Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.

Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering

Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a non-destructive testing technique based on the
propagation of ultrasonic waves in the tested material.
Ultrasonic testing is performed on metals and alloys. Also used on concrete, wood,
and composites (with less resolution).
In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center
frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz are transmitted into materials to detect
internal flaws or to characterize materials (such as thickness measurement).

How does Ultrasonic Testing (UT) work?

 Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material where they travel in
a straight line and at a constant speed until they encounter a surface.
 At surface interfaces, some of the wave energy is reflected and some
are transmitted.
 The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can be detected and
provides information about the size of the reflector.
 The travel time of the sound can be measured and this provides
information on the distance that the sound has traveled.

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Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.
Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering
Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

Types of Sound Wave Propagation

1- Longitudinal waves also called compression or pressure waves:
 Oscillate in direction of wave propagation as the movement of spring.
 Can travel in both liquids and solids.

2- Shear waves also called transverse waves:

 Oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation as in the
movement of a wave along a rope.
 Can only travel in solids.
 The velocity of shear waves is roughly half the longitudinal wave velocity.

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Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.
Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering
Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

3- Surface waves also called Rayleigh waves:

 Combine the motion of both longitudinal and shear waves.
 Follow the surface around curves and therefore are sensitive to surface
defects.
 Travel at a depth of approximately one wavelength.
 The velocity of Rayleigh waves in a solid is about 90% of that of shear
waves.

4- Plate waves also called Lamb waves:

 Similar to surface waves.
 Used for inspection of thin plates (only a few wavelengths in thickness).

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Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.
Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering
Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

Properties of waves (wavelength, frequency, and velocity)

1- Wavelength (λ): The distance in the direction of propagation of a wave
for the wave to complete one cycle.

– e.g. the distance from trough to trough or crest to crest.

2- Frequency (ƒ): The number of complete cycles of a wave passing a

given point in a unit time.

– 1 cycle/second = 1 Hz

– 106 cycles/second = 1 MHz

*In UT, frequency is dependent on the frequency rating of the transducer

(usually specified in kHz or MHz).

3- Velocity (v): The speed of sound waves travel through a medium.

– Typically given in cm/microsecond

*It's a function of the material being tested.

The relationship between the wave properties is: λ=v/f

• Wavelength is directly proportional to the velocity of sound in the
material and inversely proportional to the frequency of the sound wave.

*A discontinuity must be >1/2 the wavelength to be detected (influences

transducer frequency selected)

Example 1: If the longitudinal velocity in aluminium is 0.25in/µs (0.65

cm/µs). Using a 2.25 MHz transducer, what is the wavelength of sound
produced in the material?
Solution:

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Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.
Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering
Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

Example 2: Given a 1 MHz transducer, find the wavelength (𝜆) of a

transverse sound wave in carbon steel. V=0.13 in/µsec.
Solution:

Sensitivity
 The ability of a system (or method) to detect small discontinuities.
 Increases with higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths.

Resolution
Resolution (resolving power): The measure of the capability of a system to
separate two discontinuities that are close together.

*Resolution increases with an increase in frequency and a decrease in

wavelength.

 Dependent on both the density of the material and its elastic properties
 Also dependent on the type of sound wave

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Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.
Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering
Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

Attenuation
The loss in acoustic energy which occurs between any two points of travel.

• Primarily due to scattering and absorption

– Scatter – dispersion of ultrasonic waves.

– Absorption – conversion of sound waves into another energy

form (to heat due to internal friction effect).

Higher frequency produces more scatter so penetrating power is reduced.

Acoustic Impedance of a Material (Z)

• Acoustic Impedance is an important factor in the calculation of acoustic
transmission and reflection at the boundary of two different materials.

• Acoustic Impedance Z=ρ*v (where ρ=density and v=velocity)

• UT waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a difference in

acoustic impedance (a difference called “impedance mismatch”)

• The greater the “mismatch” the greater the sound reflection (and
therefore less penetration)

The percentage of energy reflected at an interface between any two materials

𝒁𝟏 −𝒁𝟐 𝟐
is: Reflected energy = ( ) × 100%
𝒁𝟏 +𝒁𝟐

Where Z1 & Z2 are the acoustic impedance of the materials on either side of
the interface.

Reflection coefficient (R): Fraction of wave reflected.

Transmission coefficient (T): Fraction of wave transmitted through the part.

𝒁𝟏 −𝒁𝟐 𝟐
R=( ) , R+T = 1
𝒁𝟏 +𝒁𝟐

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Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.
Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering
Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

Example: Calculate the percentage energy reflected at a steel to water

interface, given that the acoustic impedance for steel is 45.4 and that for water
is 1.48.
𝑍1 −𝑍2 2
Reflected energy = ( ) × 100%
𝑍1 +𝑍2

Reflected energy = 87.8%

Example: Calculate the Reflection coefficient (R) and Transmission

coefficient (T) at a steel to air interface, given that the acoustic impedance for
steel is 45.4 and that for air is 0.0004.
𝑍1 −𝑍2 2
R=( )
𝑍1 +𝑍2

R = 0.9999
R+T = 1, T = 0.0001
This means that 99.99% of the sound is reflected and only 0.01% of the sound
is transmitted through the part. This is why a coupling medium is required at
the interface between the transducer and the part

Refraction
• Refraction is the “bending” of the wave at the material interface.

• If the angle of incidence is 0 (perpendicular to the material) there is no

refraction.

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Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.
Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering
Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

UT Inspection System Components

 Pulser/receiver: An electronic device that produces high voltage electrical
pulses.
 Transducer: Converts the electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations (acoustic
energy) by a phenomenon known as the piezoelectric effect.
 Display screen: A monitor that shows an A-scan, B-scan, and/or C-scan
presentation of the sound reflection.

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Subject: Non Destructive Testing By: Dr. Safaa Kh.
Code: MAE412 / 1st Semester Department of Materials Engineering
Class: 4th Year Engineering College, Basrah University

Components of Transducers in UT Inspection

 The active element of most acoustic transducers is a piezoelectric
ceramic.
 Piezoelectric element converts electrical signals into vibrations to
transmit sound to the part; also converts the mechanical vibrations of
the echoes back into electrical signals (acts as a receiver).
 The thickness of the active element determines the transducer
frequency.
– Thinner transducers – higher frequency but more fragile.
– Wavelength is ~ twice the thickness of the transducer –
therefore transducers are cut to ½ the desired wavelength.
 Transducers have a wear plate to protect the active element from being
scratched.
 Damping material is placed behind the active element. (Damping
improves resolution and sensitivity).