CELLS

• CELL THEORY: Every organism is made of cells, basic unit of structure, all cells arise from pre-
existing cells
• FUNCTIONS OF LIIFE:
• Metabolism (all chemical reactions happening in a cell), Respiration, Sensitivity,
Homeostasis, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, Nutrients

Living organisms
• AUTOTROPHS - make their own food by taking inorganic molecules and turning them into
organic molecules using energy
• photoautotrophs -> use light (chlorella, chlamydomonas)
• chemoautotrophs -> use chemical reaction like oxidation (bacteria)
• HETEROTROPHS - take in organic molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) and turn these
into their organic molecules (animals, fungi)

MULTICELLULAR UNICELLULAR
• Two or more cells, each has its own job • Carry out all functions of life in that cell
• Emergent properties -> arise from the interaction of the
component parts of the complex structure (making • Eukaryotes - amoeba, paramecium, yeast
tubes in skin to carry blood) • Prokaryotes - bacteria
• Each cell has the full genome (an organism’s entire set
of genes) Discrepancies
• Differentiation • Acellular because they are larger than a typical
• development is specific ways, cells become cell
specialised, multicellular organisms, cells have • Some tissues contain large amounts of
all genes, some genes are expressed, position/ extracellular material -> xylem in trees
hormone/chemicals determine the development, • Skeletal muscle fibres -> larger, many nuclei
a group of differentiated cells is a tissue • Fungal hyphae -> not divided into individual cells,
many nuclei
Stem Cells
• undifferentiated cells -> divide and differentiate SA:VOL Ratio
• in totipotent/embryonic stem cells the entire • Sets the limits to size of an organism
genome is active -> some deactivate and the cell • Cells are good when small (large SA:VOL) ->
become specialised (bone cells, blood cells, higher rate of transport, needs less chemicals
muscle cells, nerve cells, skin cells) • Organisms with small SA:Vol (multicellular) reply
• Totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent, unipotent on transport systems not on diffusion/osmosis
• Stem cells have the ability to: • SA -> absorbing nutrients, excretion
• Self-renew • Vol -> determines need for materials
• Differentiate
• Do either of these for a long time
• Therapeutic uses: (Cancer, diabetes)
• From bone marrow
• From embryos
• less lab animals, divers resources,
treatment to many diseases
• stops life from developing, unstable and
cause tumours, living thing
• Stargard Disease (photoreceptive cells
degenerate -> retinal cells are cultured with
stem cells -> new retinal cells)
• Leukemia (chemotherapy to kill diseased
cells, blood stem cells put into bone marrow
to differentiate into blood cells)
 EUKARYOTES PROKARYOTES
• Nucleus • No nucleus but nuclei
• Free ribosomes 80s and attached ribosomes on • Free ribosomes 70s
rER • Non-cellulose wall
• Plants have cellulose wall • No membrane bound organelles
• Membrane bound organelles • Pili present
• No pili • No mitochondria
• Mitochondria • BUT both cytoplasm, plasma membrane, DNA

• Unicellular and multicellular • Unicellular

• Generalised and specialised • Reproduce by binary fission (making clones)
• Intracellular and extracellular components • Two bacteria can swap DNA
• cell wall (support, prevents pathogens,
maintains shape, allows tutor pressure,
cellulose, matrix, glycoprotein

• Animals -> store glycogen not starch, have

centrioles, cholesterol in cell membrane, no
chloroplast, no vacuole no cell wall

Endomembrane system
- nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
body, vesicles
• rER contains ribosomes which synthesise
protein molecules with vesicles
• transport vesicle takes proteins to Golgi
apparatus, fuses with GA an releases proteins
• proteins go through layers and mature
• secretory vesicle transports them to blood or
they stay in vesicles (enzymes)
• sER doesn’t contain ribosomes, assembles and
packages lipids
 Cell membrane
• Cell membrane separates two aqueous environment -> cell membrane is insoluble
• Made of phospholipid bilayer -> inner side is hydrophobic and outer is hydrophilic
• Not a rigid structure -> fluid mosaic (flexible, adaptable, always moving)

- TAIL -> hydrophobic, non-polar, fatty acids, bound to glycerol

- HEAD -> polar, hydrophilic, phosphate

1) Hold the cell together

2) Controls diffusion, osmosis, active transport
3) Protects the cells
4) Allows the cell to recognise and be recognised (antigens with antibodies)
5) Bind to other cells and molecules
6) Site of biochemical reactions

• PROTEINS -> transport across the membrane, recognition (receptors), enzymes, adhesion
• integral -> goes through the layer (channel with pores)
• peripheral (half embedded)
• CARBOHYDRATES -> always attached to proteins (gycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipid)
• CHOLESTEROL -> only in animal cell membranes, steroid, reduces fluidity and permeability of
hydrophilic/ charged molecules, increases flexibility

- 1925 Gorter-Grendal -> phospholipid bilayer

- 1935 Davson Danielli -> phospholipid bilayer surrounded by a layer of protein
- phospholipids and proteins
- plasma membrane of red blood cells has twice as much phospholipids -> bilayer
- membranes form a barrier -> proteins?
- 1972 Singer-Nicholson -> fluid mosaic membrane
- not all membranes are identical, hydrophobic proteins cannot be exposed to water,
fluorescent antibodies changed colour when binding to membrane proteins

Transport processes
PASSIVE ACTIVE
• no energy required • ATP required
• particles move down the concentration gradient • against the conc. gradient (low to high)
(high to low)
• AFFECTED BY: temperature, size of molecules, 1) SODIUM - POTASSIUM PUMP -> electrical
steepness of conc. gradient messages in neurons -> 3Na+ makes outside
• Hypotonic - less concentrated positive and 2K+ negative inside, K+ travels back
• Hypertonic - more concentrated outside by facilitated diffusion to depolarise
• Isotonic - equilibrium 2) ENDOCYTOSIS (digested by enzymes from
lysosomes, fuses with vesicles)
1) DIFFUSION - phagocytosis -> solids
- simple -> non-polar - pinocytosis -> liquids
-facilitated -> requires protein channels, polar 3) EXOCYTOSIS (when the particles are too big)
2) OSMOSIS -> water through protein channel
(aquaporins)
 Origins of cells
• Primordial soup (amino acids) -> RNA -> DNA -> proteins -> cell
• 64 codons of the genetic code have the same meanings in the cells of all organism

UNTIL 19th CENTURY -> spontaneous generation

1) non-living synthesis of organic molecules
2) assembly into polymers
3) polymers can replicate
4) packaging into membranes
-> Pasteur disproved this theory by placing broth in flasks with long necks (fungi appeared in
unboiled) -> cells can only be formed by division from pre-existing cells
-> The first cell must have arisen from non-living material (Miller and Crey’s experiment)
- Earth’s atmosphere was reducing (hydrogen, nitrogen, water vapour, ammonia, methane)
- Heat and electricity -> amino acids + oily hydrocarbons

ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY -> origin of eukaryotic cells

