UNIT - III

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 UNIT-III

INTERMEDIATE CODE GENERATION

1. Intermediate code forms:

An intermediate code form of source program is an internal form of a program created by the compiler
while translating the program created by the compiler while translating the program from a high –level
language to assembly code(or)object code(machine code).an intermediate source form represents a
more attractive form of target code than does assembly. An optimizing Compiler performs
optimizations on the intermediate source form and produces an object module.

Analysis + syntheses=translation

Creates an generate targe code

Intermediate code

In the analysis –synthesis model of a compiler, the front-end translates a source program into an
intermediate representation from which the back-end generates target code, in many compilers the
source code is translated into a language which is intermediate in complexity between a HLL and
machine code .the usual intermediate code introduces symbols to stand for various temporary
quantities.

Parser Static Intermediate Code

checker code generator generator

position of intermediate code generator

We assume that the source program has already been parsed and statically checked.. the various
intermediate code forms are:

a) Polish notation
b) Abstract syntax trees(or)syntax trees
c) Quadruples
d) Triples three address code
e) Indirect triples
f) Abstract machine code(or)pseudocopde a. postfix notation:

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The ordinary (infix) way of writing the sum of a and b is with the operator in the middle: a+b. the
postfix (or postfix polish)notation for the same expression places the operator at the right end, as ab+.

In general, if e1 and e2 are any postfix expressions, and Ø to the values denoted by e1 and e2 is
indicated in postfix notation nby e1e2Ø.no parentheses are needed in postfix notation because the
position and priority (number of arguments) of the operators permits only one way to decode a
postfix expression.

Example:

1. (a+b)*c in postfix notation is ab+c*,since ab+ represents the infix expression(a+b).

2. a*(b+c)is abc+* in postfix.

3. (a+b)*(c+d) is ab+cd+* in postfix.

Postfix notation can be generalized to k-ary operators for any k>=1.if k-ary operator Ø is applied to
postfix expression e1,e2,……….ek, then the result is denoted by e1e2…….ek Ø. if we know the
priority of each operator then we can uniquely decipher any postfix expression by scanning it from
either end.

Example:

Consider the postfix string ab+c*.

The right hand * says that there are two arguments to its left. since the next –to-rightmost symbol is
c, simple operand, we know c must be the second operand of *.continuing to the left, we encounter
the operator +.we know the sub expression ending in + makes up the first operand of
*.continuing in this way ,we deduce that ab+c* is “parsed” as (((a,b)+),c)*.

b. syntax tree:

The parse tree itself is a useful intermediate-language representation for a source program,
especially in optimizing compilers where the intermediate code needs to extensively restructure.

A parse tree, however, often contains redundant information which can be eliminated, Thus
producing a more economical representation of the source program. One such variant of a parse tree
is what is called an (abstract) syntax tree, a tree in which each leaf represents an operand and each
interior node an operator.

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Exmples:

1) Syntax tree for the expression a*(b+c)/d

* d

a +

b c

2) syntax tree for if a=b then a:=c+d else b:=c-d

If---then---else

= :=
a b a + -

c d d

Three-Address Code:
• In three-address code, there is at most one operator on the right side of aninstruction; that is, no
built-up arithmetic expressions are permitted.
x+y*z t1 = y * z t2 = x + t1
• Example

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Problems:
Write the 3-address code for the following expression
1. if(x + y * z > x * y +z) a=0;
2. (2 + a * (b – c / d)) / e
3. A :=b * -c + b * -c

