TOPIC: CELL CYCLE

Key Knowledge:
• The eukaryotic cell cycle, including the characteristics of each of the sub-phases of mitosis and
cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
• Disruption to the regulation of the cell cycle and malfunctions in apoptosis that may result in deviant
cell behaviour: cancer and the characteristics of cancer cells

CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered set of events which results in the division of
C
eukaryotic cells into identical daughter cells. It involves two key phases: T G1
A
M Growth +
Interphase is an active phase of the cycle with many processes occurring metabolism
P
in the nucleus and cytoplasm. It is a continuum of three distinct stages:
Preparation Replication
• G1: Cell grows and prepares for division (organelles are duplicated) + growth of DNA
• S: A synthesis stage in which DNA replication occurs in the nucleus G2 SS
• G2: Acts as a final growth and preparation stage prior to cell division

The M phase is the period of the cycle in which the cell and its contents
are divided into two separate daughter cells. It involves two key stages: The cell cycle moves in a
clockwise direction as per
• Mitosis: A process of nuclear division (duplicated DNA is separated)
the diagram shown above
• Cytokinesis: A process of cytoplasmic division (the cell splits in two)

CHROMOSOMES
Within eukaryotic cells, the DNA is organised into discrete units that are
called chromosomes. Normally, these chromosomes are packaged in an
uncondensed form called chromatin to allow for the cellular machinery
to access the genetic instructions that determine cell activity. However,
when a cell divides, the DNA supercoils and the chromatin condenses to
form discrete chromosomes that will be visible under a light microscope
(after division, chromosomes decondense and reform into chromatin).

DNA REPLICATION
When DNA is replicated during the S phase, chromosomes will temporarily consist of two identical DNA
molecules. These strands are called sister chromatids and are held together at a site called a centromere.
When chromatids separate during mitosis, they become two identical chromosomes (one for each cell).

DNA replication (S phase) produces

S phase Mitosis chromosomes with sister chromatids

These will separate during mitosis into

two genetically identical chromosomes
MITOSIS
Mitosis is the process of nuclear division, whereby the duplicated DNA molecules (i.e. sister chromatids)
are arranged into two separate nuclei. Mitosis is preceded by interphase and involves four distinct stages:
• Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nucleus dissolves and paired centrosomes move to opposite poles
• Metaphase: Centrosomes connect to centromeres via spindle fibres and move chromosomes to middle
• Anaphase: Spindle fibres contract and separate sister chromatids, moving them to the opposite poles
• Telophase: Chromosomes decondense and nuclei reform around the two separated chromosome sets

INTERPHASE PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE

CYTOKINESIS
Mitosis only separates the duplicated DNA into separate nuclei. The division of the cell in two (cytokinesis)
occurs concurrently with the final stage of mitosis (telophase). Cytokinesis differs in animal and plant cells:
• Animals: Microtubule fibres form an outer contractile ring (cleavage furrow) – division is centripetal
• Plants: Vesicles form at the centre of the cell and fuse to form an end plate – division is centrifugal

CANCER
Errors in the cell cycle can lead to uncontrolled cell division (cancer). The abnormal cell growths are called
tumours and can occur in any tissue or organ. Some tumours are benign and will remain in their original
location, while other tumours are malignant and will spread to invade neighbouring tissue (metastasis).
Disruptions to the cell cycle are caused by gene mutations that are either inherited (genetic predisposition)
or triggered by mutagens. Mutagens can be either physical (radiation), chemical (tobacco or asbestos) or
biological (certain viruses). A mutagen that specifically causes cancer is called a carcinogen, whereas a
mutagen that causes abnormal embryonic or foetal development is called a teratogen. There is a strong
positive correlation between cigarette smoking and the development of lung and tongue cancer.

Risk Factors: Genetics Radiation Pollution Diseases Asbestos Tobacco

OVERVIEW OF MITOSIS
Mitosis involves four phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and is preceded by interphase.

Before: After:
S phase

Nuclear
membrane
dissolves
Centrosomes
move to poles

Spindle
fibres

M = Middle

Chromatids

A = Apart

Nuclear
membranes
reform