- Ancestral prokaryote engulfs cyanobacterium (chloroplast) and aerobic bacterium
(mitochondria) -> symbiotic relationship

1) chloroplast and mitochondria

have their own DNA similar to bacteria
DNA
2) both have double membranes
- outer membrane is from vesicle
3) mitochondria are the same
size as bacteria + 70s ribosomes
4) grow and divide like cells

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Metabolism
= web of all the enzyme-catalysed reactions in a cell or organism -> metabolic pathways
ANABOLISM = synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules
- monomers -> macromolecules (dimer/polymer)
-> Condensation reactions
CATABOLISM = breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules
- macromolecules -> monomers / polymer -> dimer
-> Hydrolysis reactions

• monomer = single sub-unit (eg amino acid)

• dimer = pair of monomers bonded together (eg dipeptide)
• polymer = chain of monomers (eg polypeptide)

- main types of molecules used by living organisms - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
- organic compounds -> compounds containing hydrogen and carbon (except CO, CO2,
CO32-, HCO3-)

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS:
- hydroxyl -> OH
- amine -> NH2
- carboxyl -> COOH
- methyl -> CH3
 Water
• polar, hydrogen bonds are formed between the
hydrogen and oxygen due to lone pairs
• Hydrogen bonds: H&O, H&N or H&F (strongest
attraction between molecules)

SOLUBLE (polar/hydrophilic) -> glucose, amino acids,

salt
INSOLUBLE (non-polar/hydrophobic) -> oxygen,
cholesterol and fats (transported by lipoproteins)

1) cohesive -> individual molecules are attracted to

each other -> surface tension, sticks to sides of
xylem and can travel against gravity
2) high specific heat capacity -> great coolant, stable
environment
3) adhesive -> water drawn out of xylem as it adheres
to cellulose in cell walls -> kept moist

Carbohydrates
MONOSACCHARIDES = monomers, soluble in water
• C:H:O -> 1:2:1
- pentose (C5) -> ribose, deoxyribose
- hexose (C6) -> glucose, fructose, galactose (same molecular
formula, different structural)

DISACCHARIDES = dimers, soluble

• pair of monosaccharides linked together by condensation -> glycosidic
bond (COC)
- glucose + glucose -> maltose + water (found in seeds)
- glucose + galactose -> lactose + water (found in milk)
- glucose + fructose -> sucrose + water (found in sugar beet)
• Good to concert lactose back to galactose and glucose
• lactose intolerance, tastes sweeter, more soluble, ferment more rapidly for yoghurt

POLYSACCHARIDES =
polymers, not sugars

• Carbohydrates -> short term,

soluble, easy to digest

• Lipids -> long term, insoluble (no

osmotic effect), more energy per
gram, not associated with water

•Fructose -> sweet fruits -> insects

•Sucrose -> storage of carbohydrates
•Cellulose -> cell walls

•Glucose -> ATP by cellular respiration

•Lactose -> sugar in milk for infants
•Glycogen -> short term storage in
muscles and liver
 Lipids
• non-polar, hydrophobic -> insoluble
• carboxyl group -> acidic

GLYCEROL ->

FATTY ACIDS
1) carboxyl group -COOH
2) unbranched hydrocarbon chain

• Saturated -> only single covalent bonds between carbons

(butter, meat)
• Unsaturated -> C-C double bonds
- monounsaturated -> one double bond (fish, oil)
- polyunsaturated -> two or more
- cis unsaturated -> causes a bend
- trans saturated -> straight (cookies, fries)

1) Triglycerides
- 3 fatty acids + glycerol by condensation -> ester bonds
- can undergo hydrolysis
- fats and oils
- non-polar, 12-20 C atoms per hydrocarbon tail
- saturated or unsaturated

2) Phospholipids FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

- 2 fatty acids + glycerol + phosphate 1. structure -> phospholipids
- can undergo hydrolysis 2. hormonal signalling -> steroids
- membrane 3. insulation
4. protection - shock absorber
3) Steroid 5. storage of energy -> triglycerides (2x
- 4 fused rings bigger than in carbohydrates + not
- cholesterol, progesterone, oestrogen, testosterone associated with water)
- don’t undergo hydrolysis as not polymers

Amino Acids
• hydrogen atom, amine group (NH2), carboxyl group
(COOH) and R group (variable side chain) FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
• during condensation a peptide bond is formed 1. storage -> zeatin
between carboxyl and amine 2. transport -> haemoglobin / lipoproteins
3. hormones -> insulin
4. receptors -> neurotransmitter
5. movement -> actin
6. defence -> antibodies
7. enzymes -> catalase
8. structure -> collagen
9. electron carriers
10. pigments -> opsin
11. active transport -> Na-K pumps
12. facilitated diffusion -> sodium channels,
aquaporins
• Solubility depends on what R groups are present
• more soluble: smaller, polar proteins, globular

PROTEOME = all the proteins produced by a cell

- affected by environmental factors (insulin after sweet meal)
- bigger than genome -> more than one protein can be produced from one gene due to
alternative splicing but not all genes code
- everyone has a unique proteome (specialisation)

DENATURATION - shape changes, irreversible

• Heat -> more kinetic energy -> intramolecular bonds break (hydrogen, hydrophobic
interactions) -> protein molecules unfold -> shape of protein changes -> cannot function
• pH -> if not optimum intramolecular bonds break within protein molecules

POLYPEPTIDES
- there are 20 different amino acids
- function determined by structure/ shape -> shape determined by side chains as they interact
(non-polar to non-polar, negative to positive)
- In one polypeptide there are 20,000 amino acids
- amino acid sequence coded for by genes
- conjugated proteins = proteins which combine with other non-protein molecules (lipids,
carbohydrates, metals, nucleic acids)

1) Primary -> sequence of amino acids formed by peptide bonds

2) Secondary -> alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets, stabilised by hydrogen bonding
- collagen, silk
- fibrous
3) Tertiary -> secondary polypeptide folds up by forming intramolecular bonds between R groups
- enzymes -> lysosome, water soluble as non-polar in the centre
- globular
4) Quaternary -> linking of two or more types of polypeptides
- ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, disulphide bridges, polar-polar
- insulin, collagen, haemoglobin
- globular

1) Fibrous
- long, narrow
- structural (strength and support)
- insoluble
- collagen (fibres in skin), keratin, spider silk (makes spider webs), integrin (membrane)
2) Globular
- spherical, rounded
- function (catalyst, transport)
- soluble
- haemoglobin (binds with O), rubisco (catalyses fixing CO2), insulin (helps absorb glucose),
immunoglobulins (antibodies), rhodopsin (pigment absorbing light in retina)
- more sensitive to changes in pH/temperature

Enzymes
• biological catalyst, globular proteins
• decrease the activation energy without being used up
• substrate-specific (shape and chemical properties) -> substrate is adjusted in the active site->
collision
• Affected by temperature, pH and substrate concentration (stops when all active sites occupied)
• Biological pathway = sequence of enzyme reactions (chains or cycles)
ENZYME INHIBITION
- irreversible (binding to enzyme with covalent bond) -> aspirin
- reversible (less strongly) -> ibuprofen
(competitive, non-competitive, end
product, uncompetitive)

