SECONDARY ENGLISH NOTES

FORM ONE

LISTENING AND SPEAKING FOR FORM ONE

PRONUNCIATION

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS

In English, we have various vowel sounds. We shall study them one after the other.

Sound /ᵆ/

Consider the letter ‘a’ in the words below. Each says this sound.

• Pan • Pat • Track • Rag

• Fan • Dad • Cram • Sand
• Ban • Ham • Fanned • Slam
• Brash • Mat • Flash • Tag
• Cat • Rash • Pack • Man
Sound /ᶾ˸/

This sound is more like the sound you make when you are disgusted.
The letters in boldface say this sound. Study them carefully.
• Bird • Berth • Cur • Pert
• Shirt • Her • Fur • Stir
• Flirt • Heard • Firm • Blur
• Turn • Hurt • Herd • Shirk
• Learn • Purse • Burn • Surge
• First • Birth • Curt

Sound /a:/

It is pronounced by having a much wider open mouth position.

Inside your mouth is shown in the process of saying this sound.
Examples of words bearing this sound include:
• Far • Heart • Bard • Dart
• Farm • Hard • Cart • Card
• Guard • Bar • Car • Par

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Sound /ə/

This sound (referred to as schwa) is a short vowel sound.

It mostly found in words containing letter ‘o’, for example,
• Confuse • Contemptuous • Continue • Condolence
Also in words such as:
Business

Sound /Ʌ/

Examples of words containing this sound include:

• Sun • Cum • Fun • Brush • Drum

• Son • Cup • Sung • Hum • Dumb
• Some • But • Swum • Rung • Fund
• Pun • Much • Bug • Truck
• Fun • Begun • Bunk • Stunned
Sound /ɔ˸/

It is a long sound.
The mouth doesn’t move while saying this sound, and it can be pronounced as long as you have
breath.
It is said in words such as:
• Or • Pork • Nor • Horn • Chalk
• More • Door • Law • Lord • Jaw
• Chores • Four • Cord • Saw • Scorn
• Dorm • Fore • Form • Shore

Sound /ᶛ/

It is a short sound.
The mouth doesn’t move.
Each of the words below bear this sound:
• Got • Boss • Cop • Pot • Swatch
• On • Stock • Mop • Blot
• Cost • Plot • Rod • Crock
• Lost • Block • Sock • Frog
• Odd • Cock • Shot • Swat
Sound /ᶹ/

bosom

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Sound /I:/

Long sound
Said in words such as the ones below:
• Sheep
• Feet
• Meat
• Tweet etc.

Sound /ᶦ/

It is a short sound.

In words such as:

• Fit
• Bit
• Quit
• Blip etc.

Exercise

The table below has columns with different sounds. Pronounce each of the words in the list and
classify, according to the highlighted letter(s), under the column that bears that sound.

Chip Greased Still cheat jet

Jeep Teal Blip blink
Creek Hill Fill
Wet Sit Bed thrill

/i:/ /ᶦ/ /e/

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PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS
The sound /ᵗᶴ/

Made by releasing the stopped air through your teeth by the `tip of your tongue.
It is voiceless because vocal cords do not vibrate when you say it.
Most words with letters ‘CH’ say this sound, for example,
Church Teach Crunch
Chips Pinch Much
There are those with letters ‘TCH’ for example,
Catch Batch Kitchen
Watch Itch witch
Some are with letters ‘TU’, for example,
Century
Spatula

The Sound /ᵈᶾ/

Pronounced the same way as /ᵗᶴ/. It is just that it is voiced.

Letters representing this sound include:
(a) Letters ‘DG’
• Fudge • Budge • Bridge • Judge
(b) Letter ‘J’
• Judge • Joy • Eject • Jake
• Jump • Joke • July • Project
(c) Letters ‘DU’
• Procedure • Graduate • Individual
(d) When letter ‘G represents the sound
It does that when it is in front of an ‘e’, ‘i’, or ‘y’
(i) Letters ‘GE’, for example,
• Agent • Angel • Urgent • Challenge
• Germ • Danger • Knowledge • Ridge
• Gem • Emergency • Large • Emerge
• Budget • Gentle • Singe
• Gel • Bilge • Enlarge
(ii) Letters ‘GI’, for example,
• Agile • Gist • Engineer • Original
• Allergic • Digitize • Fragile • Vigilant
• Apologize • Eligible • Fugitive
• Contagious • Giraffe • Legion
•
(iii) Letters ‘GY’, for example,
• Allergy • Clergy • Egypt

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 • Analogy • Stingy • Liturgy
• Zoology • Gym • Panegyric
The Sound /f/

The sound is unvoiced or voiceless.

Air is stopped by pushing the bottom lip and top teeth together. The air is then pushed through to
produce this sound.
The /f/ sound has the following letters saying it:
(a) Letter ‘F’
• Four • Knife • Family • Puff
• Wife • Life • Staff • Five

(b) Letters ‘PH’

• Phone • Phrase
• Graph
• Paragraph
(c) Letters ‘GH’
• Cough • Laugh • Tough
• Rough • Enough • Draught

The Sound /v/

The same mouth shape as /f/ is formed when pronouncing the sound /v/.
It is voiced.
Your top teeth is put on your bottom lip.
Words bearing this sound include:
• Van • Voice • Save • Wolves
• Vehicle • Obvious • Jovial • Knives
• Vice • Previous • Virtue
• Unvoiced • Drive • Care
The Sound /d/

/d/ is voiced. The vocal cords vibrate.

The low of air is stopped at the front of the mouth by tongue.
Practice speaking the words below:
• Dad • Dog • Bad • And
• Do • Mad • Done
• Did • Sad • Loud

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Sound /t/

To make this sound, your tongue stops the flow of air at the front of your mouth.
It is a voiceless/unvoiced sound.
It said in words like:
• To • Hot • Later • Tuesday
• Top • Pot • What
• Get • Butter • Today

The sound /k/

There are various letters that say the sound /k/. let’s study these letters.

Letter ‘K’ always say this sound. Examples of words include:

• Kill
• Key
• Kick
• Sake
• Kitten
• Keep

Letter ‘C’, for example,

• Call
• Corn
• Cane
• Campaign
• Camp
• Confusion
• Cucumber
• Colic etc.
Letters ‘CK’ for example
• Kick
• Mock
• Truck
• Back etc.
Letter ‘Q’ for example,
• Quack
• Quail
• Quartz
• Quarter
• Quick

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 Letters ‘CH’, for example,
• Chaotic
• Character
• Ache

The Sound /g/

Found in words such as:

• Galaxy • Gibbon • Gazelle • Gown • Geyser

• Game • Give • Gecko • Girl • Garbage
• Gate • Goat • Gold • Ghost
The Sound /ᶴ/

This sound is unvoiced – only air passes through the mouth when said.
The teeth are put together and the corners of the lips are brought together towards the middle.
Most words with letters ‘sh’ this sound. For example,
Shape Shop bishop
There are words with letters ‘CH’ that say this sound, for example,
Brochure Chute Chicago Quiche
Cache Chef Michigan chaise
Cachet Chiffon Chevrolet
Chagrin Niche Fuchsia
Champagne Ricochet Cliché
Charade Charlotte Chivalry
Some words with ‘SU’ also say it, for example,
Sugar Sure Pressure
Surmac Issue
There are yet those with letters ‘TIO’, for example,
Nation Option
Motion Caution
Then there are those with letters ‘SIO’, for example,
Submission Commission Confession
Sound /ᶿ/

Pronounced with your tongue between your teeth.

It is unvoiced.
The words bearing this sound include:
• Mouth • Thought • Growth • Three
• Thing • Tenth • North • Theme
• Faith • Math • Truth • Therapist
• Fourth • Myth • Pith • Thigh
• Thick • Thumb • Thank • Thickness
• Think • Youth • Thorn
• Three • Thrive • Thimble

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Sound /ᶞ/

Unlike /ᶿ/, it is voiced.

It also pronounced with tongue touching or between your teeth.
It is found in such words as:
• With • Clothing • Thence • Their
• There • These • Then • they
Sound /s/

This is a hissing sound like a snake.

It is voiceless.
The few rules for some of the common spellings that say the sound /s/ are:
(a) Letter ‘S’, for example,
Sit Say Boss Misty
Wise Sad This Sunday
Dogs Sound Lips

(b) Letter ‘SC’, for example,

Muscle Descend Science Scream

(c) Letter ‘X’, for example,

Fix Fox Next Mix
(d) Letter ‘C’, for example,
Face City Fence
Practice Circle License
Sound /z/

The /z/ is like the sound of buzzing bees.

It is voiced.
Most words with the letter ‘Z’ say /z/, for example,
• Zoo • Zebra • Buzz • Doze
• Zip • Quiz • Freeze • prize
There are those words with letter ‘S’ saying this sound, for example,
• Is • Frogs • Reason • Because
• Was • Girls • Rise • Shoes
• His • Friends • Eyes • Visit
• Hers • Lies • These • Those
• Nose • Busy • Days • Bananas
• Noise • Tuesday • Says • cows
• Noises • Wednesday • Ties
• Rose • Sounds • Has
• Roses • Pose • Flows
The other group of words are those with letter ‘X’, for example,
Exist, anxiety

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 Sound /ᵌ/
Words bearing this sound are borrowed from French.
Pronounced in the same way as /ᶴ/ only that is voiced.
The examples of words with this sound are:
Garage Seizure Amnesia Cashmere
Beige Leisure Collision Asia
Massage Persian Division Visual
Sabotage Conclusion Version Vision
Genre Casual Television Lesion
Measure Casually Exposure Decision
Treasure Usual Occasion Caucasian
Closure Usually Persuasion
Practice in sentences

(a) Measure the beige door on the garage.

(b) It was my decision to fly to Asia to seek treisure.

Sound /r/

Raise the back of your tongue to slightly touch the back teeth on both sides of your mouth. The centre
part of the tongue remains lower to allow air to move over it.
It is voiced.
It is found in words with letter ‘R’ e.g.
• Red
• Friday
• Worry
• Sorry
• Marry
It is also said in words with letters ‘WR’ e.g.
• Write
• Wrong
• Wrath
• Wry
• Wring

Sound /w/

Your lips form a small, tight circle when making the sound /w/.
Letters representing the /w/ sound are:
• Letter ‘W’
Woman New Win Towel
Wife Sweet Rewind Wait
• Letters WH
Why When What Whom Whole
Where While White Who

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• Letters ‘QU’
Quit Quite Queer Quota
Quick Quiet Queen Quickly
• Others
One
Choir

Sound /m/

Made by pressing the lips lightly.

The words that follow contain the sound:
• Mum • Me • Farmer • Meat
• Mine • Morning • Shame • Myself
Exercise 1

Read the sentence below pronouncing each word correctly and then group the words in their
appropriate columns. Consider the highlighted letters.

The seven students took the first test for their driver’s licenceson Thursday.

/s/ /z/

Exercise 2

Considering the pronunciation of highlighted letters, pick the odd word out.

(a) Judge, gesture, garage

(b) Jump, gift, geological
(c) Fungi, just, go
(d) Digit, game, gamble
(e) Hygiene, prodigy, entangle
(f) Gecko, gem, zoology

Exercise 3

Pronounce each word correctly and then group it under the column containing the sound that the
highlighted letter(s) bear.

Tissue Division Ocean Leisure Pressure

Caucasian Passion Cautious Solution Vision

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Persian Conclusion Collision Exposure
Casual Television Sure
Chef Decision Precious
/ᶴ/ /ᶾ/

Exercise 4

Circle the letter(s) that say /f/ and underline those saying /v/ in the sentences below.

(a) Please forgive me for forgetting the leftover food.

(b) Save the four wolves that live in the cave.

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DIPHTHONGS
A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds.
Some of the diphthongs include:
• /ᵊᶹ/
• /ᵃᶸ/
• /ᵉᶦ/

/ᵊᶹ/

In words like;

• Role • Moment • Owe • Mexico • Don’t

• Bone • Bonus • Own • Potato • Soul
• Phone • Focus • Bowl • Tomato • Shoulder
• Stone • Vogue • Blow • Logo • Road
• Close • Social • Grown • Motto • Load
• Note • Soldier • Throw • Cold • Boat
• Notice • Coworker • Go • Gold • Coast
• Lonely • Most • Ago • Bold • Coat
• Home • Post • No • Sold • Oak
• Hope • Host • So • Told • Soak
• Open • Ghost • Toe • Roll • Approach
• Ocean • Both • Hero • Poll • Boast
• Remote • Low • Zero • Control • Ok
• Solar • Know • Veto • Bolt • Obey
• Polar • Mow • Ego • Colt • Omit
• Modal • Sow • Echo • Folk • Hotel
• Total • Show • Radio • Comb • Motel
• Motor • Tow • Studio • Won’t

/ᵃᶸ/
Said in words such as:

• How • Clown • Cloud • Mouse • Sound

• Cow • Drown • Out • Mouth • Count
• Now • Crown • Shout • South • Amount
• Allow • Crowd • About • Couch • Mountain
• Owl • Powder • Doubt • Found • Announce
• Brown • Browse • Foul • Ground • Bounce
• Down • Loud • Noun • Around • Allowing
• Town • Proud • House • Pound • Towel

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• Bowel • Tower • Shower • Our • Flour
• Power • Flower • Hour • Sour • coward

/ᵉᶦ/
The words containing this diphthong are:

• wait • Danger • Faint • Nation • Save

• late • Angel • Paint • Nature • Cave
• bait • Stranger • Fate • Fatal • Wave
• date • Basis • Rate • Patriot • Ray
• tale • Lazy • Kate • Radio • Gray
• bail • Crazy • Race • Vacant • Play
• bale • Fail • Base • Weight • Lay
• sale • Mail • Place • Eight • Day
• gate • Sail • Lake • Vein • May
• waste • Rail • Take • Neighbou • Pray
• wade • Raise • Name r • Convey
• baby • Raid • Ache • Break • Survey
• bacon • Afraid • Rage • Steak • Stain
• paper • Wait • Patient • Age • Change
• April • Straight • Racial • Wage etc.
Exercise

Write another word pronounced the same way as:

a) Gait e) Pain i) Vain m) Sew

b) Made f) Plain j) Waist n) No
c) Mail g) Sale k) Wait o) Toe
d) Pale h) Tale l) Eight p) Grown

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MINIMAL PAIRS
Study the pairs of words below carefully.

