at
column 5 of Table 1.

Isolation in dB = Pin (dB) - P4out (dB). Denote this loss as S41 (dB) and enter at column 6 of the
Table 1.

Directivity in dB = Isolation (dB) - Coupling (dB). Enter this as D (dB) = S43 (dB) at column 7
of the Table 1.

6. The above procedure can be repeated by using Branchline (3db) Directional Coupler
and the readings are recorded in the table 2.

Figure. 7(c)

Coupling and Isolation

Power at direct output port in dB = Pin (dB) - P2out (dB). Denote this loss as S21 (dB) and enter
at column 6 of Table 2.

Coupling C (dB) = Pin (dB) - P3out (dB). Denote this coupling loss as S31 (dB) and enter at
column 7 of Table 2.

Isolation in dB = Pin (dB) - P4out (dB). Denote this loss as S41 (dB) and enter at column 8 of the
Table 2.

HKBKCE 47 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Directivity D (dB) = P30ut (dB) - P4out (dB). Denote this as S43 (dB) and enter at column 9 of the
Table 2.

Coupling, Isolation and Directivity of 3dB Branchline Coupler

VSWR meter readings (dB) Direct

Freq. Coupling Isolation Directivity
output
f (GHz) Pin P2out P3out P4out S31(dB) S41(dB) S43(dB)
S21 (dB)
2.0
2.1
:
:
:
3.0

Table.7. 2

RESULT:

HKBKCE 48 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 8 (b)

MEASUREMENTS OF RESONANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A
MICROSTRIP RING RESONATOR AND DETERMINATION OF
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF THE SUBSTRATE

AIM: Measurement of Substrate Dielectric Constant using Ring Resonator and determine the
relative dielectric constant r of the substrate. The known parameters are,
Strip conductor width (in the ring) w = 1.847 mm
Height of the substrate h = 0.762 mm
Mean radius of the ring ro = 12.446 mm

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Microwave signal source (2.2 GHz) with modulation (1 KHz)
Attenuator pad
VSWR meter
Frequency meter
Items from the Kit
 Microstrip ring resonator (DUT).
 Detector
 Matched load
 Cables and adapters

THEORY OF RING RESONATOR:

The open-end effect encountered in a rectangular resonator at the feeding gaps can be minimized
by forming the resonator as a closed loop. Such a resonator is called a ring resonator. The figure
shown below is the layout of a ring resonator along with the input and output feed lines.
Resonance is established when the mean circumference of the ring is equal to integral multiples
of guide wavelength.

2r0  n  ,
For n = 1, 2, 3…...

HKBKCE 49 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Where ro is the mean radius of the ring and n is the mode number. The microstrip ring resonator
has the lowest order resonance for n = 1,for frequency range 2 - 3 GHz. For this mode, the field
maxima occur at the two coupling gaps and nulls occur at 90 locations from the coupling gaps.

Layout with curved input and output feed line

Figure.7(d)

TEST BENCH SET UP FOR MEASURING RESONANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A

MICROSTRIP RING RESONATOR AND DETERMINATION OF DIELECTRIC
CONSTANT OF THE SUBSTRATE

Figure. 7(e)

HKBKCE 50 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

PROCEDURE:
1. The transmission loss response of the resonator can be measured using the Test Bench
set up given at Fig. 1.

2. Tabulate the results as per Table 1 at frequencies from 2.2 to 3 GHz in steps of 0.1GHz.

3. Plot the transmission loss in dB as a function of frequency. Identify a smaller frequency

span of about 200 MHz around the minimum transmission loss. In this frequency range,
repeat the measurements in smaller frequency steps (steps of 20 MHz) and locate the
frequency at which the transmission loss reaches a minimum. This is the resonant
frequency f0 of the resonator as show in figure 2.

4. An approximate expression for determining the effective dielectric constant of a Ring

resonator theoretically is given by,

Which can be verified practically using the expression given below.

n 0
2r0  n  , for n = 1, 2,3…..
f0

VSWR meter reading VSWR meter reading

Frequency without DUT with DUT
 (GHz) Pin (dB) Pout(dB)

2.0
2.1
:
3.0

Table.7.3

HKBKCE 51 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Figure. 7(f)

RESULT:

HKBKCE 52 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT NO. 8 (c)

Measurements of power division and isolation characteristics of a

microstrip 3 db power divider

AIM: To measure the power division, isolation and return loss characteristics of a matched 3
dB power divider in the frequency range 2.2 to 3 GHz.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Microwave signal source with modulation (1 KHz)
Attenuator pad
VSWR meter
Frequency meter
Items from the Kit

 Matched power divider (DUT).

 Directional coupler

 Detector

 Matched loads

 Cables and adapters

THEORY:
The microstrip power divider provided is of the 3 dB Wilkinson type the impedance of the
input/output lines is 50 and the isolation resistor connected between the two output lines has a
value of 100. Measuring the power division property involves measuring the transmission
response between the input port (port 1) and the two output ports (ports 2 and 3). While measuring
the transmission response between any two ports, the third port has to be terminated in a matched
load. Measuring the isolation property involves measuring the transmission response between
ports 2 and 3 by terminating port 1 in a matched load. Figure 1 shows the line diagram of Y-
junction as a power divider. Let port 1 be the input port that is matched to the source (S11 = 0).

HKBKCE 53 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Figure. 7(i)
: Schematic of a Y - junction power divider

As an equal-split power divider, power incident at port 1 gets divided equally between the two
output ports 2 and 3. Equal power division implies S21 = S31 = 1/2. The phase factors of S21 and
S31 can be made equal to zero (multiples of 360°) by appropriately choosing the reference planes
of ports 2 and 3 with respect to port 1.
Analysis and Design of Matched Power Divider
Figure 2 shows a matched power divider introduced by Wilkinson. Popularly known also as
Wilkinson power divider, it uses an isolation resistor R of value 2Z0 between ports 2 and 3. The
device is completely matched at all the three ports, and ports 2 and 3 are isolated from each other
at the centre frequency (f0).