1) Competitive -> inhibitors bind to active

site -> slows down the rate
- enzyme succinate dehydrogenase
in respiration, succinate converted
into fumarate, malonate inhibitor
2) Non-competitive -> inhibitors bind to
an allosteric site other than the active
site, can bind before or after substrate
binds -> alter the structure of the
active site -> less product formed
- enzyme catalase breaks down
hydrogen peroxide, copper
sulphate inhibits
- End-product inhibition -> prevents the cell from wasting chemical resources and energy,
end product bins to first enzyme = negative feedback (eg ATP in respiration)

GENETICS
Nucleotides
• made of nucleotides (monomers), parts joined together by condensation
• organic bases -> guanine, cytosine, adenine, thymine
• held together by hydrogen bonds -> helix
• complementary
• phosphate
• deoxyribose
• nucleotides join together by making phosphodiester bonds,
antiparallel

NUCLEIC ACIDS
-DNA: 2 strands, ACGT, deoxyribose
-RNA: 1 strand, ACGU, ribose

DNA Replication
• semi conservative replication = half the original molecule is conserved
• during interphase (S phase)

1) DNA Gyrase relieves strains in DNA molecule

2) Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds and separate 2 strands
3) Single-stranded binding protein attaches to 2 strands to keep them stable
4) DNA Polymerase III adds a nucleotide to the 3’ end in 5’ to 3’ direction = leading strand
5) DNA Primase builds RNA primers for Polymerase III
6) DNA Polymerase III adds deoxyribonucleotides to synthesise a new complementary strand =
lagging strand, lengths of DNA between RNA primers = Okazaki fragments
7) DNA Polymerase I removes the RNA primer and replaces it with DNA
8) DNA Ligase seals up the sugar-phosphate nick by creating a covalent bond
MASELSON AND STAHL
EXPERIMENT
- Ecoli to 15N and 14N ->
mixed together in CsCl ->
centrifuge ->
concentration gradient ->
semiconservative
replication

JAMES WATSON ADN

CRICK
- discovered double helix,
complementary bases with H bonds -> completed the model

FRANKLIN
- saw the helix using X-rays

HERSHEY AND CHASE EXPERIMENT

- sulphur in protein -> protein coat of phage
- phosphorus in DNA -> DNA of phage
- bacteria go into pellet and viruses into supernatant as bacteria are much heavier than
viruses -> most of the radioactive 35S was found in supernatant as sulphur only affects
the coat of phage

Transcription
• RNA Polymerase binds with a promoter (base sequence which varies, specific for each gene) ->
3 DNA strands are separated -> triphosphate nucleotides follow the DNA strand and create
mRNA (with U in place of T) in 5’ to 3’direction - complementary, bonded together by covalent
bonds

•CODE= 3 consecutive bases on DNA which

code for an amino acid

•mRNA -> messenger

•tRNA -> transfer
•rRNA -> ribosome

Translation
= Protein synthesis
• mRNA transcribed in the nucleus goes into the cytoplasm by pores in the nucleus
• tRNA activating enzyme and ATP needed

GENETIC CODE
=> determines the sequence of amino acids in polypeptides
- 20 different amino acids -> 3 consecutive bases code for one amino acid (64 possibilities)
1. Degenerate = more than one triplet codes for the same amino acid
2. Non-overlapping
3. Universal = a certain codon codes for the same amino acid in all organisms

CODE = on DNA
CODON = on mRNA (same as code but U instead of T)
ANTICODON = on tRNA (complementary to codon)

RIBOSOME
= site of protein synthesis
- located in rER or free in cytoplasm
- 3 tRNA binding sites
- consists of 2 sub units
- moves along mRNA (mRNA binds to smaller and tRNA to bigger)
- Polysome = many ribosomes working together on one protein

tRNA
- one strand but folded -> in some places the bases are complementary with H bonds
- each tRNA carries one amino acid
- 61 different anticodons, 3 are stop codons
- tRNA activating enzyme attaches the amino acid + ATP -> amino acid has energy / is activated
- ATP -> AMP + 2P + Energy by breaking high energy P-P bonds
- 20 different tRNA enzymes

mRNA
- determines the sequence of amino acids

1) Initiation
- mRNA binds to small ribosome, which then
moves in 5’ to 3’ direction until it meets a
start codon (AUG), tRNA
complementary to start codon binds to P site,
large ribosome binds to tRNA
2) Elongation
- A seconds tRNA binds to A site and the amino
acid at P is transferred to A site (polypeptide bond), ribosome moves along mRNA
in 5’ to 3’
3) Termination
- When a stop codon is reached the polypeptide chain is released

Gene expression regulation

DNA IN HUMANS
- coding -> for polypeptide (5%)
- non- coding -> gene control, (95%)
- introns, promoter, terminator, telomeres, tandem repeats

1) NUCLEOSOME AND SUPERCOILING

• 8 histone proteins + DNA wrapped around it to maintain the chromatin structure, 9th histone
holds the nucleosome together
• Chromatin thread -> loose coiling of nucleosomes -> supercoils to form chromosome

• Prokaryotic DNA is naked (no histones)

• Eukaryotic DNA needs to be supercoiled
• for DNA replication -> cell division
• controls gene expression -> allows cells to specialise and transcription can be ptomote
or inhibited
• must fit into the nucleus

• methyl group (-CH3), acetyl group (-CH3CO) can bind to histones and control which genes are
switched on/off -> change in info
• methylation inhibits transcription and acetylation promotes it

2) INTRONS AND EXTRONS

• DNA and RNA contain introns, which are then broken back to nucleotides when mRNA is made
-> only exons code for the polypeptide
• With one gene section the cell is able to make more than one polypeptide

3) PROTEINS
- activators bing to enhancers to increase rate of transcription
- repressors bind to silencers to reduce transcription of a gene
- RNA Polymerase binds to promoter to transcribe it

4) ENVIRONMENT
- enzymes catalyse production of pigment (white rabbits have black legs, twins changing)

3) TELOMERS
= highly repetitive DNA sequences -> protect DNA from degradation
• end of chromosome cannot be replicated -> the end is lost so doesn’t contain important DNA

4) TANDEM REPEATS
= short sequences of non-coding proteins where adjacent sections of DNA have the same base
sequence
- specific to every individual (n. of repeats) -> DNA profiling

• DNA SEQUENCING
- DNA split into single strands by heat
- mixed with DNA Polymerase, normal DNA nucleotides and ddNTP which lack the OH group
necessary for condensation
- replicated 4 times (ddNTP with each base)
- fragments of replicated DNA vary in length -> shortest molecules move fastest in gel
electrophoresis
- each band in the gel represents one length of DNA fragment

Cell division
CELL CYCLE
- chromatid = one DNA double helix
- chromosome = 1 chromatid or two chromatids joined
together by a protein

• Cyclins = proteins that control the progression of cells

though the cell cycle -> cells only progress when a
specific cyclin reaches its threshold

MITOSIS
1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear envelope breaks down
(supercoiling, 4n)
2) Metaphase: chromosomes align in the centre of the cell
3) Anaphase chromatids are pulled apart
4) Telophase: daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles (1 chromatid chromosome, 2n)
5) Cytokinesis
1) animal -> cytoplasm is cleaved using contracting ring microfilaments and the two
cells pinch off
2) plant -> the cell wall is created from the middle of the cells using vesicles containing
cell wall material. The wall separates the two daughter cells.