Fit – feet

Let – late

Van – fan

Pun – pan

What do you notice? You realize that only one sound makes the pronunciation of one word distinct
from the other. Each pair is called a minimal pair.
A minimal pair is therefore a pair of words that vary by only one sound especially those that usually
confuse learners, such as /l/ and /r/, /b/ and /p/, and many others.

Minimal Pairs of Vowel Sounds

Sound /i/ and /i:/

1. Bid – bead 10. Sin – seen/ scene

2. Bit – beat 11. Still – steal/ steel
3. Bitch – beach 12. Sick – seek
4. Bin – bean/ been 13. Is – ease
5. Chip – cheap 14. Itch – each
6. Fit – feat/ feet 15. Risen – reason
7. Fist – feast 16. Piss – piece/ peace
8. Fizz – fees 17. Pick – peak/ peek
9. Gin – gene 18. Mill – meal
Exercise

Write another word in which either sound /i/ and /i:/ will make it vary from the one given.

(a) Hit (d) Peach (g) Kip (j) Pill

(b) Sheet (e) Lip (h) Eel (k) Skied
(c) Tin (f) Neat (i) Greed (l) Skim
Sounds /i/ and /e/

1. Did – dead 7. Fill – fell

2. Disk – desk 8. Bid – bed
3. Built – belt 9. Bill – bell
4. Bit – bet 10. Lit – let
5. Lipped – leapt 11. List – lest
6. Middle – meddle 12. Clinch – clench

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Exercise

Complete the table below with a word in which either the sound /e/ or /i/ brings the difference in
pronunciation.

/e/ /i/
1 Head
2 Miss
3 Hymn
4 Led
5 Fen
6 Lid
7 Den
8 Peg

Sounds /e/ and /ei/

The following words vary by one having the vowel sound /e/ and the other a diphthong /ei/

1. Wet – wait 12. Edge – age

2. Bread – braid 13. Gel – jail
3. Fen – feign 14. Lens – lanes
4. Bed – bade 15. Breast – braced
5. Get – gate/ gait 16. Sent – saint
6. Let – late 17. Test – taste
7. Met – mate 18. Best – based
8. Lest – laced 19. Wren – rain/ reign
9. Tech – take 20. Led – laid
10. West – waste/ waist 21. Bled – blade
11. When – wane 22. Fed – fade
Exercise

Each word below has another word in which either the sound /e/ or /ei/ will bring the distinction in
pronunciation. Write that word.

(a) Fell (d) Sell (g) Raid (j) Stayed

(b) Pain (e) Well (h) Date (k) Bet
(c) Hail (f) Mate (i) Men (l) Jail
Sounds /ᵆ/ and /ᶺ/

1. Batter – butter 7. Rang – rung

2. Cap – cup 8. Track – truck
3. Cat – cut 9. Bad – bud
4. Back – buck 10. Began – begun
5. Brash – brush 11. Bag – bug
6. Dabble – double 12. Pan – pun

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 13. Drank – drunk 19. Rash – rush
14. Fan – fun 20. Sank – sunk
15. Hat – hut 21. Ran – run
16. Badge – budge 22. Swam – swum
17. Hang – hung 23. Ban – bun
18. Massed – must 24. Ham – hum
Exercise

Complete the table below with the minimal pair of the word. Consider the sound indicated in each
column.

/ᵆ/ /ᶺ/
(a) But
(b) Match
(c) Mad
(d) Flush
(e) Cam
(f) Dumb
(g) Sang
(h) Uncle
(i) Crash
(j) Sack
(k) Dump
(l) Tug

Sounds /ᵆ/ and /e/

look at the list below.

1. Bad – bed 6. Sat – set 11. Pan – pen

2. And – end 7. Shall – shell 12. Sad – said
3. Had – head 8. Man –men 13. Manned – mend
4. Jam – gem 9. Bag – beg 14. Land – lend
5. Pat – pet 10. Ham – hem
Exercise

Complete the table with appropriate word that vary with the sound indicated in the column.

/ᵆ/ /ᵉ/
(a) Marry
(b) Blend
(c) Cattle
(d) Vat
(e) Sacks
(f) Trek
(g) Trad
(h) met

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Minimal Pairs of /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/

1. fast – first 7. guard – gird 13. par – purr

2. bath – berth/birth 8. pa – per 14. park – perk
3. heart – hurt 9. bar – bur 15. star – stir
4. bard – bird 10. barn – burn 16. arc – irk
5. car – cur 11. carve – curve
6. card – curd 12. dart – dirt
Exercise 6

Considering the sounds /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/, write the minimal pair of:

(a) far (c) pass (e) shark

(b) heard/herd (d) farm (f) curt

Minimal Pairs of /b/ and /v/

1. bat – vat 6. bale – veil 11. broom – vroom

2. beer – veer 7. bane – vein 12. dribble – drivel
3. bowl – vole 8. curb – curve 13. dub – dove
4. bow – vow 9. bolt – volt 14. jibe – jive
5. gibbon – given 10. bowl – vole 15. rebel – revel
Exercise 7

There is another word that will vary with the one written below with just one sound. Depending on
the sounds /b/ and /v/, write that word.

(a) van (c) Vest (e) Vent (g) Loaves

(b) boat (d) Vowels (f) Bury (h) Verve
Minimal pairs of /f/ and /v/

• Fan – van • Fie – vie • Feel – veal

• Off – of • Foal – vole • Staff – starve
• Fat – vat • Guff – guv • Feign – vain/ vein
• Fee – v • Waif – waive • Foist – voiced
• Foul – vowel • Gif – give • Fox – vox
• Fender – vendor • Life – live • Reef – reeve
• Serf/Surf – serve • Safe – save
• Duff – dove • Belief – believe

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Exercise 8

Write the minimal pair of the word below with consideration being either the sound /f/ or /v/.

(a) Ferry (d) Fine (g) Veil (j) Fault

(b) Leaf (e) Half (h) Grief (k) Vile
(c) Vast (f) Proof (i) Calf (l) Strive
Minimal Pairs of Sounds/s/ and /ᶿ/

• Mouse – mouth • Mass – math • Gross – growth • Sore – thaw

• Sing – thing • Miss – myth • Sigh – thigh • Truce – truth
• Face – faith • Pass – path • Sin – thin • Suds – thuds
• Force – fourth • Saw – thaw • Sum – thumb • Sought –
• Sick – thick • Seem – theme • Piss – pith thought
• Sink – think • Some – thumb • Sawn – thorn • Moss – moth
• Sort – thought • Song – thong • Symbol – • Sank – thank
• Tense – tenth • Worse – worth thimble • Sump – thump
Sounds /t/ and /d/

• Town – down • Tick – dick • Toes – doze • Tame – dame

• Touch – Dutch • Tine – dine • Tout – doubt • Team – deem
• Tear – dare • Hat – had • Tug – dug • Tent – dent
• Ten – den • Spent – spend • Tale/ tail – dale • Toast – dosed
• Tongue – dung • Too/ to/two – • Teed – deed • Tomb – doom
• Tart – dart do • Tier – deer • Tower – dour
• Tech – deck • Train – drain • Tint – dint • Tux – ducks
• Tin – din • Tide – • Sheet – she’d • Tamp – damp
• Toe – doe dyed/died • Wait – weighed • Tell – dell
• Tough – duff • Torn – dawn • Tie – die • Till – dill
• Tuck – duck • Teal – deal • Try – dry • Tusk – dusk
• Tab – dab • Teen – dean • Tear – dear • Sight – side
• Tank – dank • Tyre/tire – dire • Tip – dip • Beat – bead
Exercise 9

Each word below has another word in which all the sounds are the same except either the sound /t/
or /d/ is different. Write that word.

(a) Bat (f) Bed (k) Hit (p) Nod

(b) God (g) Bored (l) Hurt (q) Set
(c) Write (h) Eight (m) Mat (r) Played
(d) And (i) Bet (n) Mend (s) Sat
(e) At (j) Feet (o) Neat (t) Dead

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Minimal Pairs of /k/ and /g/

Initial

• Came – game • Course – gorse • Clamour – • Cape – gape

• Card – guard • Cram – gram glamour • Clam – glam
• Cold – gold • Crepe – grape • Clad – glad • Cord – gored
• Clean – glean • Crew – grew • Crane – grain • Coup – goo
• Crate – great • Croup – group • Creed – greed • Crate – grate
• Cap – gap • Crow – grow • Krill – grill • Cuff – guff
• Coast – ghost • Key – ghee • Cunning –
• Kale – gale • K – gay gunning
• Can – gone • Cab – gab
Final

• Clock – clog • Crack – crag • Stack – stag • Beck – beg

• Dock – dog • Prick – prig • Whack – wag • Cock – cog
• Frock – frog • Puck – pug • Wick – wig • Hack – hag
• Muck – mug • Shack – shag • Jock – jog • Pick – pig
• Brick – brig • Slack – slag • Lack – lag
• Broke – brogue • Snuck – snug • Luck – lug
Exercise 10

Complete the table with appropriate word that only differs with one sound with the one given.
Consider the sounds in the columns.

/k/ /g/
(a) Tack
(b) Flog
(c) Tuck
(d) Gum
(e) Gash
(f) Jack
(g) Cave
(h) Sag
(i) Leak
(j) Crab
(k) Class
(l) Good
(m) Goat
(n) Blog
(o) Kill
(p) Dug
(q) Gut
(r) Log
(s) Rack
(t) Cot

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HOMOPHONES
Words pronounced the same way but have different spellings and meanings are the homophones. The list
below is English homophones.

1. Accessary accessory 41. Bitten, bittern

2. Ad, add 42. Blew, blue
3. Ail, ale 43. Bloc, block
4. Air, heir 44. Boar, bore
5. Aisle, I’ll, isle 45. Board, bored
6. All, awl 46. Boarder, border
7. Allowed, aloud 47. Bold, bawled
8. Alms, arms 48. Boos, booze
9. Altar, alter 49. Born, borne
10. Ante, anti 50. Bough, bow
11. Arc, ark 51. Boy, buoy
12. Aural, oral 52. Brae, bray
13. Away, aweigh 53. Braid, brayed
14. Awe, oar, or, ore 54. Braise, brays, braze
15. Axel, axle 55. Brake, break
16. Aye, eye, I 56. Bread, bred
17. Bail, bale 57. Brews, bruise
18. Bait, bate 58. Bridal, bridle
19. Baize, bays 59. Broach, brooch
20. Bald, bawled 60. Bur, burr
21. Ball, bawl 61. But, butt
22. Band, banned 62. Buy, by, bye
23. Bard, barred 63. Buyer, byre
24. Bare, bear 64. Call, caul
25. Bark, barque 65. Canvas, canvass
26. Baron, barren 66. Cast, caste
27. Base, bass 67. Caster, castor
28. Bay, bey 68. Caught, court
29. Bazaar, bizarre 69. Caw, core, corps
30. Be, bee 70. Cede, seed
31. Beach, beech 71. Ceiling, sealing
32. Bean, been 72. Censer, censor, sensor
33. Beat, beet 73. Cent, scent, sent
34. Beau, bow 74. Cereal, serial
35. Beer, bier 75. Cheap, cheep
36. Bell, belle 76. Check, cheque
37. Berry, bury 77. Choir, quire
38. Berth, birth 78. Chord, cord
39. Bight, bite, byte 79. Cite, sight, site
40. Billed, build 80. Clack, claque

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81. Clew, clue 125. File, phial
82. Climb, clime 126. Find, fined
83. Close, cloze 127. Fir, fur
84. Coarse, course 128. Flair, flare
85. Coign, coin 129. Flaw, floor
86. Colonel, kernel 130. Flea, flee
87. Complacent, complaisant 131. Flex, flecks
88. Complement, compliment 132. Flew, flu, flue
89. Coo, coup 133. Floe, flow
90. Cops, copse 134. Flour, flower
91. Council, counsel 135. Foaled, fold
92. Cousin, cozen 136. For, fore, four
93. Creak, creek 137. Foreword, forward
94. Crews, cruise 138. Fort, fought
95. Cue, queue 139. Forth, fourth
96. Curb, kerb 140. Foul, fowl
97. Currant, current 141. Franc, frank
98. Cymbol, symbol 142. Freeze, frieze
99. Dam, damn 143. Friar, fryer
100. Days, daze 144. Furs, furze
101. Dear, deer 145. Gait, gate
102. Descent, dissent 146. Gamble, gambol
103. Desert, dessert 147. Gays, gaze
104. Deviser, divisor 148. Genes, jeans
105. Dew, due 149. Gild, guild
106. Die, dye 150. Gilt, guilt
107. Discreet, discrete 151. Gnaw, nor
108. Doe, dough 152. Gneiss, nice
109. Done, dun 153. Gorilla, guerrilla
110. Douse, dowse 154. Grate, great
111. Draft, draught 155. Greave, grieve
112. Dual, duel 156. Greys, graze
113. Earn, urn 157. Groan, grown
114. Ewe, yew, you 158. Guessed, guest
115. Faint, feint 159. Hail, hale
116. Fair, fare 160. Hair, hare
117. Farther, father 161. Hall, haul
118. Fate, fete 162. Hangar, hanger
119. Faun, fawn 163. Hart, heart
120. Fay, fey 164. Haw, hoar, whore
121. Faze, phase 165. Hay, hey
122. Feat, feet 166. Heal, heel, he’ll
123. Ferrule, ferule 167. Hear, here
124. Few, phew 168. Heard, herd

