Mid Solution A.Y.

2020-2021

Q 1. a) Classify compound semiconductors based on the valency (column

position in periodic table) of the constituent elements. Give two examples of each
class. Which kind of semiconductor is suitable for making LED? Why? 9+3
Ans:
Compound semiconductors are made up of two or more elements. Based on the
valency of the constituent elements, compound semiconductors can be classified
in three groups:
9 Marks

IV compounds: Combination of column IV elements, for example SiC, SiGe.

III-V compounds: Combination of column III and column V elements, for

example InP, AlGaAs.

II-VI compounds: Combination of column II and column VI elements, for

example ZnS, CdTe.
2+1 Marks

Direct bandgap semiconductors are suitable for making LED. Radiative

recombination is possible in these semiconductors. Therefore, photon/light can
be generated from these materials.

Q 1. b) Derive the expression of average drift velocity of an electron in

semiconductor under electric field and from that derivation obtain the equation of
conductivity of the semiconductor. 9+4
Ans:
The charge carriers in a solid are in constant motion, even at thermal equilibrium.
At room temperature the thermal motion of an individual electron may be
visualized as random scattering from lattice vibrations, impurities, other electrons
and defects. Since the scattering is random, there is no net motion of the group of
1 Mark

n electrons/cm3 over any period of time. If an electric field ℰx is applied in the x-

direction, each electron experiences a net force -qℰx from the field. This force
may be insufficient to alter appreciably the random path of an individual electron.
But when averaged over all the electrons, the effect is a net motion of the group
in the x-direction.

Page 1 of 17
1 Mark

If px is the x-component of the total momentum of the group, the force of the field
on the n electrons/cm3 is
1 Mark

The equation seems to indicate a continuous acceleration of the electrons in the

-x direction. This is not the case, however, because the net acceleration is just
balanced in steady state by the decelerations of the collision processes. Thus,
1 Mark

while the steady field ℰx does produce a net momentum p-x, the net rate of change
of momentum when collisions are included must be zero in the case of steady
state current flow. If the collisions are truly random, there will be a constant
probability of collision at any time for each electron.

Let us consider a group of N0 electrons at time t = 0 and define N(t) as the number
of electrons that have not undergone a collision by time t. The rate of decrease in
N(t) at any time t is proportional to the number left unscattered at t,
1 Mark

where 𝑡̅ is a constant of proportionality.

Page 2 of 17
 The solution to this equation is an exponential function
1 Mark

⁄ ̅
𝑁 𝑡 𝑁𝑒
and 𝑡̅ represents the mean time between scattering events and is called the mean
free time.
The probability that any electron has a collision in the time interval dt is dt/𝑡̅.
Thus, the differential change in px due to collisions in time dt is
1 Mark

The rate of change of px due to the decelerating effect of collisions is

The sum of acceleration and deceleration effects must be zero for steady state.
Taking the sum
1 Mark

The average momentum per electron is

where the angular brackets indicate an average over the entire group of electrons.
As expected for steady state, this equation indicates that the electrons have on the
1 Mark

average a constant net velocity in the negative x-direction:

Page 3 of 17
 The current density resulting from this net drift is just the number of electrons
crossing a unit area per unit time (𝑛〈v 〉) multiplied by the charge on the electron
(–q):

Using equation for the average velocity,

2 Marks

Thus, the current density is proportional to the electric field, as we expect from
Ohm’s law:

The conductivity  (Ω-cm)-1 can be written

The quantity n, called the electron mobility, describes the ease with which
electrons drift in the material.
This derivation has been done considering the current carried by electrons. If both
electrons and holes participate, the equation is to be modified as follows:
2 Marks

Page 4 of 17
 Q 2. a) Using diagram explain how intrinsic and extrinsic carrier concentrations
in semiconductor vary with temperature. 4+8
Ans:
Variation of intrinsic carrier concentration in semiconductor with temperature:
The relationship between intrinsic carrier concentration and temperature is given
by:
2 Marks

⁄ ⁄
⇒𝑛 𝑇 ∝𝑇 𝑒
The exponential temperature dependence dominates ni(T) and a plot of ln ni vs.
103/T appears linear as shown in the following figure:
2 Marks

Intrinsic carrier concentration for Ge, Si, and GaAs as a function of inverse temperature.