MEIOSIS
- reduction division
- number of chromosomes in daughter cells is half of the chromosomes in parent cell
- creates unique cells

1) Interphase: 2n -> 4n
2) Prophase I: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, centrosomes migrate to opposite poles,
homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis) + crossing over
3) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate
4) Anaphase I: chromosomes from each pair move to opposite poles
5) Telophase I: daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles
6) Prophase II: each cell is haploid
7) Metaphase II: chromosomes line up in a single line
8) Anaphase II: Centromeres divide and chromatids separate, move to opposite poles
9) Telophase II: Chromosomes decondense and nuclear membranes reform
10) Cytokinesis: making 4 unique haploid cells

—> Genetic variation (223 in humans)

• Chiasmata = place where the non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material and create
recombinant chromosomes
• Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes
• Mutation
• Fusion of gametes
CHROMOSOMES
- homologous pair -> same gene in same loci (but may have different alleles)
- sister chromatids are identical and connected with controllers
• Autosomes (22 pairs in humans)
• Sex chromosomes (23rd pair in humans) - determines the gender, SRY gene on male
- The Human Genome Project -> determine the base sequence of all chromosomes, genome is
the whole of genetic information of an organism
- DNA
- Prokaryotes: naked DNA, no membrane, 1 circular chromosome, plasmid
- Eukaryotes: histones, nuclear envelope, more different chromosomes, linear chrom.

GENETIC DISORDERS
• Cancer => tumour (abnormal new growth of tissue that possesses no physiological function and
arises from uncontrolled cell division)
• due to mutation in oncogenes (controlling cell cycle) = change in the structure or number
of base sequence of certain genes
• mutagens = agents that cause gene mutation (carcinogens, X-rays, UV, viruses)
• metastasis = spreading of cancerous cells —> secondary tumour
• treatment: surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy
• mitotic index = number of cells in mitosis/ total number of cells

• Karyogram = diagram of chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs of decreasing length

• homologous chromosomes = size, banding pattern, centromere position
• Obtaining cells for analysis
- Amniocentesis - sample of amniotic fluid is removed from amniotic sac around the foetus
with a hypodermic needle
- Chorionic Villus Sampling - cells from fetal tissues in the placenta, needle through vagina
- Down syndrome = number mutation -> 21 trisomy, caused by non-disjunction of chromosomes/
chromatids
- Sickle-Cell Anaemia = structure/ base substitution mutation, Adenine is replaced by Thymine ->
Glutamic to Valine amino acid -> change in the shape of haemoglobin

Inheritance
• Law of segregation = alleles become independent, only one goes into the gamete
• Genotype = alleles present, determines the phenotype
• Phenotype = appearance and functioning
• Carrier = an organism that contains the recessive allele that isn’t expressed but may be passed
to offspring
• Multiple alleles = More than two alleles for one gene (ABO)

- Dominant-recessive -> dominant is expressed in the heterozygous

- Co-dominance -> both expressed in the phenotype —> ABO blood groups
- Autosomal -> gene is on the autosomal chromosomes —> Cystic fibrosis, Huntington
- Sex-linkage -> gene is on the sex chromosome (X) —> red-green blindness, haemophilia
- discovered by Morgan (couldn’t be proved by Mendel)
- Monohybrid crosses -> one trait determined by one gene (two heter. produce 3:1 p. ratio)
- Di-hybrid crosses -> more than one gene is involved
- unlinked -> independent assortment creates recombinants (alleles segregate
independently) (two heter. produce 9:3:3:1)
- linked -> crossing over creates recombinants (alleles go together), decreases genetic
variety, phenotypes same as parents without crossing over

- Polygenic Inheritance = single characteristic is controlled by many genes —> human skin colour
- gives rise to continuous variation in phenotype
 Genetic Modification
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
= way of predicting large quantities of the same DNA molecule (crime scene sample of blood)
1) Denaturation -> heat to separate two strands/ break H bonds
2) Annealing -> DNA primers are added and bind to separated DNA strands
3) Elongation -> A heat-tolerant DNA polymerase (Tag) adds deoxynucleotides to the strands after
primers

DNA PROFILING
= identifying individuals using DNA
- we use tandem repeats = unique repeating DNA sequences
- Gel electrophoresis -> separates fragments of DNA (cut by restriction enzymes) by size so you
can compare it to a marker (fragments are negative and move in gel, smaller move faster
through pores)

GENETIC MODIFICATION
• genes from one organism are transferred to another —> resulting organism = TRANSGENIC
• faster and larger-scale production of medicines (eg Insulin), glowing pigs and rabbits
- genes from one to another —> the second can produce a specific protein (enzymes or
hormones)
- bacteria are often used

PROCESS OF MAKING INSULIN

1) Human cells contain a gene for making insulin
2) Bacteria cells contain a ring of portable DNA = plasmid
3) Extract the DNA from human cells
4) Use an enzyme (restriction endonuclease) to cut the insulin gene to of DNA
5) Use the same enzyme (as one enzyme recognises a specific DNA/type of gene —> same
genes so they fit) to cut bacteria DNA plasmid
6) Use a different enzyme (ligase) to stick the human insulin gene into the bacteria plasmid by
creating phosphodiester bonds —> recombinant plasmid
7) The plasmid holding the gene is put into bacteria —> bacteria reproduce by mitosis

GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

• Maize = transgenic organism with gene from bacteria found in soil —> gene makes corn
produce a toxin that kills pests
- Advantages = pest resistant, higher yield, cheaper as no pesticides needed, less harmful to the
e.
- Disadvantages = potential health risks (how toxins affect humans), pests build up resistance to
toxin, GM crops can pollinate with wild plants, kills other insects too

CLONING
= exact copies, genes copied within the same species
- somatic cell transfer or division of embryo
• asexual
• plants -> runners (strawberry), tubers (sweet potato), or animals -> identical twins
1) rRemoval of diploid nucleus from a body cell
2) Enucleation = removal of egg cell
3) Insertion of diploid nucleus into enucleated egg cell
4) Division by mitosis
5) Implanting the embryo into surrogate mother
6) Delivering

CHI-SQUARE
- degree of freedom = one less than n. of categories, critical value = 0.05
EVOLUTION
Define evolution the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a species
—> change in the frequency of an allele in a population
Define species is a group of organisms that can actually or potentially interbreed to produce fertile,
viable offspring
Define allele frequency frequency of an allele in a population, if changed -> natural selection
Define gene pool the total collection of different alleles in an interbreeding population
Define population is a group of organisms of the same species that are living in the same area at the same
time
The populations of a species If two populations of a species become geographically separated, they are unable to
can gradually diverge into breed with each other, over time they are able to evolve differently and diverge in their
separate species by characteristics more and more. The change in the population may be very gradual and
evolution. Explain how this takes place over a long time, but eventually they are so different that they would not be
can happen. able to interbreed even if they inhabited the same area again. They evolved into two
separate species.
▪
Define homologous Anatomical features that are similar in basic structure despite being used in different
structures ways

Define adaptive radiation Adaptive radiation is the evolutionary divergence of members of a single species into a
variety of different adaptive forms.