Figure.7(f)
Matched equal-split power divider.

HKBKCE 54 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

TEST BENCH SET UP FOR MEASUREMENTS OF POWER DIVISION AND

ISOLATION CHARACTERISTICS OF A MICROSTRIP 3db POWER
DIVIDER

Figure.7(j)

PROCEDURE:
1. Assemble the set up as shown in figure 3.

2. Switch on the source and the VSWR meter. Before switching on the source, ensure that
there is sufficient attenuation to keep the RF power output low.

3. Set the frequency of the source to 2.2 GHz. Adjust the power output of the source for a
reasonable power indication on the VSWR meter. Note the reading of the VSWR meter
as Pin dB in column 2 of Table 1. This is the reference input power.

4. Insert the power divider (DUT) with input port (port 1) and output ports (port 3) connected
to detector and terminate port 2 of the power divider in matched load. Recordthe readings
of the VSWR meter at the above frequencies as P2out dB in column 3 of Table 1.

HKBKCE 55 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

5. Interchange ports 2 and 3. That is, connect port 2 with a detector and terminate port 3 in
matched load. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at the same frequencies as P 3out
dB in column 4 of the Table.

6. In order to determine the isolation between the two output ports, remove the power divider
and reconnect with port 2 at the input end and port 3 at the output end. Terminate port 1
in matched load. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at the same frequencies as P32out
dB in column 5 of the Table 1.

CALCULATIONS:

Power Division:

Power loss from port 1 to port 2 = Pin (dB) - P2out (dB) = - 20 log10S21. Denote this loss as S21
(dB) and enter at column 6 of the Table 1.

Power loss from port 1 to port 3 = Pin (dB) - P3out (dB) = - 20 log10S31. Denote this loss as
S31 (dB) and enter at column 7 of the Table 1.

Isolation:

Isolation between ports 2 and 3 = Pin (dB) - P32out (dB) = - 20 log10S32. Denote this isolation
as S32 (dB) and enter at column 8 of the Table 1.

VSWR meter readings (dB) Power Power

Isolation
Freq. division division
Port 2 to 3
f(GHz) Port 1 to 2 Port 1 to 3
S32(dB)
Pin P2 out P3 out P32 out S21(dB) S31(dB)

2.0
2.1
:
:
:
3.0

Table. 7.4

RESULT:

HKBKCE 56 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

HKBKCE 57 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENT

PCM GENERATION AND DETECTION USING A CODEC CHIP

AIM: (a) Study of PCM Generation and Demodulation of analog signal.

APPARATUS:
1. ST2123 PCM Generation & Demodulation using CODEC Chip
2. mm Patch chords
3. Oscilloscope Caddo 802 or equivalent

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure: DE(a)

HKBKCE 58 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply mains cord to the ST2123 but do not turn ON the power
supply until connections are made for this experiment.
2. From Clock Source, connect 1.5MHz Clock output to System Clock of Sample Rate
Generator.
3. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
4. Connect Channel CLK to LRCIN and Bit CLK to BCKIN
5. Observe the signal available on Channel CLK and Bit CLK on oscilloscope with respect
to ground terminal provided on board.
6. Connect the Output of AC Source to VIN of ST2123 as shown in connection diagram in
order to provide analog signal for modulation.
7. Observe the signal of DOUT on oscilloscope with respect to ground, which shows the
modulated signal.
8. Connect the signal DOUT of ADC to DIN of DAC for demodulation of signalpresented
at input terminal
9. Observe the demodulated signal waveform at oscilloscope by connecting VOUT
terminal of DAC to oscilloscope with respect to ground of board.
10. Change the System Clock of Sample Rate Generator to 3MHz, 6MHz and 12MHz;
observe the effect of respective changes on PCM coding decoding.
11. We can also verify Nyquist criteria i.e. (fc > >2fm).

Observations:
 Signals available on output (Vout), after PCM coding followed by decoding is same as analog
signal given at input of codec.
 PCM Coding is method of converting analog signal to digital signal that’s why the output of
ADC Dout in this codec is digital levels showing the instantaneous changes of analog signal.
 Channel CLK and bit CLK vary with change in system clock.
Conclusion:
 The PCM codec is an analog-digital interface for voice band signals designed with a
combination of coders and decoders (codecs) and filters.

HKBKCE 59 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

 It is a low-power device with companding options, and it meets the requirements for
communication systems, including the cellular phone. The device operates in either the 15-bit
linear or 8-bit companded.
 Channel CLK and bit CLK is highest for 12MHz system clock

(a) Study of PCM Generation and Demodulation of speech signal:

APPARATUS:
1. ST2123 PCM Generation & Demodulation using CODEC Chip
2. 2 mm Banana Cable.
3. Oscilloscope Caddo 802 or equivalent

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure: DE(b)

HKBKCE 60 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply mains cord to the ST2123 but do not turn ON the power
supply until connections are made for this experiment.
2. From Clock Source, connect 1.5MHz Clock output to System Clock of Sample Rate
Generator.
3. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
4. Connect Channel CLK to LRCIN and Bit CLK to BCKIN
5. Observe the signal available on Channel CLK and Bit CLK on oscilloscope with respect
to ground terminal provided on board.
6. Connect the microphone to ST2123 as shown in connection diagram in order to provide
voice signal for modulation.
7. Observe the signal of DOUT on oscilloscope with respect to ground, which shows the
modulated voice signal.
8. Connect the signal DOUT of ADC to DIN of DAC for demodulation of signal
presented at input terminal.
9. Observe the demodulated signal by connecting VOUT terminal of DAC to headphone
as shown in connection diagram.
10. Change the System Clock of Sample Rate Generator to 3MHz, 6MHz and 12MHz;
observe the effect of respective changes on PCM Coding and decoding.
Observations:
 Signals available on output (Vout), in which PCM coding followed by decoding is same
as input given to the codec.
 PCM Coding is method of converting analog signal to digital signal that’s why the output
of ADC Dout in this codec is digital levels showing the instantaneous changes of speech
signal which is an analog signal. Channel CLK and bit CLK vary with change in system
clock.