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169. He’d, heed 213. Liar, lyre
170. Heroin, heroine 214. Licker, liquor
171. Hew, hue 215. Lie, lye
172. Hi, high 216. Lieu, loo
173. Higher, hire 217. Links, lynx
174. Him, hymn 218. Lo, low
175. Ho, hoe 219. Load, lode
176. Hoard, horde 220. Loan, lone
177. Hoarse, horse 221. Locks, lox
178. Holey, holy, wholly 222. Loop, loupe
179. Hour, our 223. Loot, lute
180. Idle, idol 224. Made, maid
181. In, inn 225. Mail, male
182. Indict, indite 226. Main, mane
183. It’s, its 227. Maize, maze
184. Jewel, joule 228. Mall, maul
185. Key, quay 229. Manna, manner
186. Knave, nave 230. Mantel, mantle
187. Knead, need 231. Mare, mayor
188. Knew, new 232. Mark, marque
189. Knight, night 233. Marshal, martial
190. Knit, nit 234. Mask, masque
191. Knob, nob 235. Maw, more
192. Knock, nock 236. Me, mi
193. Knot, not 237. Mean, mien
194. Know, no 238. Meat, meet, mete
195. Knows, nose 239. Medal, meddle
196. Laager, lager 240. Metal, mettle
197. Lac, lack 241. Meter, metre
198. Lade, laid 242. Might, mite
199. Lain, lane 243. Miner, minor
200. Lam, lamb 244. Mind, mined
201. Laps, lapse 245. Missed, mist
202. Larva, lava 246. Moat, mote
203. Lase, laze 247. Mode, mowed
204. Law, lore 248. Moor, more
205. Lay, ley 249. Moose, mousse
206. Lea, lee 250. Morning, mourning
207. Leach, leech 251. Muscle, mussel
208. Lead, led 252. Naval, navel
209. Leak, leek 253. Nay, neigh
210. Lean, lien 254. None, nun
211. Lessen, lesson 255. Od, odd
212. Levee, levy 256. Ode, owed

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257. Oh, owe 301. Roe, row
258. One, won 302. Role, roll
259. Packed, pact 303. Roux, rue
260. Pail, pale 304. Rood, rude
261. Pain, pane 305. Root, route
262. Pair, pare, pear 306. Rose, rows
263. Palate, palette, pallet 307. Rota, rotor
264. Paten, pattern, 308. Rote, wrote
265. Pause, paws, pores, pours 309. Rough, ruff
266. Pawn, porn 310. Rouse, rows
267. Pea, pee 311. Rung, wrung
268. Peace, piece 312. Rye, wry
269. Peak, peek 313. Saver, savour
270. Peal, peel 314. Spade, spayed
271. Pearl, purl 315. Sale, sail
272. Pedal, peddle 316. Sane, seine
273. Peer, pier 317. Satire, satyr
274. Pi, pie 318. Sauce, source
275. Place, plaice 319. Saw, soar, sore
276. Plain, plane 320. Scene, seen
277. Pleas, please 321. Scull, skull
278. Plum, plumb 322. Sea, see
279. Pole, poll 323. Seam, seem
280. Practice, practise 324. Sear, seer, sere
281. Praise, prays, preys 325. Seas, sees, seize
282. Principal, principle 326. Sew, so, sow
283. Profit, prophet 327. Shake, sheikh
284. Quarts, quartz 328. Shear, sheer
285. Quean, queen 329. Shoe, shoo
286. Rain, reign, rein 330. Sic, sick
287. Raise, rays, raze 331. Side, sighed
288. Rap, wrap 332. Sign, sine
289. Raw, roar 333. Sink, synch
290. Read, reed 334. Slay, sleigh
291. Read, red 335. Sloe, slow
292. Real, reel 336. Sole, soul
293. Reek, wreak 337. Some, sum
294. Rest, wrest 338. Son, sun
295. Retch, wretch 339. Sort, sought
296. Review, revue 340. Spa,spar
297. Rheum, room 341. Staid,stayed
298. Right, rite, write 342. Stair,stare
299. Ring, wring 343. Stake,stoak
300. Road, rode 344. Stalk,stork

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 345. Stationary,stationery 382. Wail,wale,whale
346. Steal,steel 383. Wain, wane
347. Stile,style 384. Waist, waste
348. Storey,story 385. Waive, wave
349. Straight,strait 386. Wall, waul
350. Sweat,sweet 387. War, wore
351. Swat,swot 388. Warn, worn
352. Tacks,tax
353. Tale,tail
354. Talk,torque 389. Watt, what
355. Tare, tear 390. Wax, whacks
356. Taught,taut,tort 391. Way, weigh
357. Tea,tee 392. We, wee
358. Team,teem 393. Weak, week
359. Teas, tease 394. We’d, weed
360. Tare, tear 395. Weal, we’ll, wheel
361. Tern,t urn 396. Weather, whether
362. There,their, they’re 397. Weir, we’re
363. Threw,through 398. Were, whirr
364. Throes,throws 399. Wet, whet
365. Throne, thrown 400. Weald, wheeled
366. Thyme,time 401. Which, witch
367. Tic,tick 402. Whig, wig
368. Tide,tied 403. While, wile
369. Tire,tyre 404. Whine, wine
370. To,too,two 405. Whirl, whorl
371. Toad,toed,towed 406. Whirled, world
372. Told,tolled 407. Whit, wit
373. Tole,toll 408. White, wight
374. Ton,tun 409. Who’s, whose
375. Tor,tore 410. Wood, would
376. Tough,tuff 411. Yaw, yore, your, you’re
377. Troop,troupe 412. Yoke, yolk
378. Tuba,tuber 413. You’ll, yule
379. Vain,vane,vein
380. Vale,veil
381. Vial,vile

Exercise

Write two words pronounced the same way as each of the following words.

(a) B (b) C (c) I (d) P (e) T (f) U

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 SILENT LETTERS
In English there are letters that are usually not pronounced in certain words. Let us have a look at these
letters and words in which they are silent.

Letter ‘A’

• Logically • Romantically • Artistically

• Musically • Stoically
Letter ‘B’

• Aplomb • Crumb • Limb • Succumb

• Bomb • Debt • Numb • Thumb
• Climb • Jamb • Plumb • Tomb
• Comb • Lamb • Subtle • Womb
Letter ‘C’

• Ascend • Crescent • Fluorescent • Resuscitate

• Abscess • Descend • Isosceles • Scenario
• Ascent • Descent • Luminescent • Scene
• Conscience • Discipline • Muscle • Scent
• Conscious • Fascinate • Obscene • Scissors
Letter ‘D’

• Wednesday • Pledge • Handkerchief

• Hedge • Grudge
• Dodge • Sandwich
Letter ‘E’

• Hate • Like • Lessen

• Name • Hope • Surprised
Letter ‘G’

• Align • Champagne • Gnash • Reign

• Assign • Cologne • Gnaw • Sign
• Benign • Consign • Gnome
• Campaign • Gnarl • Gnu
Letter ‘H’

• Honest • Archeology • Charisma • Loch

• Hour • Architect • Chemical • Shepherd
• Heir • Archives • Chemist • Monarch
• Honour • Chaos • Chorus • Scheme
• Ache • Character • Choir • psych
• Anchor • Cholera • Echo

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Letter ‘I’

• Business
• Parliament

Letter ‘K’

• Knock • Kneel • Knight • Know

• Knapsack • Knell • Knit • Knowledge
• Knave • Knew • Knob • Knuckle
• Knead • Knickers • Knock
• Knee • Knife • Knot
Letter ‘L’

• Calm • Walk • Calf • Folk

• Half • Would • Salmon • Balk
• Talk • Should • Yolk
Letter ‘N’

• Autumn • Condemn • Hymn

• Column • Damn • Solemn
Letter ‘O’

• Lesson

Letter ‘P’

• Psychology • Psychiatrist • Receipt

• Pneumonia • Psychotherapy • Corps
• Pseudo • Psychotic • Coup
Letter ‘S’

• Island • Apropos
• Aisle • Bourgeois
Letter ‘T’

• Apostle • glisten • mortgage • whistle

• Bristle • hustle • nestle • wrestle
• Bustle • jostle • rustle
• Castle • listen • thistle
• fasten • moisten • trestle
Letter ‘U’

• baguette • biscuit • build • built

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 • circuit • guild • guilty • rogue
• disguise • guile • guilty • silhouette
• guess • guillotine • guise • colleague
• guide • guilt • guitar • tongue
Letter ‘W’

• awry • wreak • wriggle • wrong

• playwright • wreath • wring • writhe
• sword • wreck • wrinkle • wrong
• wrangle • wreckage • wrist • wrought
• wrap • wren • writ • wrung
• wrapper • wrench • write • wry
• wrath • wretched • wrote
Exercise

Identify the silent letter(s) in:

i. debtor xxviii. Asthma

ii. isle xxix. months
iii. mock xxx. debris
iv. depot
v. acquit
vi. womb
vii. patios
viii. thyme
ix. handsome
x. sandwich
xi. government
xii. listen
xiii. Christmas
xiv. Whether
xv. Rapport
xvi. Ballet
xvii. Chalet
xviii. Aplomb
xix. Ricochet
xx. Clothes
xxi. Cupboard
xxii. Faux
xxiii. Mnemonic
xxiv. Numb
xxv. Rendezvous
xxvi. Catalogue
xxvii. Vegetable

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RIDDLES
A riddle is a statement or a question with veiled meaning posed as a puzzle to be solved.
The riddles play functions such as:
• They boost the creativity of kids.
• They entertain.
Some examples of riddles include:
• What gets wetter and wetter the more it dries? A towel.
• What can you catch but not throw? A cold.
• What goes around the world but stays in a corner? A stamp.
• Give me food, and I will live; give me water, and I will die. What am I ? Fire.

Riddling Process

There are two parties involved: the audience (respondents) and the challenger(or the riddler).
There are basically four stages of a riddling process, but at times six.
The parts of the riddling process are:
(1) The riddlerchallenges the audience. The challenge differs from community to community. Some
phrases used here include: riddle riddle!, I have a riddle! Etc.
(2) The respondents accept the challenge. The invitations include: riddle come! Throw it! Etc.
(3) The riddler then poses the riddle.
(4) The guess or guesses. The audience tries to come up with the solution. If they are unable, then the
next part follows.
(5) The challenger asks for a prize. The prize can be a town or city, or any other thing. The challenger
accepts the prize.
(6) Then the solution is given by the challenger.

Exercise

Read the riddling convention below and then identify its six parts.

Challenger: I have a riddle!

Respondent: Throw it.
Challenger: What comes down but never goes up?
Respondent: Wind
Challenger: no, try again.
Respondent: Bird
Challenger: What will you give me if I offer the solution?
Respondent: You will have the entire fire to yourself.
Challenger: The answer is rain.

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FEATURES OF OGRE STORIES AND TRICKSTERS

(a) OGRE STORIES

An ogre usually represents an evil.
Ogre are usually destroyed at the end.
They have happy ending.
Functions of Ogre Stories
1. They warn against strangers.
2. They caution youth against marrying the people they don’t know.
3.
(b) TRICKSTER STORIES
A character makes up for a physical weakness with cunning and subversive humour.
The trickster alternatives between:
i. Cleverness and stupidity;
ii. Kindness and cruelty;
iii. Deceiver and deceived; and
iv. Breaker of taboos and creator of culture.

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MASTERY OF CONTENT

DEBATE
A formal contest of argumentation between two sides is what debate is.
Debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, and tolerance for divergent points of view.
There are two sides in the debate: the proposition and the opposition.
These two teams are presented with a resolution, such as, ‘Girls and Boys Should play in a mixed
football team.’
The teams are given enough preparation time.
The team affirming the resolution speaks first.
The opposing team then must refute the arguments offered by the affirming team and offer arguments
rejecting the resolution.
Both sides are given the opportunity to present their positions and to directly question the other team.
Neutral judge (s) then evaluate the persuasiveness of the arguments and offer constructive feedback.

Preparation Time

This is the time you have from when the motion is announced to the beginning of the debate. During this
time:

1. Research on the motion to get facts. The facts can be got from the teachers, other students, etc.
2. Write notes on the facts. You can once in a while look at them during your presentation.
3. Practice how to speak. Do it in front of friends and relatives, as well as in front of a mirror.
4. If anxious, do some physical exercise. You can also take a deep breath just before your presentation.
5. Dress decently.

Points Delivery

Here are the points that will help you be successful during your points delivery:

1. Deliver your points in a confident and persuasive way.

2. Vary your tone to make you sound interesting. Listening to one tone is boring.
3. Speak quite loudly to be comfortably heard by everyone in the room. Shouting does not win debates.
4. Make eye contact with your audience, but keep shifting your gaze. Don’t stare at one person.
5. Concisely and clearly express your points to be understood by your audience members.
6. Provide a proof for each point you put across. If you don’t you will not earn a point.
7. Speak slowly and enunciate your words. When you slow down your speech, you give your audience
and the judge more time to process your strong points.
8. Use gestures to elaborate on your points.
9. Pause to divide your major points.

Heckling

Only supportive and argumentative heckling is permitted.

Heckling is a brief phrase (about two words) or other non- verbal actions that are directed to the judge
of the debate.

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 They are reminder to the judge to pay close attention to the message immediately expressed by the
speaker.
There are two types of heckles:
• Those that are non-verbal, such as,
(a) Rapping the knuckles on the desktop.
(b) Rapping the palm on the desk.
(c) Stamping the feet
They are meant to encourage the judge to heed a particularly strong point being made by the
speaker.
• Those that are verbal, such as,
(a) Objective
(b) Evidence
(c) Point of information

They are said after standing up by one member of the opposing side. These are meant to alert the judge to
a problem in the opposing side’s argument.

Exercise

After you deliver your points during the debate, everyone claps for you. How could you have delivered
your points to earn their heckling?

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ETIQUETTE
Etiquette is the rules that indicate the proper and polite manner to behave.

USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE

When one uses courteous language, he/she uses a language that is very polite and polished to
show respect.
At no time should you allow yourself be rude, ill-mannered, impolite, inconsiderate, or even
thoughtless.
Being and remaining polite will go a long way in building relationships.
To show politeness and respect:
• Use the word please in request;
• Say thank you to those who help or compliment you.
• Start your requests or interrogatives beginning with words such as can, could, may, will, or
would.
• Say excuse me when you interrupt other people or intrude into their time or privacy.
• Use question tags.
In this section, we shall learn the words and phrases that show respect.

(a) Please
We use it when you want someone to do something for you. For example: Can you pass that
cup, please?
also used when you want something from someone. For example: Lend me ten shillings,
please.
(b) Thank you
Use it whenever someone does something for you.
Use it when someone commends you.
(c) Sorry
Say it any time you inconvenience someone.
Say it when step on someone’s toes, etc.
Also when someone asks you something you cannot do.
(d) Excuse me

To introduce a request to someone, or to get past someone, use this phrase. For example

Excuse me, can you show me where Amina lives?