Explain how pentadactyl amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals have pentadactyl limbs
limbs provide evidence for their limbs have the same basic bone structure because
evolution they evolved from a common ancestor
but they use their limbs in a wide variety of ways as they are adapted to different types
of locomotion. This is an example of adaptive radiation.
Define fossil is the preserved remains or traces of any organism from the remote past
How do fossils provide ▪ The fossil record shows that over time changes have occurred in the features of
evidence for evolution? living organisms.
Fossils can be dated by determining the age of the rock layer in which the fossil is
found. Different kinds of organisms are found in rocks of particular ages in a
consistent order, indicating a sequence of development. e.g. Prokaryotes appear in the
fossil record before eukaryotes, Invertebrates appear in the fossil record before
vertebrate species
List the three sources of mutation, meiosis (crossing over and independent assortment of homologous
variation chromosomes ) and sexual reproduction
How does the change in the Finches feed on seeds with a wide range of sizes
beak size of finches on the large seeds are harder to crack open
Daphne Major provide after several years of drought, when only large seeds were available, the average size
evidence for evolution? of beaks increased
It occurred because the finches with large beaks are better adapted to feeding on large
seeds.
What are antibiotics? are used to control diseases caused by bacteria
Where are the antibiotic in the plasmid
resistance genes located in
the bacterial genome?
Define clade is a group of organisms evolved from a common ancestor
Define cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades
What do cladograms show? shoe the probable evolutionary relationships of large groups of species
What data is used to create base sequences of a gene e.g. cytochrome c, mitochondrial DNA
clades? amino acid sequence of a protein eg. haemoglobin
Why was it necessary to the classification based on structure did not correspond with the evolutionary origins of
reclassify figworts? the group . eg. species in the same family did not all share the same common ancestor
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
- fossil record
- selective breeding (dogs) -> most desirable traits are chosen
- homologous structures -> pentadactyl limb
- comparative DNA (genetic code is universal -> how close DNA is to other organisms)
- observable changes

NATURAL SELECTION
- parents produce more offspring than survive
- there is competition among members of a species for survival/struggle for existence
- species show variation (mutation, meiosis, sexual reproduction)
- certain variations will give a selective advantage/survival of fittest
- depending on environment
- these variations will be passed on to the next generation
- leading to change in allele frequency

1) Antibiotic resistance
- generation 1 before antibiotics -> no variation, non-resistant
- after mutation -> resistance when antibiotics is used -> next generation more resistant
2) Galapagos finches
- endemic for the Galapagos Islands
- 1977 -> drought -> birds with large beaks survive
- 1983 -> rain -> small beaks survive
- they don’t interbreed -> adaptive radiation

—> Types of natural selection

1) directional -> one extreme is selected (great tit)
2) stabilising -> intermediates selected for (great tit)
3) disruptive -> extremes selected (lazuli bunting)

SPECIATION
= formation of new species due to reproductive isolation
- phyletic gradualism (gradual) or punctuated equilibrium (abrupt due to environmental changes)
—> Types of reproductive isolation
1) geographical = different areas (Galapagos)
2) behavioural = different mating calls
3) temporal = breeding at different times

POLYPLOIDY
= multiples of a normal set of chromosomes (more than two sets due to non-disjunction) -> reproductive
isolation

ADAPTIVE RADIATION
= evolutionary divergence of members of a single species into a variety of different adaptive forms ->
homologous structures (ancestral species diversifies into many descendant species by evolution -> )
- geographical isolation -> reproductive isolation (different mating rituals, genetic differences)
-> Galapagos finches

VARIATION
- Random -> DNA replication or viral infection
- Sexual -> meiosis (crossing over and random assortment) or random fertilisation

STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL

- territory, food, mating partners, predation, diseases

CLADOGRAMS
= tree diagrams showing the similarities and differences between species
- clade = group of organisms that evolved from a common ancestor
- node = branching points on cladograms
- base sequences are used since sequence differences accumulate gradually -> time since they diverged
from ancestor
 DOMAIN
Classification
BINOMIAL SYSTEM by Lannaeus KINGDOM
= genus (first letter uppercase) and then species

• Artificial classification -> appearance (those with wings) PHYLUM

• Natural classification -> from the same ancestor
CLASS
DOMAINS
- Eukaryota; Bacteria and Archaea (RNA and biochemistry different) ORDER
KINGDOMS
-animals, plants, fungi, protists, bacteria, thermophiles and halophiles FAMILY

PLANTS GENUS
• Multicelular organisms
• Their cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis SPECIES
• Their cells have cellulose in cell walls
• They store carbohydrates as starch or glucose

Eukaryota Eukaryota

Animalia Plantae

Chordata Spermatophyta

Mammalia Eudicotyledons

Primates Magnoliidae

Hominidae Ranunculales

Homo Ranunculus

Sapiens Acris

FUNGI
• Not able to carry out photosynthesis
• Organised into a mycelium made from thread-like structure called hyphae, which contains many
nuclei
• Their cells have walls made of chitin= strong cell membrane
• They feed by extracellular secretion of digestive enzymes onto food material and absorption of
the organic products= saiprotropic nutrition
• Reproduction by spores
• Mucor= typical fungi hyphae structure, and yeast, which is single-celled

-> medicine (penicillin for antibiotics), recycling, food

-> nail infection, athlete’s foot

LICHEN= organism made of 2 different beings-fungus and algae(helping each other=symbiotic

association)
• natural indicators of air pollution
- clean air- bushy lichens
- more polluted air- crusty lichens or no lichens
ANIMALIA
• Multicellular organisms
• Their cells do not contain chloroplasts and aren't able to carry out photosynthesis
• They have no cell walls
• They usually have nervous coordination and are able to move to another place
• They often store carbohydrate as glycogen
PROTISTS
• Microscopic single-celled organisms
• Amoeba (features like animal cell- in ponds)
• Chlorella (more like plants cell)
• Plasmodium= pathogenic example-> malaria

BACTERIA
• Microscopic single-celled organisms
• They have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm
• Do not have nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA
• Some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis, but most feed off their living or dead animals
- If there is mutation (error n duplication genes), only the strongest backer stays alive-> duplicate
very fast
-> Streptococcus aurelius
-> Salmonella