RESULT:

HKBKCE 61 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

PART B:

EXPERIMENT 1:

Objective: To simulate NRZ, RZ, half sinusoidal pulses, raised cosine pulses and generate eye

diagramfor binary polar signaling.

Theory:

Line Coding

A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a transmission line.
This process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and distortion of signal such as inter-
symbol interference.

Properties of Line Coding

Following are the properties of line coding −

 As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the bandwidth used is much
reduced.

 For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.

 The probability of error is much reduced.

 Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.

 Power density is much favorable.

 The timing content is adequate.

 Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.

Types of Line Coding

There are 3 types of Line Coding

 Unipolar

 Polar

 Bi-polar

Unipolar Signaling
Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off Keying or simply OOK.

The presence of pulse represents a 1 and the absence of pulse represents a 0.

HKBKCE 62 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

There are two variations in Unipolar signaling −

 Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

 Return to Zero (RZ) 

Unipolar Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse called
as Mark, which has a duration T0 equal to the symbol bit duration. A Low in data input has no
pulse.

The following figure clearly depicts this.

Advantages

The advantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

 It is simple.

 A lesser bandwidth is required.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

 No error correction done.

 Presence of low frequency components may cause the signal droop.

 No clock is present.

 Loss of synchronization is likely to occur (especially for long strings of 1s and 0s).
HKBKCE 63 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

Unipolar Return to Zero (RZ)

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its
duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it
immediately returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the bit
duration.

It is clearly understood with the help of the following figure.

Advantages

The advantages of Unipolar RZ are −

 It is simple.

 The spectral line present at the symbol rate can be used as a clock.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Unipolar RZ are −

 No error correction.

 Occupies twice the bandwidth as unipolar NRZ.

 The signal droop is caused at the places where signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

Polar Signaling
There are two methods of Polar Signaling. They are −

 Polar NRZ

HKBKCE 64 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

 Polar RZ

Polar NRZ
In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse, while a Low
in data is represented by a negative pulse. The following figure depicts this well.

Advantages

The advantages of Polar NRZ are −

 It is simple.

 No low-frequency components are present.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Polar NRZ are −

 No error correction.

 No clock is present.

 The signal droop is caused at the places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

Polar RZ
In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its duration
T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it immediately
returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the bit duration.

HKBKCE 65 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

However, for a Low input, a negative pulse represents the data, and the zero level remains
same for the other half of the bit duration. The following figure depicts this clearly.

Advantages

The advantages of Polar RZ are −

 It is simple.

 No low-frequency components are present.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Polar RZ are −

 No error correction.

 No clock is present.

 Occupies twice the bandwidth of Polar NRZ.

 The signal droop is caused at places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

Bipolar Signaling
This is an encoding technique which has three voltage levels namely +, - and 0. Such a signal
is called as duo-binary signal.

An example of this type is Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI). For a 1, the voltage level gets a
transition from + to – or from – to +, having alternate 1sto be of equal polarity. A 0 will have a
zero voltage level.
HKBKCE 66 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

Even in this method, we have two types.

 Bipolar NRZ

 Bipolar RZ

From the models so far discussed, we have learnt the difference between NRZ and RZ. It just
goes in the same way here too. The following figure clearly depicts this.

The above figure has both the Bipolar NRZ and RZ waveforms. The pulse duration and symbol
bit duration are equal in NRZ type, while the pulse duration is half of the symbol bit duration
in RZ type.

Advantages
Following are the advantages −

 It is simple.

 No low-frequency components are present.

 Occupies low bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ schemes.

 This technique is suitable for transmission over AC coupled lines, as signal drooping doesn’t occur
here.

HKBKCE 67 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

 A single error detection capability is present in this.

Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages −

 No clock is present.

 Long strings of data causes loss of synchronization.

Manchester Encoding:
Manchester encoding is a synchronous clock encoding technique used by the physical layer of
the Open System Interconnection [OSI] to encode the clock and data of a synchronous bit
stream.

Power Spectral Density

The function which describes how the power of a signal got distributed at various frequencies,
in the frequency domain is called as Power Spectral Density (PSD).

PSD is the Fourier Transform of Auto-Correlation (Similarity between observations). It is in

the form of a rectangular

HKBKCE 68 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

pulse.

Code:
(1) NRZ
function PNRZ(h)

%Line code POLAR NRZ.

%Example:

%h=[1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0];

%PNRZ(h)

clc;
n=1;
l=length(h);
h(l+1)=1;
while n<=length(h)-1;
t=n-1:0.001:n;
if h(n) == 0
if h(n+1)==0
y=-(t<n)-(t==n);
else
y=-(t<n)+(t==n);
end
d=plot(t,y);grid on;
title('Line code POLAR NRZ');
set(d,'LineWidth',2.5);
hold on;
axis([0 length(h)-1 -1.5 1.5]);
HKBKCE 69 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

disp('zero');
else

if h(n+1)==0
y=(t<n)-1*(t==n);
else
y=(t<n)+1*(t==n);
end
d=plot(t,y);grid on;
title('Line code POLAR NRZ');
set(d,'LineWidth',2.5);
hold on;
axis([0 length(h)-1 -1.5 1.5]);
disp('one');
end
n=n+1;
%pause;
end