(e) Pardon me

Almost as ‘excuse me’

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Exercise 1

Jennifer has gone to the shop to buy a bar of soap. The shopkeeper tells her to be polite the next time she
comes to buy from him. Showing where, which polite phrases could Jennifer have failed to use?

Exercise 2

Read the dialogue below and then explain how Jacinta expresses politeness.

John: I would like to send this letter to japan by airmail, how much is the charge?
Jacinta: It’s one pound, do you need extra stamps?
John: I do, I have been also expecting a package from New-York. Here is my identity card and receipt.
Jacinta: Would you mind signing this form? Here is the package.
John:Finally, I would like to send this registered letter to London.
Jacinta:Please fill in the complete address in capital letters.

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NON VERBAL SKILLS IN LISTENING AND SPEAKING

IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE

A personal space is an imaginary area between a person and their surrounding area. This space makes the
person feel comfortable and should therefore not be encroached.

The distance can exist at work, at home and in our social circles.

The personal space varies depending on factors such as:

(a) Gender
(b) Trust
(c) Relationship
(d) Familiarity with the person.

Why Respect People’s personal Space?

1. To make them feel comfortable.

2. To maintain good relationships.
3. To enhance listening. Especially during a talk.

General Personal Space Rules

The personal space guidelines below will help enhance listening and speaking:

1. Respectfully keep your distance if you walk into a room and see two people in private
conversation.
2. Pay attention to your volume when you speak, whether on the phone or in person, to ensure you
don’t distract attention of others.
3. Maintain physical space at table and chair rows so the people around you have enough room to
write, raise their hands, etc.
4. Be mindful of amount of perfume or cologne you wear as if it is in excess it might distract others.
5. Never lean on the other person’s shoulder unless invited to.
6. Don’t eavesdrop on another person’s phone conversation. In case you overhear details of the
conversation, keep it confidential.

Dealing with Space Intrusion

Depending on the nature of the intrusion, you would deal with space encroachment in different ways.
Here are the steps of dealing with a person who leans on your shoulder:

1. Lean away or take a step back away from the person hoping they would take a hint.
2. Come right out and say you feel discomfort being too close.
3. Explain why you need more space. You can for example tell them you need more space to write.

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Exercise

You have attended a one day seminar. The person sitting next to you is said to be intruding your personal
space. What four personal space guidelines could this person have failed to follow?

LISTENING AND SPEAKING ANSWERS

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS

/ᶦ/

• Hill
• Sit
• Still
• Blip
• Fill
• Blink
• Thrill

/i:/

• Jeep
• Creek
• Greased
• Teal
• cheat

/e/

• jet
• bed
• wet

PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS

Exercise 1

Sound /s/: seven, students, first, test, licences

Sound /z/ : driver’s, licences, Thursday

Exercise 2

(a) Garage (c) Go (e) Entangle

(b) Gift (d) Digit (f) Gecko

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Exercise 3

Sound /ᶴ/ :tissue, passion, ocean, cautious, solution, pressure, Persian, chef, sure, precious

Sound /ᶾ/ :Caucasian, division, leisure, vision, casual, conclusion, television, decision, collision, exposure

Exercise 4

Sound /f/ : forgive, for, forgetting, leftover, food

Sound /v/ :forgive, leftover

DIPHTHONGS

(a) Gate (e) Pane (i) Vane/vein (m) Sow

(b) Made (f) Plane (j) Waste (n) Know
(c) Male (g) Sail (k) Weight (o) Tow
(d) Pail (h) Tail (l) Ate (p) Groan
MINIMAL PAIRS

Exercise 1

(a) Heat (d) Pitch (g) Keep (j) Peel

(b) Shit (e) Leap (h) Ill (k) Skid
(c) Teen (f) Knit (i) Grid (l) Scheme
Exercise 2

(a) Hid (c) Hem (e) Fin (g) Din

(b) Mess (d) Led (f) Led (h) Pig
Exercise 3

(a) Fail (d) Sail/sale (g) Read/red (j) Stead

(b) Pen (e) Whale (h) Debt
(c) Hell (f) Met (i) Main
Exercise 4

(a) Bat (d) Flash (g) Sung (j) Suck

(b) Much (e) Come (h) Ankle (k) Damp
(c) Mud (f) Dam (i) Crush (l) Tag
Exercise 5

(a) Merry (c) Kettle (e) Sex (g) Tread

(b) Bland (d) Vet (f) Track (h) Mat
Exercise 6

(a) Fir/fur (c) Purse (e) Shirk

(b) Hard (d) Firm (f) Cart

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Exercise 7

(a) Ban (c) Best (e) Bent (g) Lobes

(b) Vote (d) Bowels (f) Very (h) Verb
Exercise 8

(a) Very (d) Vine (g) Fail (j) Vault

(b) Leave (e) Halve (h) Grieve (k) File
(c) Fast (f) Prove (i) Carve (l) Strife
Exercise 9

(a) Bad (f) Bet (k) Hid (p) Not

(b) Got (g) Bought (l) Heard (q) Said
(c) Ride (h) Aid (m) Mad (r) Plate
(d) Ant (i) Bed (n) Meant (s) Sad
(e) add (j) feed (o) need (t) Debt
Exercise 10

(a) Tag (f) Jag (k) Glass (p) Duck

(b) Flock (g) Gave (l) Could (q) Cut
(c) Tuck (h) Sack (m) Coat (r) Lock
(d) Come (i) League (n) Block (s) Rag
(e) Cash (j) Grab (o) Gill (t) got
HOMOPHONES

(a) bee, be (c) aye, eye (e) tea, tee

(b) see, sea (d) pee, pea (f) ewe, you
SILENT LETTERS

i. b xi. n xxi. p
ii. s xii. t xxii. x
iii. c xiii. t xxiii. m
iv. t xiv. h xxiv. b
v. c xv. t xxv. z
vi. b xvi. t xxvi. ue
vii. s xvii. t xxvii. e
viii. h xviii. b xxviii. th
ix. d xix. t xxix. th
x. d xx. e xxx. s

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RIDDLES

• Challenge – I have a riddle!

• Acceptance – Throw it.
• Pose/ Riddle – What comes down but never goes up?
• Guesses – wind, bird
• Prize – Fire
• Solution – rain

Exercise 2

aabcddbceeccffccgghh

DEBATE

I could have:

• Spoken confidently
• Varied my tone appropriately
• Spoken loud enough to be heard by everyone
• Made my contact with my audience
• Provided proofs for my points in persuasive way.
• Spoken slowly and enunciated words correctly
• Used gestures that reinforced my ideas
• Paused at key points

USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE

Exercise 1

• Failed to use ‘thank you’ after being given the bar of soap.
• Failed to use ‘please’ when asking to be given the bar of soap.
• Failed to use ‘excuse me’ to get the shopkeeper’s attention.

Exercise 2

• She has used ‘please’ when asking John to fill the address.
• She has used ‘would’ in asking questions.

IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE

He could have failed to:

• Speak in a low voice during the talk.

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• Maintain the physical distance between the two of us at the table.
• Resist leaning on my shoulder or chest.
• Resist eavesdropping on my phone conversation

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READING FOR FORM ONE

READING SKILLS

SILENT READING

It involves reading without pronouncing the words out loud.

It is reading to oneself.

Bad Silent Reading Habits

The following are some of the bad silent habits which you must try to break:

(a) Moving your lips when you read

(b) Vocalizing
Vocalizing means that you are pronouncing words in the voice box of the throat without making sounds.
This also slows your reading rate to that of speaking.

(c) Regressing out of habit

Regressing means rereading a word, phrase, or sentence out of habit and not because of need. Sometimes,
it is necessary to reread something, especially in a difficult passage. But habitual, unnecessary regressing
really slows you down.

(d) Reading one word at a time

(e) Moving of the head as one reads.

(f) Pointing the words as you read.

USING A DICTIONARY

Reasons for using a dictionary

A dictionary is a very important tool for anyone who is learning a new language. With a good
dictionary you can do the following:

• look up the meaning of an English word you see or hear

• find the English translation of a word in your language
• check the spelling of a word
• check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb
• find out other grammatical information about a word
• find the synonym or antonym of a word
• look up the collocations of a word
• check the part of speech of a word
• find out how to say a word

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 • find out about the register of a word
• find examples of the use of a word in natural language

To be a good dictionary user, however, it is not enough to know what to use the dictionary for.
You must also decide which is the best dictionary for any of the purposes listed above.

Finding words quickly

You will need to know the English alphabet perfectly.

Use the guide words at the top of each dictionary page.

Finding the right meaning of an English word

Very often when you look up a new English word, you find that it has more than one meaning. If you are
not sure which one is correct, check through all the meanings and find the one that makes most sense in
the context where you found the word.

Finding the right spelling

Another problem you may have is when you want to check your spelling but you can’t find the word
you’re looking for. Here is what to do:

• If you are sure of the first few letters, just look down the page until you find the right spelling.
• If you are not sure of the first few letters, try some other possibilities. You know for example that
some words that start with an -n sound have p as their first letter; e.g. . So if you can't find the
word under N, try looking in the P pages.

USING THE LIBRARY

When you walk into a library, there are many resources at your fingertips. You just need to know
what to use, how to use it, and when to ask for help.

Different Types of Libraries to Use

Depending on the topic you need to study, you might find that different libraries might serve you
better.

The different types of libraries include:

• Public: This library is the typical library working to make sure the local community has
the books it needs without having to charge anyone to read them.
• Home library
• Class library.
• School library

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Using the library is easy and it only takes a little direction from you in order to fully realize how
many books can help you with your topic of study.

Consulting the Librarian

At times, you may not know where to begin with a research topic. If you are not sure where to go
or what questions to ask, it can help to bring in a third party who is not attached to your research:
the librarian.

Talking to the librarian will help have book titles that have been helpful to you. If you already
have found helpful books, show the librarian so they can look for similar books in the stacks.

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COMPREHENSION SKILLS

SUMMARY AND NOTE-MAKING

SUMMARIES

SUMMARY

An excellent summary is a summary written to show that you have read and understood something.
You will get assignments that ask you to read a certain material and summarize it.

How to produce a summary:

1.Read the material to be summarized and be sure you understand it.

2.Outline the major points.

3.Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.

4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.

5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.

6.Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means you have to
be very careful of your word choice.

7. Write in prose – not point form.

NOTE-MAKING

NOTE MAKING
How to Make Notes

The following tips will come in handy when making notes:

1. Read the material carefully and thoroughly.

2. Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
3. Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
4. Write the final notes.

You should have in mind that a note:

1. Should be short and to the point.

2. Contain all the important and relevant information.

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 3. Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
4. Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
5. Must be written in points only.

Notes Template

TITLE …………………….

(a) ………………………………………….
(b) …………………………………………
(c) ………………………………………..
(d) ………………………………………..

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GRAMMAR FOR FORM ONE

PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

(a) COMMON NOUNS

They are simply words that name people, places, things, or ideas.
They are not the actual names.
The word ‘teacher’ is a common noun, but the word ‘Halima’ is not.
A common noun identifies a thing, etc.
Example of common nouns are:
• People: teacher, father, secretary, woman, girl, etc
• Animals: Tiger, Dog, Cow, etc
• Things: Chair, desk, cup, phone, etc
• Places: City, town, continent, etc
• Ideas: envy, hate, love, pride, etc

How to Capitalize Common Nouns

The simple rule is: don’t capitalize a common noun, unless it is the first word in a sentence, or part of a
title.

Examples in Sentences

Let’s go to that hotel.

I visit a town during the holidays.

Exercise

Substitute the underlined word(s) with a common noun. You can add a word before the noun.

1. John and Nick were taught.

2. I have visited Asia.
3. She lives in Nairobi.
4. We eat at the Hilton.
5. Have you ever swum in the Nile?
6. I drive Mercedes Benz.
7. Everyone went shopping at Tuskys.

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 8. Corporal Jones has died.
9. I come from Rwanda.
10. I am teach at Alliance.

(b) PROPER NOUNS

A proper noun is a name used for an individual person, thing, or a place.
They always begin in capital letters no matter where they occur in sentences.
Look at the table below.

Common Noun Proper Noun Example in a Sentence

Teacher Mr. Kamau Mr. Kamau is our teacher of English.
President Mr. Uhuru Kenyatta Mr Uhuru Kenyatta is in the state house.
Mombasa is the place I go every
City Mombasa weekend.

Exercise

Identify proper nouns in the sentences below.

1. I will take you to Rich’s Palace.

2. Sarah is the girl I told you about.
3. Of all the continents, I like Africa the most.
4. Gracy is the cutest kitten ever.
5. I am craving Oreos.
6. I used Tilly in cooking.
7. Jupiter is one of the planets.
8. Margaret was a great author.

(c) CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT NOUNS

Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun register to our senses.
You can see, hear, taste, smell, or even feel them.
The examples are:
• Table
• Ball
• House
• Rice
• Water
• Wool

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 Abstract Nouns
They don’t register to one’s senses.
They are just ideas, feelings, or qualities.
Some examples of abstract nouns include:
• Health • Insurance • Anger
• Interest • Happiness • Fun
• Sleep • Peace • Pride
• Traffic • Knowledge • Confidence
• Advice • History • Determination
• Education • Noise • Law
• Business • Intelligence • Laughter
Example in Sentences

(i) Education is the key to life.

(ii) All the teacher wanted was a proof.
(iii) I will apply once the opportunity presents itself.
(iv) They are calling for justice.
(v) You need to change your behaviour.
(vi) Love makes the world go round.

Exercise 1

Identify the nouns in the sentences and write whether it they are concrete or abstract.

1. A man must always have the courage to face every challenge.

2. No matter what happens, we must not lose hope.
3. My faith in God is very strong.
4. A person should buy a beautiful dress.
5. Have you seen the black dog?
6. Love is blind.

Exercise 2

Fill the blank with the appropriate form of the word in brackets.

1. She asked for my _______________ about this book. (advise)

2. The _________________ in Kenya is not as good as it was 10 years ago. (educate)
3. The way she answers questions shows she has above average _____________. (intelligent)
4. She explained the ________________ of physical exercise. (important)
5. _____________ means different things to different people. (happy)
6. ___________ is all that will help. (confident)
7. It is _______________ that comes before a fall. (proud)
8. His ______________ led him to kill Ojwang. (angry)
9. The composition she wrote showed a high level of ______________. (imagine)
10. You will die out of ___________. (lonely)

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(d) COUNT AND NON COUNT NOUNS

A concrete noun can either be categorized as count or non-count.