Antibiotics- create bad environment for bacteria

VIRUSES
=not classified as living organisms- reproduce only inside living cells, don’t respire/ need nutrition/
grow
• smaller than bacteria
• Can infect
• No cellular structure- have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)
-> HIV (itś hard to kill, since it hides in our cells)
ECOLOGY
Ecosystem
• AUTOTROPHS - abiotic to synthesise carbon compounds (eg using light)
• HETEROTROPHS - obtain carbon compounds from other organisms
• Saprotrophs/decomposers - from dead organisms by external digestion (enzymes) ->
bacteria, fungi
• Consumers - ingestion
• Detrivores - from dead material by internal digestion
• Species = group of organisms which can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offsprings
• Population = group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same
time
• Community = group of populations of different species living and interacting together in an area
• Abiotic environment = non-living surroundings of a community
• Ecosystem = community + abiotic environment
• Energy loss: death, some parts not eaten, undigested food egested by feces, cell respiration
(used for muscle contraction, active transport)
• 10% energy passed onto another trophic level
• kJm-2year-1

CARBON CYCLE
• Energy cannot be recycled, nutrients can be recycled
• Autotrophs absorb carbon dioxide by diffusion, in water present as hydrogen carbonate ions
• Methanogenic
archaeans =
prokaryotes that
break down organic
matter in anaerobic
-> methane

• Limestone (CaCO3)
can react with
carbonic acid from
rain to release
hydrogen carbonate
ions

• FOSSIL FUELS:
peat from partially
decomposed plants
in acidic and
anaerobic
conditions, oil from
dead marine organisms that are partially decomposed
due to anaerobic

GLOBAL WARMING
• Methane causes more warning but smaller conc.
• Ocean acidification -> dissolving corals as carbonate is
reduced into hydrogen carbonate
PLANTS
REQUIREMENTS -> carbon dioxide, water, mineral ions

HALOPHYTES
• high concentrations of K+ are maintained to prevent osmosis into high Na+ or Cl- environment
(coastal, arid), or conc od Na and Cl maintained in the vacuole
• active transport of Na+ back into soil

XEROPHYTES
• vertical stems to prevent sunlight absorption during midday, waxy cuticles, opening stomata
during night, spines, leaves roll up, hairs on leaf, few stomata

Transpiration
= evaporation of water vapour from the leaf
surface —> pull from the above so water
molecules move upwards
• measured using a potometer which measures
the water uptake

Factors affecting the rate

• Wind speed (blows the water on the leaves
away -> increases concentration gradient ->
increases the rate)
• Humidity (decreases the concentration
gradient -> decreases the rate)
• Light intensity (leaves dome photosynthesis
-> stomata open -> water goes out ->
increases the rate)
• Temperature (faster particle movement ->
increases the rate)

Vascular tissue
-potassium, phosphate, nitrate by active transport -> water by
osmosis

XYLEM
• support
• transport water (transpiration stream)
• tension causes water to move up due to
adhesiveness
• water is cohesive due to hydrogen bonding
• when low pressure -> walls with lignin (woody)
—> water moves out of the xylem into spongy mesophyll cells
by osmosis as the water potential in the leaf cells is lower
- same in the roots (large SA, root cap to protect)
PHLOEM
• transport sugars and amino acids
• loaded into sieve tubes by active transport at
source (stems and leaves) -> uptake of water by
osmosis
• protons pumped out of phloem by active
transport -> proton gradient -> sucrose in
by a co-transporter

• unloaded at sinks (roots) -> exit of water by

osmosis

—> pressure gradient that makes sap flow from

source to sink

- measuring phloem transport rates using amphid stylets

and radioactive labelling

Plant reproduction
1) FLOWERING —> light causes change in gene expression so shoot apex produce flowers
(length of night is important)
2) POLLINATION (pollen lands on the sticky stigma)
- self pollination (sexual)
- cross pollination (sexual) -> by wind ( dull, stamen outside) or insects (smell and bright)
2) Pollen tube grows from stigma to the ovary
3) Nucleus of the pollen travels down the
pollen tube
4) FERTILISATION = fusion of the nuclei of
haploid male and female gametes to form a
diploid zygote
5) The ovule develops into a seed
6) The ovary develops into a fruit
7) Seed is dispersed by wind or animals
(excretion or movement)
8) GERMINATION = when the embryo of a
seed begins to grow roots and shoots

—> requirements = water, oxygen, warm temperature

Plant growth
MERISTEMS
• regions where undifferentiated cells divide and grow (root
and stem) -> indeterminate growth
• shoot apical meristem -> mitosis and cell growth
• production of new cells causes cell displacement to
the edge -> growth and differentiation to become
stem or leaf

TROPISM
• Auxin promotes growth on the shadier side in a shoot
• Phototropins detect blue light -> movement of auxin by active
transport from the cytoplasm through efflux pumps (auxin
carries negative charge) into cell wall (where H+ binds to
auxin) -> Auxin promotes expression of genes causing H+
secretion into cell walls -> lower pH—> loosens cellulose
fibres —> cell growth
RESPIRATION
• controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP

RESPIROMETER
• glass with organism, alkali (NaOH) to absorb carbon dioxide, capillary tube with liquid which
moves as oxygen is being used up

Anaerobic
• Anaerobic respiration good for muscles as more rapid overall rate
for a short time -> Lactate and H+ ions are produced (makes pH of
blood acidic)

YEAST
• Baking -> yeast absorbs oxygen -> afterwards anaerobic -> carbon
dioxide makes dough rise
• Fermentation -> anaerobic with sugar -> ethanol concentration rises to
15%

1) GLYCOLYSIS
• In the cytoplasm, glucose is oxidised by the removal of H+
• 1) Phosphorylation -> less stable (from endothermic to exothermic -> more
likely to react)
• 2) Lysis
• 3) Oxidation
• 4) ATP formation
• 4 glucose produced but 2 used up -> net yield of 2 glucose

Aerobic
1) GLYCOLYSIS

2) LINK REACTION
•in the matrix mitochondrion
•oxidation and decarboxylation from pyruvate ->
oxidative decarboxylation
• pyruvate and lipids converted to acetyl CoA

3) KREBS CYCLE
•involves enzymes
•2 decarboxylations
•4 oxidations (3 NAD and 1 FAD), releases energy which
is then stored by the carriers
•1 ATP produced directly = substrate-level
phosphorylation

4) ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

= protein carriers (cytochromes) in the inner membrane
of mitochodria (cristae) —> oxidative phosphorylation
•NADH supplies 2 electrons to the first carrier
•electrons pass along the chain -> energy release
•NADH -> electron pumping in 3 stages, FAD -> 2 stages
and later
•matrix -> oxygen accepts electrons and 2H+ -> water =
terminal electron acceptor
• chemiosmosis = generation of ATP using energy released by the movement of H+ across the
membrane down the concentration gradient
• H+ pumped into inter-membrane space using energy released by movement of electrons
-> concentration gradient
• ATP synthase allows H+ to diffuse back into matrix -> produce ATP (36 per glucose)

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP
• light energy absorbed by photosynthetic pigments and used to convert carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates

EXPERIMENTS
• RESPIROMETER: glass with
organism, alkali (NaOH) to absorb
carbon dioxide, capillary tube with
liquid which moves as oxygen is
being used up
• CHROMATOGRAPHY: propanone
to extract leaf pigments