(2) RZ

function [t,x] = prz(bits, bitrate)

% PRZ Encode bit string using polar RZ code.
% [T, X] = PRZ(BITS, BITRATE) encodes BITS array using polar RZ
% code with given BITRATE. Outputs are time T and encoded signal
% values X.
T = length(bits)/bitrate; % full time of bit sequence
n = 200;
N = n*length(bits);
dt = T/N;
t = 0:dt:T;
x = zeros(1,length(t)); % output signal
for i = 0:length(bits)-1
if bits(i+1) == 1
x(i*n+1:(i+0.5)*n) = 1;
x((i+0.5)*n+1:(i+1)*n) = 0;
else
x(i*n+1:(i+0.5)*n) = -1;
x((i+0.5)*n+1:(i+1)*n) = 0;
end
end

(3) Half sinusoidal pulse

t = 0:0.1:3;
f=.5;% Input Signal Frequency

HKBKCE 70 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

x=sin(2*pi*f*t);% Generate Sine Wave

x(x>0) = 0; % Rectified Sine Wave
plot(t,x);
axis([xlim -1 1])

(4) Raised cosine wave

M = 16
k = log2(M)
n = 20000
nSamp = 4
EbNo = 10
qamModulator = comm.RectangularQAMModulator(M,'BitInput',true);
qamDemodulator = comm.RectangularQAMDemodulator(M,'BitOutput',true);
span = 10
rolloff = 0.25
span = 10
rolloff = 0.25
txfilter = comm.RaisedCosineTransmitFilter('RolloffFactor',rolloff, ...
'FilterSpanInSymbols',span,'OutputSamplesPerSymbol',nSamp);
rxfilter = comm.RaisedCosineReceiveFilter('RolloffFactor',rolloff, ...
'FilterSpanInSymbols',span,'InputSamplesPerSymbol',nSamp, ...
'DecimationFactor',nSamp);
fvtool(txfilter,'impulse')

(5) Eye diagram

clc
clear all
close all
fs=20
fd=1
Pd=500
m=input('enter the values of m')
x=randint(Pd,1,m)
a=length(x)
delay=3
r=input('enter roll off factor')
rcv=rcosflt(x,fd,fs,'fir/normal',r,delay)
n=fs/fd
eyediagram(rcv,n)

HKBKCE 71 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

RESULT:

Input

Output

HKBKCE 72 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Waveforms:

HKBKCE 73 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

HKBKCE 74 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT 2

Objective: To simulate the Pulse Code Modulation and demodulation system and display the

waveforms.

Theory:

Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal.

The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication and the carrier
signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for long distance transmission.

There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of modulation
employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).

A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary sequence, i.e.,
1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. The following figure shows
an example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this process is
called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the approximate
amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.

In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses.
This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and
amplitude.

HKBKCE 75 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Basic Elements of PCM

The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling, Quantizing
and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter section. The low pass
filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.

The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals, decoding,
and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. Following is the block diagram of PCM which
represents the basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver sections.

Low Pass Filter

This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal which is
greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of the message signal.

Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values of message
signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must be greater than twice the
highest frequency component Wof the message signal, in accordance with the sampling
theorem.

HKBKCE 76 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Quantizer

Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The sampled
output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and compresses the value.

Encoder
The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates each quantized level by
a binary code. The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. These three sections
(LPF, Sampler, and Quantizer) will act as an analog to digital converter. Encoding minimizes
the bandwidth used.

Regenerative Repeater
This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also has one regenerative
repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the signal, and also to increase its
strength.

Decoder
The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original signal. This
circuit acts as the demodulator.

Reconstruction Filter
After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the decoder, a
low-pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back the original signal.

Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal, codes it and samples
it, and then transmits it in an analog form. This whole process is repeated in a reverse pattern to
obtain the original signal.

Code:

clc;
close all;
clear all;
n=input('Enter n value for n-bit PCM system : ');

n1=input('Enter number of samples in a period : ');

L=2^n;
% % Signal Generation
% x=0:1/100:4*pi;
% y=8*sin(x); % Amplitude Of signal is 8v
% subplot(2,2,1);
HKBKCE 77 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

% plot(x,y);grid on;
% Sampling Operation
x=0:2*pi/n1:4*pi; % n1 nuber of samples have tobe selected
s=8*sin(x);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(s);
title('Analog Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(s);grid on; title('Sampled Sinal'); ylabel('Amplitude--->'); xlabel('Time--->');
% Quantization Process
vmax=8;
vmin=-vmax;
del=(vmax-vmin)/L;
part=vmin:del:vmax; % level are between vmin and vmax with difference
of del
code=vmin-(del/2):del:vmax+(del/2); % Contaion Quantized valuses
[ind,q]=quantiz(s,part,code); % Quantization process
% ind contain index number and q contain
quantized values
l1=length(ind);
l2=length(q);

for i=1:l1
if(ind(i)~=0) % To make index as binary decimal so started from
0 to N
ind(i)=ind(i)-1;
end
i=i+1;
end
for i=1:l2
if(q(i)==vmin-(del/2)) % To make quantize value inbetween the levels
q(i)=vmin+(del/2);
end
end
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(q);grid on; % Display the Quantize values
title('Quantized Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');

% Encoding Process
figure
code=de2bi(ind,'left-msb'); % Cnvert the decimal to binary
k=1;
for i=1:l1
for j=1:n
HKBKCE 78 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

coded(k)=code(i,j); % convert code matrix to a coded row vector

j=j+1;
k=k+1;
end
i=i+1;
end
subplot(2,1,1); grid on;
stairs(coded); % Display the encoded signal
axis([0 100 -2 3]); title('Encoded Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');

% Demodulation Of PCM signal

qunt=reshape(coded,n,length(coded)/n);
index=bi2de(qunt','left-msb'); % Getback the index in decimal form
q=del*index+vmin+(del/2); % getback Quantized values
subplot(2,1,2); grid on;
plot(q); % Plot Demodulated signal
title('Demodulated Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');

RESULT:

Input

Output

HKBKCE 79 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Waveforms:

HKBKCE 80 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT.3

Objective:To Compute Probability of bit error for coherent binary ASK,FSK and PSK for an AWGN
channel and compute them with their performance curves.