Count Nouns

A count noun can be expressed in plural form, normally with an “-s”, for example,
• Season – seasons
• Dog – dogs
• Teacher – teachers

When you look around the classroom, there are things that you can count. What are they? The list of
things you can probably see are:
• Chairs
• Tables
• Flag
• Textbooks
• Desks
• Cups
Such nouns can be preceded by appropriate articles, whether singular or plural.

Non-Count Nouns

Also referred to as mass nouns.

Nouns falling under this category are those:
• That cannot be counted
• That do not have plural forms.
Below are the examples of non-count nouns.
• Luggage • Milk • Rice
• Weather • Juice • History
• Equipment • Beer • News
• Oxygen • Soccer • Mathematics
• Wood • Biology • Electricity
• Plastic • Reading • Meat
• Hair • Glass • Furniture
• Air • Sunshine
Examples in Sentences

1. This is school equipment.

2. Plastic is a non conductor.

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(e) PLURAL NOUNS
There are rules for spelling plural nouns.
General Rules for Spelling Plural Nouns
1. Most nouns add “-s”, for example
• Book – books
• Pen – pens
• Phone – phones
2. Most nouns that end in “-ch”, “-sh”, “-s”, “-x”, or “-z” add “-ies”, for example,
• Church – churches
• Box – boxes
• Prize – prizes
• Bus – buses

3. Most nouns that end in a consonant and “-y” becomes “-ies”, for example,
• Spy – spies
• Community – communities
• Activity – activities
• Country – countries
4. Most nouns that end in “-f”, or “-fe” add “-ves”, for example,
• Elf – elves
• Wolf – wolves
• Half – halves
• Knife – knives
• Scarf – scarves
5. Some nouns that end in a consonant and “o”, add “-es”, for example,
• Tomato – tomatoes
• Buffalo – buffaloes
• Volcano – volcanoes
• Hero – heroes
• Mosquito – mosquitoes
6. Some nouns only change their vowels, for example,
• Goose – geese
• Man – men
• Mouse – mice
• Tooth – teeth
There are those that do not change at all, for example,
• Deer
• Species
• Fish
• Sheep
There are a few nouns that have plural forms which are left from old English, for example,
• Child – children

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 • Ox – oxen
Then there are those of Latin origin. They are like:
• Antenna – antennae
• Appendix – appendices, appendixes
• Cactus – cacti
• Stadium – stadia, stadiums
• Terminus – termini, terminuses
• Referendum – referenda, referendums
• Index – indices, indexes
• Formula – formulae, formulas
• Curriculum – curricula, curriculums

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ARTICLES

An article is a kind of adjective.

It is used with a noun and gives some information about that noun.
There are two articles:
• A
• The
The article “a” has a form “an”.
Article “a” is known as the indefinite article. It is called indefinite since the noun it goes with is
indefinite or general.
The form “an” is used when the noun it precedes begins with a vowel.
The article “a” has the same meaning as number “one”. For example, one can say:
I have bought a pen. Or
I have bought one pen.
The article “the” is definite article.
A definite article indicates a specific thing. Can you identify the difference between the pair of
sentences below?
(i) I bought a pen.
(ii) I bought the pen.

The second sentence shows that I bought a particular pen, and not any other.

The article “the” is used with count nouns when:

• We use the noun a second and subsequent times.
• The listener knows what you are referring to.

Exercise

Fill in the blank with appropriate article. Leave the space blank if no article is needed.

1. I have to eat ______________ apple today.

2. She has __________ dog at home.
3. My son has learnt how to play __________ piano.
4. Tom likes to play ______________ basketball.
5. There is ___________ new book on the table.
6. ___________ teacher is late this morning.
7. ___________ ink in my pen is black.
8. She speaks _________ Japanese.
9. What ___________ expensive bike!
10. He is _____________ honest person.

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PRONOUNS

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

They represent specific people or things.

They are used depending on:
(i) Number: whether singular or plural
(ii) Person: whether first, second, or third persons
(iii) Gender: whether male, female, or neuter
(iv) Case : whether in the case of subject or object
Number versus Person

Number First Person Second Person Third Person

Singular I You He/she/it

Plural We You They

Gender versus Person

Person Gender
Male Female Neuter
First person
Second person
Third person He She It

Case

The pronouns used as subjects are:

• I
• We
• He
• She
• It
• They
• You
The pronouns below are used as objects:
• Me
• Us
• Him
• Her
• It
• You
• Them

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Examples in Sentences

(i) I like it.

(ii) You are my best friend.
(iii) She is running from the truth.
(iv) Get me that book please.
(v) They are interviewing them.

Exercise 1

Fill the blanks with correct forms of pronouns in brackets.

1. __________ am the new class prefect. (me)

2. ___________ doesn’t matter. (they)
3. Does Martha like ____________? (he)
4. Killion helped ___________. (I)
5. Did you see ___________ ? (she)

Exercise 2

Replace the underlined words with an appropriate pronoun.

1. The old gate doesn’t look good.

2. Tom and Mary went to school.
3. The dog bit the doctor and the chief.
4. Moses runs faster than Rebecca.
5. Phiona and Ruth played doubles.
6. Christine is clever.
7. I brought the dress.
8. Antony drove Junet and me.

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POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person or people, or thing or things that belong to a
person or people, or things.
Just like personal pronouns, they are used depending on:
(i) Number
(ii) Person
(iii) Gender
(iv) Case

Number and Person

• In singular we use:
Mine – first Person
Yours -- second person
His/hers/its – third person
• In plural, use:
Ours – first person
Yours – second person
Theirs – third person

Gender

• For male gender, the pronoun below are used:

His
• For female gender use, hers

Case

A possessive pronoun can either be a subject or object.

Examples in Sentences

(i) Mine is that one.

(ii) This one is mine.
(iii) The cars are yours.
(iv) Yours are those ones over there.
(v) Hers has been stolen.
(vi) This building is ours.

Exercise

Complete each sentence with the possessive pronoun form of the word(s) underlined.

1. Martha did _____________ homework in time.

2. Have you got ___________ money.
3. I like your name. Do you like ___________ ?
4. Hector and Emmy have seen your bag. Have you seen ____________?

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 5. Jane, my flowers are dying. ____________ are good.
6. I have come with my sister. ___________ name is Alice.
7. Sophie and Gerges study Science. _____________ teacher is kind.
8. We love __________ new boss.
9. He is in __________ house.
10. Are you and your friend enjoying __________ weekend?
11. The cat has bit ___________ tail.
12. Right has a brother. ___________ is 10 years old.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

They are special kind of pronouns.

A reflexive pronoun is used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject.
Each personal pronoun has its own reflexive form.
The table below shows personal pronouns with their equivalent reflexive pronouns.

Personal Pronoun Reflexive Pronoun

I Myself
You (singular) Yourself
You (plural) Yourselves
He Himself
She Herself
It Itself
We Ourselves
They Themselves

When Reflexive Pronouns are Used

Reflexive pronouns are used when:

(i) The object and the subject are similar. For example,
• She bit herself.
The subject she and the object herself are similar.
• They betrayed themselves.
• Matthew likes himself.
(ii) They are used as the object of prepositions. In the sentences below, the words underlined are the
prepositions and the ones in boldface are the objects of those prepositions.
• Young bought a pencil for himself.
• Halima mopped the room by herself.
• The mad man talks to himself.
(iii) They are also used when emphasizing the subjects. Examples
• I ate all the rice myself. This means no one else had any.
• Dan will wash the clothes himself. This means she will be helped by no one.

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Can you differentiate between the pair of sentences below?

She bought the pen herseif.

She bought the dress for herself.

Exercise

Fill the correct form of reflexive pronoun for each blank space.

1. In the evening, we went to the market to buy _________________ food to cook.

2. I don’t know whether they went to school or whether they taught ______________ .
3. If you hurt ______________ , don’t cry to anyone.
4. This cat caught the rat _____________ .
5. Whenever I see ___________ in a mirror, I smile to ___________ .
6. That little duck is washing _____________ in the pond.
7. Jonathan ate all the food _____________ .
8. Good evening everyone? Please make _____________ comfortable.
9. Since the school is their father’s, they give _______________ break whenever they feel like.
10. Mary bought the dress for _____________ .

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FUNCTIONS OF PRONOUNS
A pronoun can be used where a noun or a noun phrase can be used in a sentence.
Pronouns perform the following functions in a sentence:
(a) As the Subject of a Verb
• The subject of verb is that which performs that action.
• Some of the pronouns used as subjects of the verbs are:
He
She
I
They
We etc
Examples in Sentences
i. He is my best friend.
ii. You are the one I saw.
iii. They are the school administrators.

(b) As the Object of A Verb

• An object is the recipient of the action.
• Some object pronouns include:
Me
You
Him
Her
Them
It etc
Examples in Sentences
i. Richard escorted him.
ii. He separated them.
iii. I saw her.
(c) As the Object of a preposition
An object of preposition immediately follows the preposition.
Examples
i. I will think about it.
ii. I bought it for him.

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VERBS

A verb is a word that shows an action, state, or even an occurrence.

There are two main verb types:
Lexical verbs
Auxiliary verbs
In this section, we shall study Lexical verbs.

LEXICAL VERBS

A lexical verb is the main verb in a sentence.

It does not need a helping verb as it carries the meaning.
The examples are:
Talk
Sing
Run
Jump
Eat
Go etc
Depending on how they form their past tense and past participle forms, they are grouped as
regular or irregular verbs.

Examples in Sentences
1. I work at the station.
2. She drives a fancy car.
3. I gave you all I had.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Verbs are subdivided into regular and irregular verbs depending on how their past tense and past
participles are formed.
A regular verb adds –ed or –d to the end of the base forms.
Examples of Regular Verbs

Verb Past Tense Past Participle

Call Called Called
Plan Planned Planned
Jump Jumped Jumped
Kill killed Killed
Fill filled filled

Examples In Sentences

1. He jumped over the fence.

2. He killed the cat.

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 For Irregular verbs, there is no formula that predict their past tense and past participle forms.
They include:

Verb Past Tense Past Participle

Sweep Swept Swept
Cut Cut Cut
Come Came Came
Go Went Went
Meet Met Met
Is/am Was Been

Examples in Sentences

1. He ran towards the river.

2. Have you repaid the loan?
3. I have swum.

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TENSES

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

The simple present tense is used to express:

1. Habitual actions, for example,
i. She eats fish.
ii. She washes her clothes every week.
iii. We see movies every evening.
2. Some general truths, for example,
i. Water boils at 100 degrees.
ii. The month of April has 30 days.

Points to Remember on The Simple Present Third Person Singular

• The verb usually ends in –s, for example,
i. He runs
ii. She runs
iii. It runs
• Negative and question are “does”, for example,
i. He does not run.
ii. Does he run?
iii. She does not run.
iv. Does she run?
• In case of negative and question, the next verb after “does” does not add an -s
Present Simple Tense – Negative

A negative sentence is usually formed by using “not”.

Examples in Sentences

i. I do not like it.

ii. We do not like it.
iii. You do not like it.
iv. She does not like it.
v. He does not like it.
vi. They do not like it.

Present Simple Tense – Questions

The questions are formed by using either “do” or “does” at the beginning.

Examples in Sentences

i. Do you like it?

ii. Do we like it?
iii. Do you like it?
iv. Does she like it?

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 v. Does he like it?
vi. Do they like it?

Exercise 1

Rewrite each sentence below following the instruction in brackets. Do not change the meaning of
the sentence.

1. I live in Maragua. (begin with: do)

2. Right comes to school daily. (begin: does)
3. She does not play rugby. (do not use: not)
4. The train leaves at 8.00 am. (use: 9.00 am)
5. Does he forget his wallet? (begin: he)

Exercise 2

Use the correct form of the verb in brackets to complete each of the following sentences.

1. I ______________ fifteen years old now. (be)

2. Moureen ______________ at Githurai. (live)
3. Emilly ___________ dinner for them. (cook)
4. The students ____________ lunch at 1.00 pm. (eat)
5. My grandmother ____________ medicine when she is sick. (take)
6. It normally ____________ here in April. (rain)
7. It _____________ in May as much as it does in March. (rain)
8. They ___________ French twice a week. (study)
9. Mr Gregory ______________ Geography at Lukenya High School.
10. George _____________ to church every Sunday. (go)

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

A simple past tense is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now.
The time of action can be in the recent past or the distant past.

Examples

1. I walked all the way to school.

2. We saw them at the restaurant.
3. They played the piano.
4. She ate her lunch at 1.00 pm.

How to Form the Simple Past Tense

Simple Past in Negative Statement

The pattern here is:

Subject+Auxiliary+not

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She did not call.

Simple Past in Interrogative

Did she call you?

Exercise

Fill in the correct form of word in brackets to complete each sentence.

1. I ______________ to the theatre last week. (go)

2. It _________ interesting. (be)
3. I __________ three sites last year. (visit)
4. It ____________ as it did the the previous week. (rain)
5. She ____________ a single card from her relatives.(receive)
6. We ___________ to a new house last month. (move)
7. They ____________ us pizza yesterday. (bring)
8. I ____________ a big lion. (see)
9. Where _______________ your last weekend? (spend/you)
10. It was cold, so I _________________ off my coat. (take)
11. Since the door was opened, the bird _____________ into the house.
12. The car wasn’t expensive. It _____________ very much. (cost)

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ADJECTIVES

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS

Comparatives

The comparative form of an adjective is used to compare two people or things. Example

He is quicker than Ngure.

Superlatives

The superlative form of an adjective is used to compare more than two people or things. Example

He is the quickest of the three.