ABSORPTION SPECTRA
• showing range of wavelengths
absorbed by a pigment (400nm to
700 nm)
• chlorophyll mainly absorbs red
and blue light, green reflected

ACTION SPECTRA
• showing the percentage use if
wavelengths of visible light
(mostly red and blue)
• accessory photosythetic pigments
which absorb green light to use in
photosynthesis
 Light-dependent
1) ABSORPTION
• photosystems = groups of pigments (red and blue absorbed)
• light causes an electron in chlorophyl to be excited -> electrons passed to other pigments ->
special chlorophyl molecule will send the electrons to electron acceptors in the thylakoid
membrane —> light energy into chemical energy

2) PHOTOSYSTEM II
• electrons pass along carriers (cytochromes) -> energy given out
• protons pumped from stroma inside thylakoid using the energy produced -> proton gradient
• ATP synthase allows protons to diffuse back to stroma -> energy released = chemiosmosis

3) PHOTOSYSTEM I
• electrons pass along a
chain of electron
acceptors -> NADP is
reduced by 2 electrons
from photosystem I and
two protons from the
stroma
• electrons replaced by
photosystem II

4) PHOTOLYSIS
• water split by an enzyme
in the thylakoid space
(photolysis) to replace
electrons in photosystem
II. Oxygen and H+ are by-
products, H+ contributes
to proton gradient

—> produce ATP and NADPH

for light-independent

Light-independent
THE CALVIN CYCLE
• stroma
• carbon dioxide combines with ribulose
bisphosphate, catalysed by rubisco =
carboxylation
• glycerate 3-phosphate (=organic acid)
undergoes reduction -> triose
phosphate

CALVIN’S EXPERIMENTS
• Radioactive labelling
• Double-way paper chromatography
• Autoradiography
 DIGESTION
- peristalsis, stomach churns -> chyme
ENZYME EXAMPLE Food broken Substances produced Produced
down by:

Carbohydrates Amylase, maltase, starch-> amylase breaks 1,4 bonds -> salivary
dextrinase amylose and maltose, dextrins glands,
pH 7 amylopectin Maltase and dextrinase -> glucose pancreas

Proteases Pepsin, Trypsin proteins amino acids stomach

pH 1-2 pancreas

Lipases Pancreatic enzymes triglycerides glycerol, fatty acids pancreatic

pH 7 juices

ABSORPTION
• By epithelium cells in mucosa
•very long - all nutrients have time to get
absorbed
•villi covered in smaller villi - large SA to absorb
nutrients
•villi contain blood vessels - nutrients get
absorbed right in the blood stream
•villi are only 1 cell thick
•villi contain lacteals (vessels)- it absorbs the
fats (doesn’t go in the blood stream, but in
lacteals)

-Simple diffusion (hydrophobic)

-Facilitated diffusion (hydrophilic)
-Active transport (sodium, calcium, iron)
-Endocytosis (triglycerides and cholesterol)
-Sodium co-transporter chain (glucose, Na+ moves down conc. gradient)

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
• Pulmonary (lungs) and systemic (other organs) circulation

THE HEART
• Cardiac muscle -> myogenic contractions
• walls of atria contract -> AV valves open ->
blood into ventricles
• walls of ventricle contract -> AV valves close
and SL valves open -> arteries
• when ventricular pressure falls below atrial ->
AV valves open
• SA node = pacemaker -> sends electrical signals
• affected by medulla and epinephrine
• Coronary heart disease = fatty plaque -> narrow ->
minerals harden
DEFENCE AGAINST DISEASES
• Pathogen = organism or virus that causes disease
Primary defence
• skin = physical barrier and secretes lactic acid and
fatty acids
• mucous membranes have lysozyme
BLOOD CLOTTING
• Coronary thrombosis if plaque ruptures -> fibrillation

Secondary defence
ANTIGENS
• recognition of host cells or foreign (= antigens)
• Species specific (polio in humans) or across species (tuberculosis)
• glycoproteins on blood cells -> A & B antigens (AB contain both so universal recipient, 0
universal donor)

ANTIBODIES
• variable regions bind to antigen, constant region destructs
• making pathogen recognisable to phagocyte
• neutralising toxins,
• bursting pathogen
• sticking pathogen together -> ingest more easily

NON-SPECIFIC IMMUNITY
• Phagocytes (macrophages) ingest pathogens by endocytosis -> digested by enzymes

SPECIFIC IMMUNITY
• Lymphocytes
1) Macrophage presents the antigen to a T-helper cell by binding to a receptor -> gets activated
2) Activated T cell binds to B-cell and activates it (if receptor for same antigen)
3) Activated B cells proliferate by mitosis -> plasma cells -> antibodies
4) Memory cells give long-term immunity

Diseases & Development

ALLERGY
• Overreaction of basophils and mast cells -> histamine -> vessels become leaky

HIV
• T-lymphocytes are destroyed -> no antibodies produced
• blood, vaginal secretions, semen, placenta, breast milk

ANTIBIOTICS
• Block processes that occur in prokaryotic cells

VACCINATION
• trigger immunity without causing the disease using weak pathogen -> antibodies and memory
cells (booster shot stimulates memory cells)

MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
• large quantities of single antibody
• plasma cells fused with tumour cells -> hybridoma cells -> mitosis
• pregnancy kits
VENTILATION
• Bringing fresh air and removing stale air to maintain
concentration gradients for gas exchange
• Tidal volume measured using a spirometer

ALVEOLUS
• Large surface area, moist, thin
• TYPE 1 PNEUMOCYTES -> cell for gas exchange -> thin
and permeable
• TYPE 2 PNEUMOCYTES -> secrete fluid to keep moisture
and prevent inside of alveoli from sticking together
• BLOOD CAPILLARIES -> oxygen diffuses in

EMPHYSEMA
• cilia damaged from smoking and pollution -> mucus builds
up -> toxins from cigarettes cause inflammation of WBC ->
trypsin digests elastic fibres -> breaks down alveoli

LUNG CANCER
• smoking, air pollution, asbestos, passive smoking, radon
gas

NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Saltatory conduction -> speeds up transmission

SYNAPSE
• cholinergic -> acetylcholine as neurotransmitter -
> broken down by cholinesterase -> choline
reabsorbed by pre-synaptic neuron
• neonicotinoid binds to acetylcholine receptors ->
block synaptic tranmission -> kill insect

NERVE
IMPULSE
1) RESTING POTENTIAL = pumping sodium out and
potassium in by active transport -> inside net negative bc of
chloride, outside positive —> -70mV
2) Local currents/ binding of neurotransmitter at synapse
reach threshold potential -> -50mV
3) DEPOLARISATION = voltage-gated Na+ channels open
and Na+ diffuse inside -> +30mV
4) REPOLARISATION = K+ channels open and K+ diffuse
out -> hyperpolarisation -> refractory period -> resting
potential
5) PROPAGATION = Na+ diffuse along the axon inside and
outside (local currents) -> causes increase to -50mV
MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
SARCOMERE
• subunit of myofibril (myofibrils surrounded by
sarcoplasmic reticulum) between two Z lines

MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
• = sliding of actin and myosin
filaments using ATP
• motor neurone -> calcium ions
released from sarcoplasmic
reticulum -> Ca binds to
troponin which moves ->
tropomyosin exposes actin
binding sites -> myosin heads
form cross-bridges with actin

•antagonistic pair -> opposite

directions
•anchorage and insertion = ends
of muscle (bones), anchorage
does not move, insertion moves
—> bones and exoskeletons —>
levers
•synovial joint = junction between
bones
•ligament = connect bones,
restrict movement and prevent
dislocation

HOMEOSTASIS
GLUCOSE -> Insulin & Glucagon
• Insulin -> secreted by beta cells in pancreas -> glycogenesis (muscles and liver absorb glucose
and covert it to glycogen) —> higher cell respiration
• Glucagon -> secreted by alpha cells -> glucogenesis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose)
- DIABETES
- Type 1 —> childhood, immune system destroys beta cells -> insulin injections
- Type 2 —> after childhood, target cells insensitive to insulin -> low carbohydrate diets

METABOLIC RARE AND HEAT -> Thyroxin

• Secreted by thyroid gland -> targets all cells (mainly liver, muscle, brain)
• Contains 4 Iodine molecules
• Metabolic rate -> protein synthesis, growth
• Heat generation by shivering and uncoupled cell respiration in brown adipose tissue &
vasoconstriction
APPETITE -> Leptin
• Secreted by adipose cells -> targets hypothalamus to control appetite

SLEEP -> Melatonin

• Secreted by pineal gland (ganglion cells detect light and send impulse
to SCN in hypothalamus) -> circadian rhythm

Osmoregulation
= control of the internal solute concentration of an organism
• Osmoconformer = no osmoregulation —> squids
• Osmoregulators —> humans
- dehydration = body fluids become hypertonic
EXCRETION
= removal of potentially waste products of metabolic pathways
- Nitrogenous waste —> habitat and evolution (mammals in aquatic still urea)
• Ammonia = toxic so must be dilute —> freshwater fish
• Urea = less toxic, requires energy —> marine mammals
• Uric acid -> not toxic, conversion from ammonia requires a lot of
energy —> birds, insects

KIDNEY
• Excretion & osmoregulation
• Hemodialysis used to treat kidney failure -> blood through dialysate and trap for air bubbles
1) GLOMERULUS
- Ultrafiltration (except plasma proteins)
-> high blood pressure & fenestrations
-> basement membrane and podocytes prevent large
molecules

2) PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE

- Selective reabsorption (all glucose, 80% mineral ions)
- Active transport —> water by osmosis
-> single layer of cells, microvilli, pumps &
mitochondria

3) LOOP OF HENLE
- Establishes high solute concentrations in medulla for
osmoregulation
-> descending limps permeable to water (osmosis)
-> ascending to sodium ions (active transport)
- Leaving filtrate is more dilute
- Lowest point is the most solute concentrated

4) DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE

- Adjusts pH

5) COLLECTING DUCT
- Osmoregulation
-> if water low —> pituitary gland secretes ADH —>
increases permeability of collecting duct by putting
aquaporins —> water moves due to concentrated medulla

MALPIGHIAN TUBULE SYSTEM

• Hemolymph instead of blood
• Ammonia extracted and converted into uric acid
• Mineral ions by active transport from hemolymph to tubule -> water by osmosis
REPRODUCTION
SEX
• SRY gene on Y chromosome-> testis determining factor

STEROID HORMONES
• Testosterone —> pre-natal development of male genitalia & puberty
• Estrogen —> pre-natal development of female genitalia & puberty
• Progesterone —> prepares uterus for pregnancy

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• FSH —> development of follicles —> secretion of estrogen
• Estrogen —> increase in FSH receptors —> higher estrogen (positive feedback)
—> repair and thickening of endometrium
—> stimulates LH secretion & inhibits FSH (negative feedback)
• LH —> completion of meiosis and ovulation
—> development of corpus luteum —> progesterone and estrogen
• Progesterone —> maintenance of endometrium
—> inhibit LH (negative feedback)
• Progesterone levels fall if no pregnancy —> FSH rises

IN VITRO FERTILIZATION
• drugs to stop FSH and LH secretion
• injections of FSH and LH —> many follicles develop (superovulation)
• hCG injected to mature follicles —> follicles washed out
• sperm mixed with follicles —> embryo implanted in uterus & extra progesterone given

Gametogenesis
- mitosis, cell growth, meiosis and differentiation

SPERMATOGENESIS
- from puberty onwards
- almost all cytoplasm is removed
- 4 gametes

1) germinal epithelium cells divide by mitosis —> diploid spermatogonium

2) Cell growth —> diploid primary spermatocytes
3) Meiosis I —> two haploid secondary spermatocytes
4) Meiosis II —> haploid spermatids
5) differentiation at Sertoli cells —> spermatozoa —> to the centre of seminiferous tubule
OOGENESIS
- starts in the embryo
- 1 gamete, 3 polar cells

1) germinal epithelium cells divide by mitosis —>

diploid oogenium
2) Cell growth —> diploid primary oocytes
3) Meiosis I until prophase I —> primary follicles
(primary oocyte with follicles) —> 400,000 at
birth
4) During menstruation primary oocyte completes
meiosis I —> haploid secondary oocyte and
polar cell
5) Meiosis II until prophase II —> mature follicle
6) Ovulation —> secondary oocyte released
7) Fertilization —> secondary oocyte completes
meiosis II—> ovum

Fertilization
- external —> fish, frog
- internal —> humans

1) many sperm reach the egg in oviduct and get attracted to receptors
2) sperm breaks through follicle cells —> acrosome reaction
3) Acrosome reaction —> enzymes digest zona pellucida —> sperm membrane fuses with egg
4) Sperm nucleus enters the egg
5) Cortical reaction —> enzymes cause croos-linking of glycoproteins in zona pellucida —> hard
—> prevents polyspermy
6) Both nuclei carry out mitosis using same centrioles and spindle of microtubules —> two-cell
embryo

Pregnancy
• zygote divides by mitosis —> blastocyst (hollow balls of cells) —> implantation into the
endometrium —> fetus (with bones, 8 weeks)

HORMONES
• Embryo secretes hCG —> stimulates ovary to secrete progesterone —> maintaining
endometrium & preventing contractions by inhibiting
oxytocin
• By month 3 progesterone starts being produced by the
placenta (along with estrogen)
• In third trimester —> progesterone falls —> rise in
oxytocin and estrogen (which increases oxytocin
receptors) —> contractions —> more oxytocin produced
(positive feedback)

PLACENTA
• exchange of materials between maternal and fetal blood
(oxygen, glucose, water, hormones, nutrients in &
carbon dioxide, urea out)
—> microvilli increase SA
—> mitochondria for active transport
—> chorion = placental barrier, secretes progesterone and
estrogen
—> thin capillary walls & small distance