THEORY:
Let’s take up some bandwidth-efficient linear digital modulation techniques (BPSK,QPSK and QAM) and compare
its performance based on their theoretical BER over AWGN.

Table 1 summarizes the theoretical BER (given SNR per bit ration – Eb/N0) for various linear modulations. Note
that the Eb/N0 values used in that table are in linear scale [to convert Eb/N0 in dB to linear scale – use Eb/N0(linear)
= 10^(Eb/N0(dB)/10) ]. A small script written in Matlab (given below) gives the following output.

Figure 1: Eb/N0 Vs. BER for

various digital modulations over AWGN channel

HKBKCE 81 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Table 1: Theoretical BER over AWGN for various linear digital modulation techniques

The following table is obtained by extracting the values of Eb/N0 to achieve BER=10 -6 from Figure-1. (Table data
sorted with increasing values of Eb/N0).

Table 2: Capacity of various modulations their efficiency and channel bandwidth

HKBKCE 82 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

where,

is the bandwidth efficiency for linear modulation with M point constellation, meaning that ηB bits can be stuffed in
one symbol with Rb bits/sec data rate for a given minimum bandwidth.

is the minimum bandwidth needed for information rate of Rb bits/second. If a pulse shaping technique like raised
cosine pulse [with roll off factor (a)] is used then Bmin becomes

Next the data in table 2 is plotted with Eb/N0 on the x-axis and η on the y-axis (see figure 2) along with the well
known Shannon’s Capacity equation over AWGN given by,

which can be represented as (refer [1])

HKBKCE 83 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Figure 2: Spectral efficiency vs Eb/N0 for various modulations at Pb=10-6

CODE:
function ASK_FSK_PSK(msglen)
%msglen= number of bits to be transmitted
%take msglen=10000, or 20000 for more accuracy
%If you have any problem or feedback please contact me @
%%===============================================
% NIKESH BAJAJ
% Asst. Prof., Lovely Professional University, India
% Almameter: Aligarh Muslim University, India
% +919915522564, [email protected]
%%===============================================
n=msglen;
b=randint(1,n);
f1=1;f2=2;
t=0:1/30:1-1/30;
%ASK
sa1=sin(2*pi*f1*t);
E1=sum(sa1.^2);
sa1=sa1/sqrt(E1); %unit energy
sa0=0*sin(2*pi*f1*t);
%FSK
sf0=sin(2*pi*f1*t);
E=sum(sf0.^2);
sf0=sf0/sqrt(E);
sf1=sin(2*pi*f2*t);
E=sum(sf1.^2);
sf1=sf1/sqrt(E);
%PSK
HKBKCE 84 Department of ECE
 Communication Lab 18ECL67

sp0=-sin(2*pi*f1*t)/sqrt(E1);
sp1=sin(2*pi*f1*t)/sqrt(E1);
%MODULATION
ask=[];psk=[];fsk=[];
for i=1:n
if b(i)==1
ask=[ask sa1];
psk=[psk sp1];
fsk=[fsk sf1];
else
ask=[ask sa0];
psk=[psk sp0];
fsk=[fsk sf0];
end
end
figure(1)
subplot(411)
stairs(0:10,[b(1:10) b(10)],'linewidth',1.5)
axis([0 10 -0.5 1.5])
title('Message Bits');grid on
subplot(412)
tb=0:1/30:10-1/30;
plot(tb, ask(1:10*30),'b','linewidth',1.5)
title('ASK Modulation');grid on
subplot(413)
plot(tb, fsk(1:10*30),'r','linewidth',1.5)
title('FSK Modulation');grid on
subplot(414)
plot(tb, psk(1:10*30),'k','linewidth',1.5)
title('PSK Modulation');grid on
xlabel('Time');ylabel('Amplitude')
%AWGN
for snr=0:20
askn=awgn(ask,snr);
pskn=awgn(psk,snr);
fskn=awgn(fsk,snr);
%DETECTION
A=[];F=[];P=[];
for i=1:n
%ASK Detection
if sum(sa1.*askn(1+30*(i-1):30*i))>0.5
A=[A 1];
else
A=[A 0];
end
%FSK Detection
if sum(sf1.*fskn(1+30*(i-1):30*i))>0.5
F=[F 1];
else
F=[F 0];
end
%PSK Detection
if sum(sp1.*pskn(1+30*(i-1):30*i))>0
P=[P 1];
else
P=[P 0];
end
end
%BER
errA=0;errF=0; errP=0;
for i=1:n
HKBKCE 85 Department of ECE
 Communication Lab 18ECL67

if A(i)==b(i)
errA=errA;
else
errA=errA+1;
end
if F(i)==b(i)
errF=errF;
else
errF=errF+1;
end
if P(i)==b(i)
errP=errP;
else
errP=errP+1;
end
end
BER_A(snr+1)=errA/n;
BER_F(snr+1)=errF/n;
BER_P(snr+1)=errP/n;
end
figure(2)
subplot(411)
stairs(0:10,[b(1:10) b(10)],'linewidth',1.5)
axis([0 10 -0.5 1.5]);grid on
title('Received signal after AWGN Channel')
subplot(412)
tb=0:1/30:10-1/30;
plot(tb, askn(1:10*30),'b','linewidth',1.5)
title('Received ASK signal');grid on
subplot(413)
plot(tb, fskn(1:10*30),'r','linewidth',1.5)
title('Received FSK signal');grid on
subplot(414)
plot(tb, pskn(1:10*30),'k','linewidth',1.5)
title('Received PSK signal');grid on
figure(3)
semilogy(0:20,BER_A, 'b','linewidth',2)
title('BER Vs SNR')
grid on;
hold on
semilogy(0:20,BER_F,'r','linewidth',2)
semilogy(0:20,BER_P, 'k','linewidth',2)
xlabel('Eo/No(dB)')
ylabel('BER')
hold off
legend('ASK','FSK','PSK');

HKBKCE 86 Department of ECE

 Communication Lab 18ECL67

Waveforms:

RESULT:

HKBKCE 87 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT 4(a)

Objective: To simulate the QPSK transmitter and receiver. Plot the signals and its

constellation diagram.