Ways of Making Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

(a) Adjectives with One Syllable

In general, if an adjective has one syllable, then –er or –r for comparative and –est or –st for supelatives
are added to the adjective. Examples

Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form

Hot Hotter Hottest
Tall Taller Tallest
Small Smaller Smallest
Large Larger Largest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Nice Nicer Nicest

(b) Adjectives with Two Syllables

There are those that simply add –er or –r for comparative, and –est or –st for superlative. Examples
i. Feeble Feebler Feeblest
ii.
some use theword “more” for comparative, and “most” for superlative forms. Examples
i. famous more famous most famous
ii.
There are those that can do with either –er or –r , or more for comparative and –est or –st , or most
for superlative. They are special adjectives.Examples
i. Clever Cleverer (more clever) Cleverest (most clever)
ii. Simple Simpler (more simple) Simplest (most simple)

Other special adjectives are:

• Quiet

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 • Polite
• Pleasant
• Likely
• Commonly
• Sure
(c) Adjectives with Three or More Syllables

Word more for comparative and most for superlatives are used. Examples

Interesting moreinteresting most interesting

Attractive more attractive most attractive
(d) Irregular adjectives

Some adjectives have Irregular comparative and superlative forms. Examples

Adjective Comparative Form Superlative Form

Bad Worse Worst
Good Better Best
Little Less Least
Much More Most

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

The way an adjective make comparative and superlative forms is what determines whether it is
regular or irregular.
Regular Adjectives
A regular adjective adds –er or more in comparative form, and –est or most for superlatives.
The table below illustrates this.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
Small Smaller Smallest
Nice Nicer Nicest
Pretty Prettier Prettiest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful

Irregular Adjectives

They have completely different forms.

It is not easy to predict their comparative and superlative forms.
Examples are:
Good
Bad etc

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GRADABLE AND NON GRADABLE ADJECTIVES

Gradable Adjectives

A gradable adjective has different degrees.

You can say “very hot” or “a bit hot”. Hot is therefore a gradable adjective. Other gradable adjectives
are:
• Cold
• Warm
• Tall
• Nice etc

There are grading adverbs that can be used with gradable adjectives. They include:
• A bit
• Very
• Extremely
• Quite
• Really
• So etc

Examples in Sentnces

i. It is extremely cold today.

ii. This novel is quite interesting.
iii. The girl is very beautiful.
iv. She is reasonably popular.
Non-Gradable Adjectives
They do not have different degrees.
Some examples of non gradable adjectives are:
Excellent Unique Totally
Impossible Absolutely
Digital Nearly
Domestic Chemical
One cannot say “very dead” or “really dead”. The adjective “dead” is thus, a non-gradable adjective.
A grading adverb cannot be used with the non-gradable adjectives.
Example in a Sentence
i. The dead relative will be buried soon.

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ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF MANNER

They tell us the manner in which the action happened, happens, or will happen.
The examples are:
Carefully
Slowly
Loudly
Easily etc

Examples in Sentences

1. She answered it correctly.

2. The problem was solved easily.
3. He drives slowly.
4. He walked quickly.
5. He runs fast.

ADVERBS OF TIME

An adverb of time tell us when an action happens.

An adverb of time can also tell us for how long that action occurred. For example, three months.
Some examples of adverbs of time are:
• Today
• Next week
• Late
• Early
• Morning
• Last year
• Two months time, etc
Examples in Sentences
i. I saw it yesterday.
ii. He came to school late.
iii. She watched the whole day.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

These are adverbs that answer questions “How frequently?” or “how often?”.
They tell us how often something happens.
There are two types of adverbs of frequency:
i. Adverbs of definite frequency, for example,
• Monthly
• Daily

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 • Hourly
• Weekly
• Yearly
• Every minute
• Twice a month
• Once
• Three times a day, etc

Examples in Sentences

• Employees pay taxes monthly.

• The storekeeper checks the store every day.
• I review my notes every week.
ii. Adverbs of indefinite frequency, for example,
• Never
• Sometimes
• Often
• Always
• Seldom
• Frequently
• Occasionally
• Usually

Examples in Sentences

i. She is never late.

ii. I often do my assignment.
iii. They sometimes visit me.

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PREPOSITIONS

SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS

A preposition joins words together and show the relationship between the different parts of a
sentence.
The following are the simple prepositions with examples in sentences:

1. In, on, at
He is in the house.
The cup is on the table.
He teaches at a school in Wajir.
2. Above, below
Most students scored above 50.
Few students scored below 4o.
3. Over, under
Don’t jump over the fence.
The cat is hiding under the bed.
4. Around, through
The flowers we planted around the house.
The spear went through his body.
5. Before, after
I will see him before lunch.
He is leaving after lunch.
6. To, from
I am coming from Limuru.
I am going to Nairobi.
7. About, by
Have you read the story about an ogre?
The story was written by Kendagor.
8. With, without
He didn’t want to go with us.
We went without him.
9. Between, among
This is a secret between you and me.
There is no secret among many.
10. Inside, outside
The bottle is inside the box.
The spoon is outside the box.

PREPOSITIONS COMBINATIONS

Adjective+Preposition

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Specific prepositions are used after certain adjectives. There is no definite rule to ascertain which
preposition should be used with which adjective. We simply need to learn them.

Here is a list of some commonly used adjectives and the prepositions that normally follow them:

ADJECTIVE PREPOSITION
accustomed To
Afraid Of
Accused Of
acquainted With
Addicted To
Annoyed about/with/at
Allergic To
Amazed at/by
Anxious About
appreciated For
Ashamed Of
associated With
astonished at/by
Aware Of
Angry With
Afraid Of
Attached To
Bad At
Based On
beneficial To
Boastful For
Bored With
Brilliant At
Busy With
Capable Of
Careful with/about/of
Certain About
characteristic Of
Clever At
connected With
conscious Of
Content With
Crazy About
Crowded With
Curious About
dissatisfied With
Doubtful About
Delighted at/about
Derived From
Different From

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disappointed With
Eager For
Eligible For
enthusiastic About
Excellent in/at
Excited About
experienced In
Exposed To
Envious Of
Faithful To
Familiar With
Famous For
fed up With
Free of/from
frightened Of
Friendly With
Fond Of
Furious About
Furnished With
Full Of
Generous with/about
Guilty of/about
Gentle With
Good At
Grateful To
Happy About
Hopeful of/about
Identical with/to
Immune To
impressed With
Inferior To
indifferent To
Innocent Of
interested In
Involved With
Incapable Of
Jealous Of
Kind To
Keen On
Late For
Limited To
Lucky At
Nervous of/about
Notorious For
Opposed To
Patient With

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pessimistic About
Pleased With
Polite To
Popular With
Presented With
Proud Of
Punished For
Puzzled by/about
Qualified For
Ready For
Related To
Relevant To
respectful For
responsible For
Rid Of
Sad About
Safe From
Satisfied With
Scared Of
Sensitive To
Serious About
Sick Of
Similar To
Shocked By
Skilful At
Slow At
Sorry for/about
successful In
Suitable For
Sure of/about
Superior To
Surprised At
suspicious Of
sympathetic With
terrible At
terrified Of
tired Of
thankful to/for
trilled With
troubled With
typical Of
unaware Of
upset About
used To
wrong with/about
worried About

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 Examples in Sentences

1. It was nice of you to help me.

2. Why are you so angry about it? They were furious with me for not inviting them to my party.
3. I was disappointed with the book she bought me.
4. I was pleased with the present you gave me. Were you disappointed with your examination result
5. They have been astonished by something.
6. Everyone was surprised by /at the news.
7. Are you excited about going on holiday next week?
8. Are you afraid of dogs?
9. I'm not ashamed of what I did.
10. I'm not very good at driving big cars.
11. Your composition is full of errors.
12. Your name is similar to mine.

Verb +Preposition Combination

Some verbs need a preposition before an object or another verb.

These kinds are called dependent prepositions and they are followed by a noun or a gerund (‘ing’
form).
Here are some other verbs with their dependent prepositions.

account for apologize to SO for ST

accuse SO of ST appeal to SO for ST
adapt to approve of
add SO/ST to SO/ST argue with SO about SO/ST
add to argue with SO over ST
adjust to arrange for SO (to do something)
admit ST to SO arrest SO for ST
admit to arrive at (a place)
agree on ask for
agree to
agree with
base on be afraid of
be absent from (a place) be angry at SO for ST
be accustomed to be angry with SO for ST
be acquainted with be annoyed at SO for ST
be addicted to ST be annoyed with SO for ST

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be anxious about ST be famous for
be associated with be filled with
be aware of be finished with
be blessed with be fond of
be bored by be friendly to SO
be bored with be friendly with SO
be capable of ST be frightened by
be cluttered with ST be frightened of
be committed to be furnished with ST
be composed of be grateful to SO for ST
be concerned about be guilty of ST
be connected to be happy about ST
be connected with be innocent of ST
be content with be interested in
be convinced of ST be involved in ST
be coordinated with ST be involved with
be crowded in (a building or room) be jealous of
be crowded with (people) be known for ST
be dedicated to be limited to
be devoted to be made from ST
be disappointed in be made of (material)
be disappointed with be married to
be discouraged by be opposed to
be discouraged from (doing something) be patient with SO
be discriminated against be pleased with
be divorced from SO be polite to SO
be done with ST be prepared for
be dressed in be protected from
be encouraged with be proud of
be engaged in ST be related to
be engaged to SO be relevant to
be envious of be remembered for ST
be equipped with ST be responsible for
be excited about be satisfied with
be exposed to be scared of
be faced with be terrified of
be faithful to be thankful for
be familiar with be tired from (doing something)

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be tired of (doing something) contribute to ST
be worried about convict SO of ST
beg for cope with
begin with correspond with SO
believe in count on
belong to cover with
benefit from crash into
blame SO for ST cure SO of ST
blame ST on SO
boast about
borrow ST from SO deal with
decide against
decide between SO/ST and SO/ST
care about decide on
care for dedicate ST to SO
catch up with demand ST from SO
cater to depend on
charge SO for ST derive ST from ST
charge SO with ST deter SO from ST
choose between SO/ST and SO/ST devote ST to SO
chose ST from ST differ from
collide with disagree with
come from disapprove of
comment on discourage SO from ST
communicate with SO discuss ST with SO
compare SO/ST to SO/ST distinguish between SO/ST and SO/ST
compare SO/ST with SO/ST distinguish SO/ST from SO/ST
compete with distract SO from ST
complain about dream about
compliment SO on ST dream of
concentrate on dress SO in ST
concern SO with ST drink to
confess to
confuse SO/ST with SO/ST
congratulate SO on ST elaborate on ST
consent to ST emerge from ST
consist of
escape from (a place) exchange SO/ST for SO/ST

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exclude SO from ST help SO with ST
excuse SO for ST hide ST from SO
expel SO from (a place) hinder SO/ST from ST
experiment on hinge on
explain ST to SO hope for

feel about insist on

feel like insure against
fight about interfere in ST
fight against interfere with ST
fight for introduce SO/ST to SO/ST
fight with invest in
forget about invite SO to
forgive SO for ST involve SO/ST in ST

gamble on jabber about

gawk at joke about
gaze at joke with SO about SO/ST
get back from (a place) jot down ST
get married to SO
get rid of
get through with laugh about
get tired of laugh at
get used to learn about
give ST to SO lend ST to SO
glare at listen for
gloat at listen to
grieve for long for
gripe at SO look at
grumble at SO about ST look forward to

meet with SO
happen to mistake SO/ST for SO/ST
harp on
hear about nod at
hear from SO nod to
hear of

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object to share ST with SO
operate on shout at
show ST to SO
smile at SO
participate in ST speak to SO about SO/ST
pay for specialize in ST
persist in spend (money/time) on
plan on stand for
praise SO for ST stare at
pray for stem from
prefer SO/ST to SO/ST stop SO from (doing something)
prepare for subject SO to ST
present SO with ST subscribe to
prevent SO/ST from (doing something) substitute SO/ST for SO/ST
prohibit SO from (doing something) subtract ST from ST
provide for succeed at ST
provide SO with ST succeed in (doing something)
provide SO/ST for SO suffer from
punish SO for ST suspect SO of ST

react to take advantage of

recover from ST take care of
refer to ST talk about
relate to talk to
rely on tell SO about ST
remind SO of SO/ST thank SO for ST
reply to think about
rescue SO from SO/ST think of
resign from ST toast to
respond to translate ST into (a language)
result in ST trust SO with ST
retire from ST turn to

save SO from ST use ST for ST

search for
sentence SO to ST
vote against
separate SO/ST from SO/ST

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vote for work on
worry about
write about
wait for write to SO
warn about
waste (money/time) on
wish for yap about
work for yearn for

Exercise 1

Fill the blank spaces with the most appropriate prepositions.

1. She has placed the cup _____________ the table.

2. I will allow you go _________ the field.
3. She is singing _________ her room.
4. Is he ________ home now?
5. He lives _________ Nairobi.
6. Don’t be late _________ class.
7. Compare your points __________ your friend’s.
8. Are the new student ________ Ethiopia?
9. Rich is still ________ vacation.
10. My daughter’s birthday is ________ May.

Answers

1. On 5. In 9. On
2. To 6. For 10. In
3. In 7. With
4. At 8. From

Exercise 2

Complete the sentences with the most appropriate prepositions.

1. It was stupid …………………her to go out without a coat.

2. Everyone was pleased ………………….the marks they scored.
3. I am bored ………………..singing every morning.
4. Are you interested ………………..sports?
5. Kenya is famous ……………… her athletes.
6. I will be happy to see married ……………. Gregory.
7. The town is crowded with people.

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8. You will be held responsible …………………anything that happens.
9. She is sorry ……………….. her behavior last night.
10. You should be sorry …………………..missing the lesson.
11. Jemimah is fond …………………. dogs.
12. I am keen ………….. leave this school.
13. What are you excited ……………..?
14. It seems she is upset ………………something.
15. You shouldn’t be worried …………………anything as long as I am around.

Answers
(1) Of (6) To (11) Of
(2) With (7) With (12) On
(3) With (8) For (13) About
(4) In (9) About (14) About
(5) For (10) For (15) About

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CONJUNCTIONS

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses.

And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet are the known coordinating conjunctions.

Examples in Sentences

i. This is a beautiful girl, but a difficult one to convince.

ii. It was cold, so I put on my jacket.
iii. This tea is thick and sweet.
iv. Do you like white rice, or brown rice?

Functions of Coordinating Conjunctions

Conjunction Function Example in a Sentence

And Joins two similar ideas Jane and Mary are in form one.
But Joins two contrasting ideas He drives slowly, but sure.
Or Joins two alternative ideas We can go to Naivasha, or stay here and
watch news.
So Shows the second idea is the result I was sick, so I did not go to school.
of the first
Nor Joins two negative alternatives. He doesn’t wake up early, nor do I.
For Give a reason I was punished, for I was late.
Yet Joins two contrasting ideas (means I was punished, yet I arrived early.
“but”)
Exercise

Join each pair of sentences with an appropriate coordinating conjunction.