Page 5 of 17
 Variation of extrinsic carrier concentration in semiconductor with temperature:
Consider an example of Si doped with donor atoms Nd = 1015 cm-3. At very low
temperatures (large 1/T), negligible intrinsic EHPs exist and the donor electrons
2 Marks

are bound to the donor atoms. As the temperature is raised, these electrons are
donated to the conduction band, and at about 100 K (1000/T = 10) all the donor
atoms are ionized. This temperature range is called the ionization region.
Once all the donors are ionized, the conduction band electron concentration is
n0 Nd, since one electron is obtained for each donor atom. When every available
2 Marks

extrinsic electron has been transferred to the conduction band, n0 is virtually

constant with temperature until the concentration of intrinsic carriers ni becomes
comparable to the extrinsic concentration Nd.
2 Marks

Finally, at higher temperatures ni is much greater than Nd and the intrinsic carriers
dominate. The concentration profile follows that of intrinsic carriers which is a
straight line with 1/T.
2 Marks

Carrier concentration vs. inverse temperature for Si doped with 1015 donors/cm3

Page 6 of 17
 Q 2. b) A Si bar with width w = 0.1 mm along y-axis, thickness t = 8 m along
z-axis and length L = 4 mm along x-axis carrying current Ix = 2 mA (towards +ve
x-axis) is placed in a magnetic field with  z = 210-4 wb/cm2 (towards +ve z-
axis) gives hall voltage of 10 mV across its width along positive y-axis and has
100 mV along its length. Find out - i) the type of the semiconductor, ii) its
resistivity, iii) its majority carrier concentration and iv) majority carrier mobility.
2+3+4+4
Ans:

According to question
w = 0.01 cm
t = 0.0008 cm
L = 0.4 cm
Ix = 0.002 A
z = 2104 wb/cm2
VAB = 0.01 V
VCD = 0.1 V
3 Marks 2 Marks

Since VAB is negative the semiconductor is n-type. (Ans.)

𝑉 𝑤𝑡 0.1 0.01 0.0008

𝜌 0.001  cm Ans.
𝐼 𝐿 0.002 0.4

Page 7 of 17
 4 Marks
𝐼 𝛽 0.002 2 10
𝑛 3.125 10 cm Ans.
𝑞𝑡|𝑉 | 1.6 10 0.0008 0.01

1 1
4 Marks

𝜇
𝑞𝜌𝑛 1.6 10 0.001 3.125 10
20000 cm /V s Ans.

Q 3. a) Define photoconductivity. In a semiconductor, derive the equation of

instantaneous excess electron or hole concentration generated by short optical
pulse and going through only direct recombination. 3+9
Ans:
Photoconductivity: When excess electrons and holes are created in a
3 Marks

semiconductor, there is a corresponding increase in the conductivity of the

sample. If the excess carriers arise due to optical absorption, the resulting increase
in conductivity is called photoconductivity.
Instantaneous excess carrier concentration: At thermal equilibrium (without any
optical absorption) the rate of recombination of electrons and holes, ri is
proportional to the equilibrium concentration of electrons n0 and holes p0.

ri = r n0 p0 = r ni2.
r is a constant of proportionality. At thermal equilibrium the recombination rate
must be balanced by generation rate.

ri = gi = r ni2.
4 Marks

Let us assume the excess electron–hole population is created at t = 0 by a short

flash of light, and the initial excess electron and hole concentrations Δn and Δp
are equal. Then as the electrons and holes recombine in pairs, the instantaneous
concentrations of excess carriers δn(t) and δp(t) are also always equal.
The thermal generation rate is unaffected by excess carrier concentrations. So,

gi = r ni2.
But the recombination rate must increase as such

ri = r [n0 + δn(t)] [p0 + δp(t)].

Page 8 of 17
 So, the rate of change of excess electron (or hole) concentration is given by

The rate change is negative as ri > gi. For low level injection (δn(t) = δp(t) =
small) δn2(t) can be neglected. For extrinsic material the equilibrium minority
carrier concentration can be neglected. If the material is p-type (p0 >> n0)
5 Marks

The solution to this equation is an exponential decay from the original excess
carrier concentration Δn:

Excess electrons in a p-type semiconductor recombine with a decay constant

1
𝜏
𝛼 𝑝
This decay constant is called the recombination lifetime. Recombination lifetime
is the average time an excess carrier takes to recombine. Here the calculation is
made in terms of the minority carriers. Hence, n is often called the minority
carrier lifetime in p-type material. In the case of direct recombination, the excess
majority carriers decay at exactly the same rate as the minority carriers.