Theory:

The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a Double
Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, which sends two bits of digital
information at a time, called as bigits.

Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it converts them into bit
pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows space for the other users.

QPSKModulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit serial to
parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the block diagram for the same.

At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2 nd bit, 4th bit, 6th bit, etc.) and odd
bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the
same carrier to generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK (called as PSKQ).
The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being modulated.

The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result for
different instances of binary inputs.

HKBKCE 88 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

QPSK Demodulator
The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits with local oscillator, two band
pass filters, two integrator circuits, and a 2-bit parallel to serial converter. Following is the
diagram for the same.

T
he two product detectors at the input of demodulator simultaneously demodulate the two BPSK
signals. The pair of bits are recovered here from the original data. These signals after processing,
are passed to the parallel to serial converter.

Constellation diagram

HKBKCE 89 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Code:

% QPSK modulation and Demodulation

clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE QUADRATURE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1;t=0:(Tb/100):Tb;fc=1;
c1=sqrt(2/Tb)*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
c2=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:2:(N-1)
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
%odd bits modulated signal
odd_sig(i,:)=c1.*m_s;
if m(i+1)>0.5
m(i+1)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i+1)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
%even bits modulated signal
even_sig(i,:)=c2.*m_s;
%qpsk signal
qpsk=odd_sig+even_sig;
%Plot the QPSK modulated signal
subplot(3,2,4);plot(t,qpsk(i,:));
title('QPSK signal');xlabel('t --- >');ylabel('s(t)');grid on; hold on;
t1=t1+(Tb+.01); t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
hold off
%Plot the binary data bits and carrier signal
subplot(3,2,1);stem(m);
title('binary data bits');
xlabel('n --- >');
ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;
subplot(3,2,2);

HKBKCE 90 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

plot(t,c1);
title('carrier signal-1');
xlabel('t --- >');
ylabel('c1(t)');
grid on;
subplot(3,2,3);
plot(t,c2);
title('carrier signal-2');
xlabel('t --- >');
ylabel('c2(t)');
grid on;
% QPSK Demodulation
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N-1
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
%correlator
x1=sum(c1.*qpsk(i,:));
x2=sum(c2.*qpsk(i,:));
%decision device
if (x1>0&&x2>0)
demod(i)=1;
demod(i+1)=1;
elseif (x1>0&&x2<0)
demod(i)=1;
demod(i+1)=0;
elseif (x1<0&&x2<0)
demod(i)=0;
demod(i+1)=0;
elseif (x1<0&&x2>0)
demod(i)=0;
demod(i+1)=1;
end
t1=t1+(Tb+.01); t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
subplot(3,2,5);stem(demod);
title('qpsk demodulated bits');
xlabel('n --- >');
ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;

% constellation diagram

clc;
clear all;
close all;
data=[0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0]; % information
figure(1)

HKBKCE 91 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

stem(data, 'linewidth',3), grid on;

title(' Information before Transmiting ');
axis([ 0 11 0 1.5]);
data_NZR=2*data-1; % Data Represented at NZR form for QPSK modulation
s_p_data=reshape(data_NZR,2,length(data)/2); % S/P convertion of data
br=10.^6; %Let us transmission bit rate 1000000
f=br; % minimum carrier frequency
T=1/br; % bit duration
t=T/99:T/99:T; % Time vector for one bit information
y=[];
y_in=[];
y_qd=[];
d=zeros(1,length(data)/2);for i=1:length(data)/2
p=data(2*i);
imp=data(2*i - 1);
y1=s_p_data(1,i)*cos(2*pi*f*t); % inphase component
y2=s_p_data(2,i)*sin(2*pi*f*t) ;% Quadrature component
y_in=[y_in y1]; % inphase signal vector
y_qd=[y_qd y2]; %quadrature signal vector
y=[y y1+y2]; % modulated signal vector
if (imp == 0) && (p == 0)
d(i)=exp(j*pi/4);%45 degrees
end
if (imp == 1)&&(p == 0)
d(i)=exp(j*3*pi/4);%135 degrees
end
if (imp == 1)&&(p == 1)
d(i)=exp(j*5*pi/4);%225 degrees
end
if (imp == 0)&&(p == 1)
d(i)=exp(j*7*pi/4);%315 degrees
end
end
Tx_sig=y; % transmitting signal after modulation
qpsk=d;
tt=T/99:T/99:(T*length(data))/2;
figure(2)
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(tt,y_in,'linewidth',3), grid on;
title(' wave form for inphase component in QPSK modulation ');
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel(' amplitude(volt0');
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(tt,Tx_sig,'r','linewidth',3), grid on;
title('QPSK modulated signal (sum of inphase and Quadrature phase signal)');
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel(' amplitude(volt0');
figure(3);
plot(d,'o');%plot constellation without noise
HKBKCE 92 Department of ECE
Communication Lab 18ECL67

axis([-2 2 -2 2]);
grid on;
xlabel('real'); ylabel('imag');
title('QPSK constellation');

RESULT:

Input

Output

HKBKCE 93 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Waveforms:

HKBKCE 94 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

HKBKCE 95 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

EXPERIMENT 4(b)

Objective: To test the performance of binary Differential phase shift keying (DPSK)

system by simulating the coherent/non coherent detection of binary DPSK

Theory:

In Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) the phase of the modulated signal is shifted relative
to the previous signal element. No reference signal is considered here. The signal phase follows
the high or low state of the previous element. This DPSK technique doesn’t need a reference
oscillator.