1. I love to travel. I hate travelling by bus.

2. You should go to bed now. You will be tired tomorrow.
3. The bus stopped. Two passengers got out of it.
4. Helen was angry with Jane. Helen went out to cool down.
5. I arrived at school late. I left home early.

Answers

1. I love to travel but I hate travelling by bus.

2. You should go to bed now, or you will be tired tomorrow.
3. The bus stopped and two passengers got out of it.
4. Helen was angry with Jane, so she went out to cool down.
5. I arrived at school late, yet I left home early.

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PHRASES

A phrase is a group of words without a subject and a verb and which does not make sense on its
own.
There are various types of phrases. They include:
Noun phrases
Verb phrases
Adjective phrases
Adverb phrases
Prepositional phrases
At your level, we will only study noun phrases.

NOUN PHRASES

A noun phrase is a group of words that plays role of a noun and has a noun has the head word
(main word).
Look at the example below.
I saw Bingo. The word in bold is a noun
I saw your dog. In boldface, is the noun phrase that has replaced the noun in above
sentence.

Examples of Noun Phrases

The new car
My old shirt
The best car safety device

Constituents of a Noun Phrase

A noun phrase consists of:

A determiner, which can be an article, a number, or an adjective.
Modifiers, which can be an adjective, or combinations of adjectives.

Modifiers can either be premodifier if it comes before the main noun, or post modifier if
it follows the noun.
Determiners precede modifiers.
Study the noun phrases.

Phrase Determiner Pre Main noun Post Modifier

modifier
The tall woman The Tall Woman
The longest river The Longest River
Your sister Your Sister
Any big supermarket Any Big Supermarket Nearby
nearby

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Exercise

Underline the noun phrase in each of the sentences below.

1. Did you see the tall man?

2. He called all the stubborn students.
3. He wishes to see the president.
4. He bought her a beautiful white blouse.
5. An horse prefers living in dark stables.
6. It is disgraceful to write such rubbish.
7. The people’s president is in Mombasa.
8. The girl in blue skirt is my sister.
9. The soldiers are true heroes.
10. My best friend is Teris.

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SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence has one clause —independent

(a) SENTENCE STRUCTURE (SUBJECT, PREDICATE)

A simple sentence has the formula:
Subject + Predicate
Look at the example below.
This desk is mine.
This desk – Subject
Is mine – the predicate

A subject is the one doing the action.

Predicate is the part of the sentence which talks about the subject and which has a verb.
The predicate must contain a verb. The other constituents of a predicate can be an adverb, adjective,
pronoun, etc.
Can you identify the subject and predicate in each of the sentences below?
She came to see me.
Njoroge was here.
I saw them dancing.
This is the cheapest dress in town.
You are a big fool.

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(b) TYPES OF SENTENCES
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

An interrogative sentence is used to ask questions.

There are various question types:
Yes/no questions
Alternative questions
Tag questions
w/h questions
Yes/No Questions
They are answered with yes or no as answers.
Examples are:
Did you score everything?
Have you seen it?
Alternative Questions
There are options two to be chosen from.
Examples are:
Would you like to take tea, or coffee?
Do you want a red pen, or blue one?
Tag Questions
There is the statement part, which is followed by a comma, and then the question part.
Examples are:
She is the thief, isn’t she?
It does not smell good, does it?
W/H Questions
The first word start with the two letters “w and h”.
Those words used for asking these questions are: who, where, which, how, why, what
Examples
Who sent you?
Where do you live?
Exercise

Form three different question types from the sentence:

You stole my cap.

Answer

1. Did you steal my red cap? Yes/no

2. Who stole my red cap? w/h
3. You stole me red cap, didn’t you?

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IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

An imperative sentence issues a request or a direct command.

Usually, imperative sentences begin with verbs.
Depending on the strength of the emotion, and the forcefulness of the command, it can end in either a
full stop (.) or an exclamation mark (!).
Examples
i. Complete your assignment by afternoon!
ii. Kindly open the door.
iii. Turn left at the cross road.

End Punctuation Marks with Imperative Sentences

If the command is forceful, use an exclamation mark (!). for example,

Leave now!
Open the door!
If the command is polite, or in the form of advice, put a period (.). examples,
Please get me my book.
Leave the door open.

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

An exclamatory sentence expresses emotion.

The emotion can be of love, happiness, confusion, anger, etc.
Usually ends with an exclamation mark.
Use the word “what” or “how”before a noun.
Examples
What a day!
What awful plastic!
What funny people they are!
What a match!

Exercise

Rewrite each sentence beginning with the word “what” or “how”.

1. He is a foolish man.
2. This is a pleasant day.
3. That is clever of you.
4. They are lovely flowers.
5. He came early

Answers

1. What a foolish man!

2. What a pleasant day
3. How clever of you!
4. What lovely flowers!

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 5. How early he came!

AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES

There are two types:

Declarative
Negative

DECLARATIVE SENTENCES/

Used to make statements.

End with a full stop or period (.).
Here are examples of declarative sentences.
My name is George.
He brings me chocolate.
She visited last year.
I will leave in the evening.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES

A negative sentence states that something is untrue.

A negative adverb is added to negate the validity of the sentence.
A negative statement is formed by adding the word “not” to the first auxiliary verb. Examples
I did not abuse you.
This novel does not have a good ending.
You are not among the lucky ones.
Dan did not steal from me, it was you.

Exercise

Negate the following sentences.

1. She has a bag.

2. I am sick.
3. He sells flowers.
4. They work there.
5. She writes good compositions.
6. It is interesting.

Answers

1. She does not have a bag.

2. I am not sick.
3. He doesn’t sell flowers.

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 4. They don’t work there.
5. She doesn’t write good compositions.
6. It is not interesting.

ANSWERS
PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

COMMON NOUNS

1. The students were taught

2. I have visited a continent.
3. She lives in the city.
4. We eat in the hotel.
5. Have you ever swum in the river?
6. I drive a car.
7. Everyone went shopping at the supermarket.
8. A soldier is dead.
9. I come from a country.
10. I teach at a school.

PROPER NOUNS

1. I will take you to Rich’s Palace.

2. Sarah is the girl I told you about.
3. Of all the continents, I like Africa the most.
4. Gracy is the cutest kitten ever.
5. I am craving Oreos.
6. I used Tilly in cooking.
7. Jupiter is one of the planets.
8. Margaret was a great author.

CONCRETE NOUNS ABSTRACT NOUNS

Exercise 1

1) A man must always have the courage to face every challenge.

Man – concrete
Courage – abstract
2) No matter what happens, we must not lose hope.
Hope – abstract
3) My faith in God is very strong.

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 Faith – abstract
God – concrete
4) A person should buy a beautiful dress.
Person, dress – concrete
5) Have you seen the black dog?
Dog – concrete
6) Love is blind.
Love – abstract
Blind – concrete

Exercise 2

1. Advice
2. Education
3. Intelligence
4. Importance
5. Happiness
6. Confidence
7. Pride
8. Anger
9. Imagination
10. Loneliness

NUMBER

ARTICLES

(1) An
(2) A
(3) The
(4) No article
(5) A
(6) The
(7) The
(8) No article
(9) An
(10) An

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PRONOUNS

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Exercise 1

1) I
2) It
3) Him
4) Me
5) Her

Exercise 2

1) The old gate doesn’t look good.

It doesn’t look good.
2) Tom and Mary went to school.
They went to school.
3) The dog bit the doctor and the chief.
It bit them.
4) Moses runs faster than Rebecca.
He runs faster than Rebecca.
5) Phiona and Ruth played doubles.
They played doubles.
6) Christine is clever.
She is clever.
7) I brought the dress.
I brought it.
8) Antony drove Junet and me.
Anthony drove us.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
1) Her
2) Your
3) Mine
4) Theirs
5) Yours
6) Her
7) Their
8) Our
9) His
10) Your
11) Its

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12) His

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

1) Ourselves
2) Themselves
3) Yourself
4) Itself
5) Myself, myself
6) Itself
7) Himself
8) Yourselves
9) Themselves
10) Herself

PHRASES

NOUN PHRASES

1. Did you see the tall man?

2. He called all the stubborn students.
3. He wishes to see the president.
4. He bought her a beautiful white blouse.
5. An horse prefers living in dark stables.
6. It is disgraceful to write such rubbish.
7. The people’s president is in Mombasa.
8. The girl in blue skirt is my sister.
9. The soldiers are true heroes.
10. My best friend is Teris.

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WRITING FOR FORM 1

SPELLING

SPELLING RULES

The following rules will help you spell words correctly.

Rule 1: “I before E except after C”;

• achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend, grieve, chief, fiend, patience, pierce,
priest
• ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit, conceit

Exceptions

neighbor, freight, beige, sleigh, weight, vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to the
rule: either, neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure.

Rule 2: “Dropping Final E”

When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop the final e if the ending begins
with a vowel:

• advancing
• surprising

However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e:

• advancement
• likeness

(However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e when adding any ending:
argument, argued, truly.)

Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final e is kept in words such as
mileage and words where the final e is preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous,
manageable, management, noticeable. (The word management, for example, without that e after
the g, would be pronounced with a hard g sound.)

Rule 3: “Dropping Final Y”

When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the y to i when it is preceded by a
consonant.

• supply becomes supplies

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 • worry becomes worried
• merry becomes merrier

This does not apply to the ending -ing, however.

• crying
• studying

Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel.

• obeyed
• saying

Rule 4: “Doubling Final Consonants”

When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant, we double that consonant in many
situations. First, we have to determine the number of syllables in the word.

Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a vowel when the last
syllable of the word is accented and that syllable ends in a single vowel followed by a single
consonant.

• submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we
double the t before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: submitting, submitted.
• flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always accented. Again, the last consonant
is preceded by a vowel, so we double it before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: flapping,
flapped. This rule does not apply to verbs that end with "x," "w," "v," and "y," consonants that
cannot be doubled (such as "box" [boxing] and "snow" [snowing]).
• open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded by a single vowel, but the accent
falls on the first syllable, not the last syllable, so we don't double the n before adding an ending:
opening, opened.
• refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last syllable and a single vowel precedes
the final consonant, so we will double the r before adding an ending, as in referring, referral. The
same would apply to begin, as in beginner, beginning.
• relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is preceded by another consonant, not a
vowel, so we do not double the t before adding an ending: relented, relenting.
• deal looks like flap (above), but the syllable ends in a consonant preceded not by a single vowel,
but by two vowels, so we do not double the final l as in dealer and dealing. The same would
apply, then, to despair: despairing, despaired.

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PUNCTUATION

CAPITALIZATION

Capitalization Rules

Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters
in lowercase.

Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a final punctuation mark (full
stop, question mark, exclamation mark).

Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Examples:
he is Brian’s father

In Juja

Capitalization Checklist

• Brand names
• Companies
• Days of the week and months of the year
• Holidays
• Institutions
the University of Nairobi
• Natural and artificial landmarks
the Fourteen Fall, the Mount Kenya
• Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic.
• Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
• Streets and roads

Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.

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FINAL PUNCTUATION MARKS

The Period, Full Stop or Point

The period (known as a full stop) is probably the simplest of the punctuation marks to use.
You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length.
Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and
complete thought that looks and sounds right to you.

Mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation

Examples

• Kisumu is the third largest city in kenya.

• I am writing you soon.

Indicate an abbreviation

Examples

• I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.

• We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.

Period after a single word

Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after the word
as you would in any other sentence. This is often the case when the subject is understood as in a
greeting or a command.

Examples

• "come."
• "Stop."

Periods in numbers

Numbers use periods in English to separate the whole number from the decimal. A period used
in a number is also called a "decimal point" and it is read "point" unless it refers to money.

Examples

• Sh. 10.50 is its price.

• Her weight is 60.60

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The Exclamation Mark

The exclamation mark is used to express astonishment, or surprise, or to emphasise a comment

or short, sharp phrase. In professional or everyday writing, exclamation marks are used sparingly
if at all.

Examples

• Help! Help!
• That's unbelievable!
• Get out!
• Look out!

You can also use exclamation marks to mark a phrase as humourous, ironic or sarcastic.

Examples

• What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a lovely day)

• That was clever! (when someone has done something stupid)

The Question Mark

Use the question mark at the end of all direct questions.

Examples

• What is your name?

• Do you speak Italian?
• You're spanish, aren't you?

Do not use a question mark for reported questions

Examples

• He asked me what my name was.

• She asked if I was Spanish.
• Ask them where they are going.

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The Comma

Use comma to separate phrases, words, or clauses in lists

A series of independent clauses (sentences)

Example

I cried to her, she asked me to stop crying, and afterwards she took me out for lunch..

A series of nouns

Examples
• Don’t forget to buy milk, ice cream, and fish.
• Gregory, David, and Christine arrived in time.

A series of adjectives

A list of adjectives usually requires commas. However, if an adjective is modifying another

adjective you do not separate them with a comma (sentence 3).

Examples

• She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.

• The house we visited was dark, dreary, and run-down.

A series of verbs

Examples

• Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.

• The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the water.

A series of phrases

Examples

• The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally stopped
against a tree.
• The dog leapt into the air, snatched the Frisbee in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the forest.

More Uses

1. Enclosing details

Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential details and
comments. The comma is placed on either side of the insertion.

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Examples

• China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.
• Goats, unlike cows, do not like grass.

2. Participial phrases
Examples

• Hearing the sad news, Fred fainted.

• Walking home from school, I met my old friend.

3. Tag questions
Examples

• She hates you, doesn't she?

• We have no business together, have we?

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STUDY WRITING

MAKING NOTES
How to Make Notes

The following tips will come in handy when making notes:

5. Read the material carefully and thoroughly.

6. Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.
7. Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.
8. Write the final notes.

You should have in mind that a note:

6. Should be short and to the point.

7. Contain all the important and relevant information.
8. Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.
9. Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.
10. Must be written in points only.

Notes Template

TITLE …………………….

(e) ………………………………………….
(f) …………………………………………
(g) ………………………………………..
(h) ………………………………………..