Or

Page 9 of 17
 Derive the continuity equation for excess electron and hole concentrations in
semiconductor using suitable diagram and necessary justifications. 12
Ans:
Consider a differential length x of a semiconductor sample with area A in the
yz-plane perpendicular to the x-direction of carrier flow due to diffusion. Initially,
let us consider hole flow only. The hole concentration p(x,t) will be a function of
both space (due to diffusion and drift  diffusion may be a function of x if
concentration gradient is a function of x and drift may be a function of x if electric
field and/or carrier concentration are functions of x) and time (due to
recombination) and p(x,t) = p0 + δp(x,t) where p0 is the equilibrium (thermal)
concentration independent of time and space and δp(x,t) is the excess
concentration.
2 Marks

The hole current density entering the volume xA is Jp(x) and leaving the volume
is Jp(x + x). Jp(x + x) can be larger or smaller than Jp(x) depending on the space-
dependent diffusion and drift of carriers taking place within the volume. Jp(x)/q
2 Marks

gives number of holes entering unit cross-section per unit time. So, Jp(x)/xq
gives the hole concentration entering the volume. So,
1𝐽 𝑥 𝐽 𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑞 ∆𝑥
gives increase of hole concentration per unit time due to diffusion and drift.

Page 10 of 17
 Now, hole concentration at any x undergoing recombination is given by,
1+1 Marks

δ𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 ∆𝑝 𝑥 𝑒
𝑑δ𝑝 1 δ𝑝
So, recombination rate at 𝑥, ∆𝑝 𝑥 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
where ∆p(x) is the hole concentration at x at t = 0. The negative sign indicates
decrease of hole concentration with time due to recombination.
The net increase in hole concentration per unit time at x is
1 Mark

As Δx approaches zero (indicating the yz-plane at distance x), the rate change (at
the yz-plane at distance x) of hole concentration can be written in derivative form:
1 Mark

.
The first term in the right-hand side is the rate of increase of hole concentration
at x (which is why Δx approaching zero is required) due to diffusion plus drift
and the second term is the rate of decrease of hole concentration due to
recombination at x.
As only excess hole concentration p is time dependent (p = p0 + p)
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝛿𝑝
.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
2 Marks

So,

This is the continuity equation for holes.

Page 11 of 17
 Similarly, for electrons having negative q the continuity equation becomes
2 Marks

Q 3. b) Using suitable diagrams and Poisson’s equation, derive the expression for
depletion layer width, W of a p-n junction at equilibrium. What modifications are
required in that expression for biased junctions? 9+4
Ans:
Within the transition region W shown in the following figure (a), electrons and
holes are in transit from one side of the junction to the other. However, very few
carriers are there within the transition region at any given time, since the electric
field sweeps out carriers which have wandered into W. To a good approximation,
the space charge within the transition region can be considered as due only to the
uncompensated donor and acceptor ions. The charge density within W is plotted
1 Mark

in figure (b). Neglecting carriers within the space charge region, the charge
density on the n side is just q times the concentration of donor ions Nd and the
negative charge density on the p side is q times the concentration of acceptors
Na. The junction must have an equal number of charges on either side, i.e.,
Q+ = |Q|. For a sample of cross-sectional area, A, the total uncompensated
charge on either side of the junction is

qAxp0Na = qAxn0Nd .

Page 12 of 17
2 Marks

Space charge and electric field distribution within the transition region of a p-n junction (a)
the transition region, with x = 0 defined at the metallurgical junction; (b) charge density
within the transition region, neglecting the free carriers; (c) the electric field distribution,
where the reference direction for ℰ is arbitrarily taken as the +x direction.

Poisson’s equation relates the gradient of the electric field to the local space
1 Mark

charge at any point x:

Page 13 of 17
 This equation is greatly simplified within the transition region if the contribution
of the carriers (p-n) to the space charge is neglected. With this approximation,
there are two regions of constant space charge assuming complete ionization of
the impurities:
2 Marks

These two equations indicate that a plot of ℰ(x) vs. x within the transition region
has two slopes, positive (ℰ increasing with x) on the n side and negative (ℰ
becoming more negative as x increases) on the p side. There is some maximum
value of the field ℰ0 at x = 0 (the metallurgical junction between the p and n
materials) and ℰ(x) is everywhere negative within the transition region as shown
in above figure (c). The electric field ℰ(x) is expected to be negative throughout
W, since the ℰ field actually points in the x direction, from n to p. The electric
field is zero at the edges of the transition region, since any small ℰ field in the
neutral n or p region is neglected. The value of ℰ0 can be found by integrating
either of the above two equations with appropriate limits
1 Mark