The following figure represents the model waveform of DPSK.

It is seen from the above figure that, if the data bit is Low i.e., 0, then the phase of the signal is
not reversed, but continued as it was. If the data is a High i.e., 1, then the phase of the signal is
reversed, as with NRZI, invert on 1 (a form of differential encoding).

If we observe the above waveform, we can say that the High state represents an M in the
modulating signal and the Low state represents a W in the modulating signal.

DPSKModulator
DPSK is a technique of BPSK, in which there is no reference phase signal. Here, the transmitted
signal itself can be used as a reference signal. Following is the diagram of DPSK Modulator.

HKBKCE 96 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

DPSK encodes two distinct signals, i.e., the carrier and the modulating signal with 180° phase
shift each. The serial data input is given to the XNOR gate and the output is again fed back to
the other input through 1-bit delay. The output of the XNOR gate along with the carrier signal
is given to the balance modulator, to produce the DPSK modulated signal.

DPSK Demodulator
In DPSK demodulator, the phase of the reversed bit is compared with the phase of the previous
bit. Following is the block diagram of DPSK demodulator.

From the above figure, it is evident that the balance modulator is given the DPSK signal along
with 1-bit delay input. That signal is made to confine to lower frequencies with the help of LPF.
Then it is passed to a shaper circuit, which is a comparator or a Schmitt trigger circuit, to recover
the original binary data as the output.

HKBKCE 97 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Code:

N = 10^4 % number of bits or symbols

rand('state',100); % initializing the rand() function
randn('state',200);% initializing the randn() function
ip = rand(1,N)>0.5;% generating 0,1 with equal probability
ipD = mod(filter(1,[1 -1],ip),2); % %differential encoding y[n]=y[n-1]+x[n]
s = 2*ipD-1; % BPSK modulation 0 -> -1; 1 -> 0
n = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(1,N) + j*randn(1,N)]; % white gaussian noise, 0dB variance
Eb_N0_dB = [-3:10]; % multiple Eb/N0 values
for ii = 1:length(Eb_N0_dB)
y = s + 10^(-Eb_N0_dB(ii)/20)*n; % additive white gaussian noise
ipDHat_coh = real(y) > 0; % coherent demodulation
ipHat_coh = mod(filter([1 -1],1,ipDHat_coh),2); %differential decoding
nErr_dbpsk_coh(ii) = size(find([ip - ipHat_coh]),2); % counting the number of errors
end
simBer_dbpsk_coh = nErr_dbpsk_coh/N;
theoryBer_dbpsk_coh = erfc(sqrt(10.^(Eb_N0_dB/10))).*(1 -
.5*erfc(sqrt(10.^(Eb_N0_dB/10))));
close all
figure
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBer_dbpsk_coh,'b.-');
hold on
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,simBer_dbpsk_coh,'mx-');
axis([-2 10 10^-6 0.5])
grid on
legend('theory', 'simulation');
xlabel('Eb/No, dB')
ylabel('Bit Error Rate')
title('Bit error probability curve for coherent demodulation of DBPSK')

RESULT:

Input

Output

HKBKCE 98 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

Waveforms:

HKBKCE 99 Department of ECE

Communication Lab 18ECL67

QUESTION BANK

Advanced Communication Lab / 17ECL76

PART A
1. Conduct an experiment on Generation and Detection of TDM of two band limited
signals.

2. Conduct an experiment on ASK Generation and Detection of a message

3. Conduct an experiment on FSK Generation and Detection of a message.

4. Conduct an experiment on PSK Generation and Detection of a message.

5. Using Microwave Test Bench measure the following.

(a) Frequency of a microwave signal
(b) Guide wavelength
(c) Power
(d) VSWR with given load
(e) Attenuation

6. With a test setup, plot the radiation pattern and find the directivity and gain of

(a) Yagi Antenna

(b) Dipole Antenna

7. (a) Determine the coupling and isolation characteristics of a stripline (ormicrostrip)

directional coupler.

7. (b) Conduct an experiment to plot the resonance characteristics of a microstrip ring

resonator and determine dielectric constant of the substrate.

7. (c) Conduct an experiment to determine power division and isolation characteristics ofa
microstrip 3 db power divider.

8. Measure the following in a given optical fiber using a trainer kit.

(a) Propagation or Attenuation loss. (b) Bending Loss (c) Numerical Aperture

PART B

1. Write a Matlab code to simulate NRZ,RZ,Half Sinusoid & Raised Cosine pulses and
generate eye diagram for binary polar signaling.

2. Write a Matlab code to simulate the PCM modulation and demodulation system and
display the waveforms.
HKBKCE 10 Department of ECE
0
Communication Lab 18ECL67

3. Write a Matlab code to simulate the QPSK transmitter and receiver.Plot the signals and
its constellation diagram.

4. Write a Matlab code to test the performance of a binary differential phase shift keying
system by simulating the coherent/Non coherent detection of binary DPSK.

HKBKCE 10 Department of ECE

1
Communication Lab 18ECL67

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is sampling?

Sampling is a process of converting a continuous time signal into a discrete time signal.
It is achieved by multiplying a continuous time signal with a stream of pulses.

2. State sampling theorem?

Sampling theorem is stated as ‘A band limited signal having the highest frequency, Fm
Hz can be reconstructed completely from a set of uniformly spaced discrete time samples
only when the sampling interval Ts<1/2Fm secs.