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TAKING NOTES

How to Take Notes

There is no one "right" way to take notes. Very different approaches can be equally effective,
depending on the context.
The key thing is to ensure that you remain actively engaged with the material whilst taking
notes.
If all you do is copy down what you hear or read, then you won't actually be learning
anything at all. You may not even understand your notes when you come back to review
them later!
Do the following:

(i) Be concise
(ii) be as neat as possible
(iii) use headings and numbered points
(iv) use abbreviations/shorthand
(v) Leave spaces in between your notes in case of any additions.

Avoid the following:

• copying out sentences or passages verbatim (i.e. word for word)

• copying a mass of factual information

After the lesson, rewrite the notes in a more organized way adding details left out.

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1. CREATIVE WRITING

POEMS

Poem Writing Tips

There are a few things to think about before you start writing your poem. The following tips on
writing poems will help you get started.

• Know your purpose. Know why you are writing a poem and what you want it to do.
• Pick a subject. Poems can be written about any topic under the sun.
• Avoid clichés. These are sayings that have been overused, like busy as a bee, or blind as a bat.
• Use imagery. Paint with your words and use concrete words that appeal to the senses. Abstract
words cannot give the reader a good picture of what you are trying to say.
• Use similes and metaphors. Similes compare two things, like “you are sweet as honey” and
usually use the word “like” or “as.” Metaphors state that one thing is another thing, like “you
are a pig.” Things being compared in a metaphor have at least one thing in common but are very
different in other ways.
• You can also consider using rhyme, alliteration, consonance, etc

IMAGINATIVE COMPOSITIONS
Elements of Imaginative Compositions

In order to write a good story, use these important elements:

a) Characters: Refers to those who act in the story. They should be people, animals or objects
that think and talk.

b) Setting: Describes time and place of the story for example: classroom, lakeside, town etc.

c) Plot: Refers to the series of actions that the characters go through as they try to solve a
problem. In the plot, we have the:

1. Introduction: This is usually short. It presents the character, the situation or the problem, and
part of the setting.
2. Development: This simply shows how the situation affects the characters and what they do to
try and solve the problem.
3. Conclusion: This shows the solution of a problem. It is usually short. It may lead to a happy, sad
or surprise ending.

When writing a story, remember to organise the flow of your events so that the reader’s interest
is maintained throughout the story. The element of suspense should also be created and
maintained so that the reader will want to find out what is most likely to happen in your story.

You can create suspense by:

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1. Including mystery
2. Changing the scene
3. Creating unexpected events
4. Including dialogue
5. Giving surprise ending
6. Moving from one character to another

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2. PERSONAL WRITING
(a) Diaries
A diary is a written record of things that happen each day.
It is also a record of things you plan to do per day and the time you plan to do so.
A diary is also the book in which you write down things that happen to you on daily basis.

Diaries to Record what is planned to be done

Here, we record things we plan to do.

Let us look at the sample below:
MY DIARY

DAY DATE TIME EVENT

Saturday 23rd April, 2015 8.00 am Waking up
8.15 am Taking shower
8.30 am Breakfast
8.40-10.30 Reading History
10.35am – 12.30pm Going for skating
1.00 pm Lunch
2.00 pm Reading the Bible
7.30 pm Supper

Sunday 24th April, 2015 7.00 am Breakfast

8.00 am Attending mass
11.00 am Reading CRE(St Luke’s Gospel)
1.00 pm Taking lunch
2.30 pm Playing video games
4.00 pm Watching movies
6.00 pm Writing notes
8.00 pm Supper
Monday 25th April, 2015 7.30 am Waking
8.00 am Shower
8.30 am Breakfast
9.30am Washing clothes
11.30 am Playing video games
12.30 pm Lunch
3.00 pm Reading Chemistry
5.00 pm Watching movies
8.30 pm Supper

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Diaries for Recording the Daily Observation

MY DIARY

Calendar
April, 2016
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thur Frid
Sat
1 2 3 4
5
6 7 8 9 10 11
12
13 14 15 16 17 18
19
20 21 22 23 24 25
26
27 28 29 30 31

ENTRY
Dear Diary,

Today, I started writing my first poem. I thought of what to write and by lunch
time, an idea crossed my mind. I decided to write about corruption. I entitled it
“Another Bond - Eurobond”. I had a lot to write about it. As I write now, my
dear, I have completed writing it. Hopefully, I will write another one before the
week ends. I will inform you about it once that is done. Bye

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 (b) ADDRESSES
An address is a superscription of a letter directing who the letter is meant to reach.
The writer also writes their address in the letter to allow for the reply.
An address is written on an envelop, letter, or package.

Addresses in Letters
Address format vary according to the type of letter written.
Even though they are written differently, there are common features such as:
• The post office box number
• The postcode
• The street, road, or building where the post office is located
• The city or town
• The country
There are two formats of writing addresses:
• Block format; and
• Indented format

Block Format

Address written in a block.

Paragraphs also blocked.
An example is
KILIMAMBOGO FOOD AND BEVERAGE,
P.O. BOX 555-35400,
KILIMAMBOGO – KENYA.
Indented Format

Written on a slant.
The paragraphs in the letter are also indented.
An example is:
KILIMAMBOGO FOOD AND BEVERAGES,
P.O. BOX 555-35400,
KILIMAMBOGO – KENYA.
Exercise

Write each of the addresses below as they would appear on your envelope:

(a) Migori Polytechnic-40400- P.O. Box 654- The Principal-Kenya- Migori

(b) Kenya Labour-The Director-30210- P.O. Box 90100- Kenya- Nairobi

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 (c) PACKING LISTS
At times you find yourself forgetting something when packing for a trip.
It is important to get organized. Writing a packing list will be key in ensuring no item intended to be
carried during a trip is forgotten.
A packing list is therefore a checklist for what to bring along with them.
To make the most out of your trip you have to pack the right items.
What you pack will highly depend on factors such as:
(a) The place you are visiting. If for example, you are visiting a place where it is hot, there will be no
need of carrying heavy clothes.
(b) Means of transport. There is a limit to what one should carry depending on the weight.
(c) Number of days.
(d) The reason for visiting. For example if going on a camp, you need carry camping gear.

How to Start

(i) Get a piece of paper and a pen and write “PACKING LIST”. This forms part of the title. The
other part is the place to visit.
(ii) Write number of days. It is advisable to do this as it will help you tell how many clothes you
will need. It might not sound good to carry only two underpants, for example, if the trip will
last a week.
(iii) Draw a table with columns containing item category, item, quantity, and description. The
various item categories are:
• Entertainment list, for example, CDs, Radio, etc.
• Clothing List, for example, underpants, skirts, etc.
• Camping Gear, for example, sleeping bag,
• Toiletries, for example, toothpaste, soap, etc.
(iv) In that table fill all the items and all its columns appropriately.

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 Sample Packing List

TRIP TO MACHAKOS PACKING LIST

DAYS: 3 Days
NO. ITEM CATEGORY ITEM QUANTITY DESCRIPTION
1. CLOTHING LIST Trousers 3 Purple one
2 white ones
Shirts 3 The pink one
The one printed
“Newyork”.
The newly bought one.
Underpants 4 The black, yellow, red
and indigo ones.

2. ENTERTAINMENT LIST CDs 3 Nigerian movies

Laptop 1 The one recently bought.
Earphone 1 Purple one.

3. TOILETRIES Bathing soap 1-250gm Fa Bathing soap.

Washing soap ½ bar Jamaa
Toothpaste 50 gm Colgate
4. DRINKS Afya 2-500 ml Guava flavored.
Soda 2-500 ml Fanta

Exercise

You are Manchester City Football club Player. During one of the summer holidays, your club go for a 5
day camp to a very hot place in United Arab Emirates. Here, no beddings are provided. Write a packing
list of all the items you would carry with you to this trip.

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3. SOCIAL WRITING
Informal Letters
Usually written to people known to people you know fairly well. These can be friends and relatives.
Also referred to as friendly letters.
They are meant to:
(i) Give news;
(ii) Request information;
(iii) Congratulate people;
(iv) Ask questions; or
(v) Give advice.

How to Write Informal Letters

An informal letter has such elements as:

(a) Sender’s address. Write your address here. Example,
MAALIK AHMED
P.O. BOX 6454-90800
KITALE
(b) Date when the letter is written.
(c) Salutation. Example,
Dear Timothy,
(d) Body. Write the body of the text. Include greetings, news, other questions, etc.
(e) Closing. Sign of with your name. example,
See you soon,
Denis

The table that follows is of a format of an informal letter blended with explanations:

The Format Explanation

Address At the top right hand corner, write your address. For example,
Keicy Kimito
P.O. Box 567
RONGO
Date Below the writer’s address, is the date. For example,
13th December, 2015
Salutation Written on the left hand side of the letter. Start with:
• Dear ………. ,
e.g. Dear Drinkwater,
• Dearest………, or My Dear……., ( for close friends and relatives)
Example,
Dearest Drinkwater,
Or
My Dear Drinkwater,
Opening Paragraph You may ask about the recipient’s health. For example,
• How is your family?
• How are you Njuguna? I hope that you and your family are in the pink.
• I am fine and I hope you are as fit as a fiddle.

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Content Paragraphs This is where:
• You mention your main reason for writing (paragraph 2)
• Give the news
• Ask questions
You can start with:
• I am writing this letter to…

Closing Paragraph It is proper to inform your recipient that you are ending the letter. Some
phrases you can use are:
• Do write me soon.
• Please convey my warm regards to…
• Allow me to pen off here.
• Hope to receive a reply from you.
• Bye/ Goodbye
Closing Sign off with your name. you can sign off using:
• Your loving friend,
• Yours lovingly,
• Yours affectionately,
• Your nephew,
• Yours sincerely,
• Keep in touch,
Your name should follow. Your first name is preferred.

The Language of Informal Letters

The language used is simple as well as friendly.

You can use contractions such as I’m, won’t, you’re, etc.

Sample Friendly Letter

Brigit Annabel
P.O BOX 454—40400
SUNA- MIGORI

5TH September, 2015

Dear James,

Hi James! Hope you are fine back there in Rongo. My sister and I are very much fine.

I’m just writing to let you know I quit my old job and found something new in Migori town.

I was really fed up with working at Banana Academy as there was little work enough to challenge me
anymore. You know me; if there is no enough, I get bored too easily and have to find something new.

I’m now teaching at Sunsun in Migori and the kind of work I do suits me to the ground. I teach two
candidate classes. The work here is not only challenging, but it is rewarding as well. I know you will find
it hard to believe… but you just have to.

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That is not all for now! I’m getting married in a couple of weeks. He is working in the neighbouring
school. So many promises I hope he will fulfill he has not stopped to give. I also find him the best among
the many. When the time comes I believe you will come and celebrate with us.

Keep in touch,
Brigit

Exercise

You have recently joined another school. Write a letter to your friend. In your letter

• Explain why you changed school

• Describe your new school
• Tell him/her your other news

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4. INSTITUTIONAL WRITING
(a) PUBLIC NOTICES
A public notice is a notice given to provide information for the public that is widespread in a wide
geographical area via media.
They are mostly placed in newspapers by businesses, county and national government, and
individuals.
They include:
(i) Unclaimed property
(ii) Wanted person
(iii) Dangerous person
(iv) Government contracts
(v) Aunction
(vi) Foreclosures, etc.

Public Notice Format

The parts of a public notice include among others:
i. Name of the organization/institution. Letterhead is preferred.
ii. Then write/type “PUBLIC NOTICE”.
iii. The topic/theme/subject. Let the public know what you want to inform them about.
iv. Date, time, and venue(if need be).
v. Picture to reinforce the message.
vi. Name of the writer of the notice and the job position(and signature, for the more formal ones)

Sample Public Notice

MAJI MACHAFU LANDS DEALERS COMPANY

(P.O. Box 123-00200 Nanyuki, Email: [email protected], Mobile:
0715234343)
PUBLIC NOTICE
Notice is hearby given that son of Amos Kinyanjui resident of Plot(5) located
opposite Kadika Plaza, Kilgoris Estate has agreed to sell the plot mentioned in the
schedule hereto dated 5th June, 2015.
All persons claiming interest in the land or any part thereof by any way are
hearby required to bring their complaints at our Mukomi office within 10 days
from the date hearof, failing which the sale will be completed.

Yours Sincerely
[sign]
Fredrick Wainaina
SALES MANAGER

In the notice above, a picture of the plot can be included.

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 (b) INVENTORIES
An inventory is a complete list of items such as equipment,property, goods in stock, or even the
contents of a particular place.
A list of things possessed by a person or company.
It is a good idea to keep the records of items owned by a person or company.
An inventory will have the following basic elements:

(i) Name of the institution. Name of the

person, if individually possessed.
(ii) Date when the records are taken.
(iii) Item number
(iv) Item category
(v) Item
(vi) Quantity of items
(vii) Description of the item
(viii) Approximate value of the item
(ix) The name and designation of the person
keeping the records.

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 Here is a sample inventory.

KILIMANJARO MIXED DAY AND BOARDING HIGH SCHOOL

INVENTORY OF THE EQUIPMENT AS AT 24TH MARCH, 2016
NO. ITEM ITEM QUANTITY DESCRIPTION APPROXIMATE
CATEGORY VALUE IN
1. Test tubes 15 Good condition KSH.
LABORATORY Microscopes 2 Damaged 1200
EQUIPMENT 9800
2 Computers 3 New ones
ELECTRONICS 4 Damaged 72 000
Radios 4 Not working 12 000
Printers 2 New ones 6 800
6 Damaged 68 700
3 Teachers’ tables 14 Good Condition 14 600
FURNITURE Staffroom Chairs 22 Newly Bought 48 000
ones 110 000
Classroom chairs 400 Good Condition
89 Broken 200 000
Students’ Lockers 500 Good condition 44 500
Office Cupboards 6 New Ones 250 000
3 New Ones 60 000
Beds 300 Good Condition 12 000
4 600 000
GAMES
EQUIPMENT Balls 3 Punctured
Volley ball nets 2 Good Condition 3 000
6 000

RECORDS KEPT BY: Jeniffer Kwamboka

sign
School Store Keeper
Exercise

You are St. Monica’s Mission Hospital Resource Manager. At this hospital, records of items in it are kept
at the end of every August. Write the inventory of all the items here.

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