Therefore, the maximum value of the electric field is

It is simple to relate the electric field to the contact potential V0, since the ℰ field
at any x is the negative of the potential gradient at that point:
1 Mark

Thus, the negative of the contact potential is simply the area under the ℰ(x) vs. x
triangle. This relates the contact potential to the width of the depletion region:

Page 14 of 17
 Since the balance of charge requirement is xn0Nd = xp0Na and W = xp0 + xn0, we
can write xn0 = WNa  (Na + Nd) in the above equation to get
1 Mark

By solving for W, we have an expression for the width of the transition region in
terms of the contact potential, the doping concentrations and known constants q
and 𝜖.

For a biased junction, the expression of W will become

⁄
4 Marks

2𝜖 𝑉 𝑉 1 1
𝑊
𝑞 𝑁 𝑁

where V = Vf for forward bias and V = Vr for reverse bias.

Or
Explain the current flow mechanism in a p-n junction at equilibrium and at non-
equilibrium (froward-bias and reverse-bias) using suitable diagrams. 3+5+5
Ans:
When a junction is formed between a p-type and a n-type semiconductor a
diffusion current is set up due to electrons diffusing from n to p and holes
diffusing from p to n because of concentration gradient. Electrons diffusing from
n to p leave behind uncompensated donor ions (Nd+) in the n material, and holes
leaving the p region leave behind uncompensated acceptors (Na). This creates a
region of positive space charge near the n side of the junction and negative charge
near the p side. The resulting built-in electric field ℰ is directed from n to p and
2 Marks

it creates a drift component of current from n to p, opposing the diffusion current.

Since no net current can flow across the junction at equilibrium, the current due
to the drift of carriers in the ℰ field must exactly cancel the diffusion current.
Furthermore, since there can be no net buildup of electrons or holes on either side
as a function of time, the drift and diffusion currents must cancel for each type of
carrier. Therefore, the electric field ℰ builds up to the point where the net current
is zero at equilibrium. The electric field appears in the depletion region W about
the junction, and there is an equilibrium potential difference V0 across W (figure
a).

Page 15 of 17
1+1+1 Marks

Page 16 of 17
 An applied voltage changes the electrostatic potential barrier and thus the electric
field within the transition region. This changes the various components of current
at the junction. In addition, the separation of the energy bands is affected by the
applied bias, along with the width of the depletion region. The electrostatic
potential barrier at the junction is lowered by a forward bias Vf from the
equilibrium contact potential V0 to the smaller value V0  Vf . This lowering of the
potential barrier occurs because a forward bias (p positive with respect to n) raises
the electrostatic potential on the p side relative to the n side. Thus the bands are
separated less [q(V0  Vf)] under forward bias than at equilibrium (qV0). The
diffusion current is composed of majority carrier electrons on the n side
4 Marks

surmounting the potential energy barrier to diffuse to the p side, and holes
surmounting their barrier from p to n. With forward bias, however, the barrier is
lowered to V0  Vf and many more electrons in the n-side conduction band have
sufficient energy to diffuse from n to p over the smaller barrier. Therefore, the
electron diffusion current can be quite large with forward bias. Similarly, more
holes can diffuse from p to n under forward bias because of the lowered barrier.
The drift current is relatively insensitive to the height of the potential barrier since
it depends on how many thermally generated minority carriers can diffuse to the
depletion layer and be swept down the barrier per second. To a good
approximation, the electron and hole drift currents at the junction are independent
of the applied voltage. Larger diffusion current compared to drift current make
the forward current in forward biased p-n junction large (figure b).

For a reverse bias (V = Vr) the electrostatic potential of the p side is depressed
relative to the n side, and the potential barrier at the junction becomes larger (V0
+ Vr). Thus the bands are separated more [q(V0 + Vr)] under reverse bias than at
4 Marks

equilibrium (qV0). For reverse bias the barrier becomes so large (V0 + Vr) that
virtually no electrons in the n-side conduction band or holes in the p-side valence
band have enough energy to surmount it and diffuse. Therefore, both the diffusion
components are negligible for reverse bias. The only current is the relatively small
(and essentially voltage-independent) drift current from n to p (figure c).

Page 17 of 17