3. What is Nyquist Criterion and Nyquist rate?

Nyquist criterion is Fs>2Fm

Nyquist rate is Fs= 2Fm.

4. How do you classify sampling?

a) Impulse sampling.
b) Natural sampling.
c) Flat top sampling.

5. What is Aliasing?

The overlapping of sampled signal spectrum is called Aliasing.

6. How can Aliasing be avoided?

Aliasing can be avoided by 2 methods:

a) By increasing the sampling rate
b) By using antialias filters.

7. What is Digital Modulation?

Digital modulation is a process by which digital symbols are transformed into

waveforms that are compatible with the characteristics of the channel.

8. What is digital carrier modulation?

Digital carrier modulation is a process in which some characteristics of a sinusoidal

carrier is varied in accordance with a digital modulating signal.

9. what is ASK ?
HKBKCE 10 Department of ECE
2
Communication Lab 18ECL67

ASK stands for amplitude shift keying.

When a binary one is transmitted, a carrier of constant frequency and amplitude is

transmitted and when a binary zero is transmitted, no carrier is transmitted.

10. Mention the main types of carrier modulation

a) ASK
b) FSK
c) PSK

11. What is APK?

APK is stands for amplitude phase keying. It is a hybrid modulation when changes in
amplitude and phase are combined.

12. What is FSK?

FSK stands for frequency shift keying. Here, for a binary one, one frequency carrier
with constant amplitude is transmitted over the channel and for a binary zero, another
frequency carrier is transmitted.

13. Why FSK is more widely used then ASK?

FSK is widely used; therefore the FSK signals have a constant envelope, which makes
them impervious to amplitude nonlinearities.

14. What is coherent detection?

The detection process wherein the carrier of same amplitude and phase as that used in
the modulation process is used to recover in the modulation process is used to recover
the in information is called coherent detection.

15. What is PSK?

PSK stands for phase shift keying. For a binary one a carrier of constant amplitude and
zero phase is transmitted and for a binary zero, a carrier of constant amplitude and 180deg
phase shift is transmitted, by keeping the frequency of the carrier constant.

16. Why PSK is more widely used than ASK?

PSK is widely used. Therefore the PSK signals have a constant envelope, which makes
them impervious to amplitude nonlinearities.

17. What are antipodal signals?

Pair of sinusoidal waves that differ only in a relative phase-shift of 180deg (as used in

HKBKCE 10 Department of ECE

3
Communication Lab 18ECL67

PSK) are referred to as antipodal signals.

18. What is PAM?

PAM stands for pulse amplitude modulation. The amplitude of a pulse train is varied
in accordance with the amplitude of a message signal.

19. What is the simplest way of achieving PAM?

The multiplication of the message signal with a train of pulses yield PAM signal.

20. What is analog pulse modulation?

Analog pulse modulation is a process where the information samples without any
quantization are modulated on to pulses.

21. What is M-ary pulse modulation?

M-ary pulse modulation is a process where the information samples are first quantized,
yielding symbols from M-ary alphabet set, and then modulated on to pulses. This is
digital pulse modulation.

22. Can M-ary PAM be used to reduce transmission bandwidth compared to PCM?

Yes

23. What is principle of transmission of light waves in fiber optic cable?

The principle of total internal reflection is used in transmission of light through fiber
optic cable.

24. What is a mode?

A mode is a pattern of electric and magnetic field distributions that is repeated along the
fiber at equal intervals.

25. What is the most commonly accepted structure of OFC ?

The most widely accepted structure is the single solid dielectric cylinders of radius and
refractive index n1. This cylinder is the core and this core is surrounded by a dielectric
cladding with refractive index n2<n1.

26. Name the main fiber materials?

Glasses (silica or silicates)

Plastics

HKBKCE 10 Department of ECE

4
Communication Lab 18ECL67

27. What is the range of optical fiber communication spectrum?

1.7 micrometer to 0.8 micrometer (wavelength).

28. Mention the five main advantages of optical fiber communication?

Enormous potential Bandwidth.

Small size and weight.
Electrical isolation.
Immunity to interference and crosstalk.
Signal security.

29. Mention some of the types of optical fibers?

Active fiber
Conical fiber
Multiple fiber
Passive fiber
Glass coated fiber
Lasing fiber
Luminescent fiber.

30. What is the difference between active and passive optical fibers?

The active fiber is the one that emits light as well as guides part of it.
The passive fiber is the one that guides light incident on it from external sources.

31. Which type of fiber is used in optical fiber communication?

The optical fiber communication system makes use of passive fibers which are
generally the glass coated ones.

32. How are optical fiber cable classified with respect to mode of transmission of light
wave?

Monomode fiber (Single mode).

Multimode fiber.

33. What is Numerical Aperture of optical fiber?

Nu merica l Apert ure (NA) of fiber is a measure 2o f its light gathering power, also called
mer ido nial apert ure ang le o f fiber wit h N A=(n 0 -n 2 1/2
cl )
Where n0=Refractive index of fiber core
ncl=Refractive index of fiber cladding

34. Why does the optical signal get distorted as it travels along a fiber?

The optical signal gets distorted due to

HKBKCE 10 Department of ECE
5
Communication Lab 18ECL67

a) Intermodal dispersion.

b) Intermodal delay effects.

35. Mention two main causes of intramodal dispersion?

Material dispersion
Waveguide dispersion

36. Which are the principle light sources used for fiber optic communications applications?

Laser diodes (Injection Laser Diodes ILDs)

Light Emitting diodes (LEDs)

37. Mention the photodetectors used in optical fiber communication?

Pin photodetectors.
Avalanche photodetectors.

HKBKCE 10 Department of ECE

6