Address and Instructions

•
• Example Three-address code is built from two concepts: addresses and instructions.
• An address can be one of the following:
– A name: A source name is replaced by a pointer to its symbol table entry.
• A name: For convenience, allow source-program names to Appear as addresses in three-address
code. In an Implementation, a source name is replaced by a pointer to
its symbol-table entry, where all information about the name is kept.
– A constant
• A constant: In practice, a compiler must deal with many different types of constants and variables
– A compiler-generated temporary
• A compiler-generated temporary. It is useful, especially in optimizing compilers, to create a
distinct name each time a temporary is needed. These temporaries can be combined, if possible, when
registers are allocated to variables.
A list of common three-address instruction forms: Assignment statements
– x= y op z, where op is a binary operation
– x= op y, where op is a unary operation
– Copy statement: x=y
– Indexed assignments: x=y[i] and x[i]=y
– Pointer assignments: x=&y, *x=y and x=*y
Control flow statements
– Unconditional jump: goto L
– Conditional jump: if x relop y goto L ; if x goto L; if False x goto L
– Procedure calls: call procedure p with n parameters and return y, is Optional
param x1 param x2
…
param xn call p, n

– do i = i +1; while (a[i]<v);

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The multiplication i * 8 is appropriate for an array of elements that each take 8 units of space.

C. quadruples:
• Three-address instructions can be implemented as objects or as record with fields for the operator
and operands.
• Three such representations
– Quadruple, triples, and indirect triples
• A quadruple (or quad) has four fields: op, arg1, arg2, and result.
Example D. Triples
• A triple has only three fields: op, arg1, and arg2
• Using triples, we refer to the result of an operation x op y by its position, rather by an explicit
temporary name.
Example

d. Triples:
• A triple has only three fields: op, arg1, and arg2

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• Using triples, we refer to the result of an operation x op y by its position, rather by an explicit
temporary name.
Example

Fig: Representations of a = b * - c + b * - c

Fig: Indirect triples representation of 3-address code

-> The benefit of Quadruples over Triples can be seen in an optimizing compiler, where
instructions are often moved around.
->With quadruples, if we move an instruction that computes a temporary t, then the instructions
that use t require no change. With triples, the result of an operation is referred to by its position, so
moving an instruction may require changing all references to that result. This problem does not
occur with indirect triples.

Single-Assignment Static Form

Static single assignment form (SSA) is an intermediate representation that facilitates certain code
optimization.
• Two distinct aspects distinguish SSA from three –address code.

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– All assignments in SSA are to variables with distinct names; hence the term static single-
assignment.

2. Type Checking:
•A compiler has to do semantic checks in addition to syntactic checks. •Semantic Checks

–Static –done during compilation

–Dynamic –done during run-time

•Type checking is one of these static checking operations.

–we may not do all type checking at compile-time.

–Some systems also use dynamic type checking too.

•A type system is a collection of rules for assigning type expressions to the parts of a program.

•A type checker implements a type system.

•A sound type system eliminates run-time type checking for type errors.

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•A programming language is strongly-typed, if every program its compiler accepts will execute
without type errors.

In practice, some of type checking operations is done at run-time (so, most of the programming
languages are not strongly yped).

Type Expression:
•The type of a language construct is denoted by a type expression.

•A type expression can be:

–A basic type

•a primitive data type such as integer, real, char, Boolean, …

•type-error to signal a type error

•void: no type

–A type name

•a name can be used to denote a type expression.

–A type constructor applies to other type expressions.

•arrays: If T is a type expression, then array (I,T)is a type expression where I denotes index range.
Ex: array (0..99,int)

•products: If T1and T2 are type expressions, then their Cartesian product T1 x T2 is a type
expression. Ex: int x int

•pointers: If T is a type expression, then pointer (T) is a type expression. Ex: pointer (int)

•functions: We may treat functions in a programming language as mapping from a domain type D to
a range type R. So, the type of a function can be denoted by the type expression D→R where D are R
type expressions. Ex: int→int represents the type of a function which takes an int value as parameter,
and its return type is also int.

Type Checking of Statements:

S ->d= E { if (id.type=E.type then S.type=void

else S.type=type-error }

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S ->if E then S1 { if (E.type=boolean then S.type=S1.type

else S.type=type-error }

S->while E do S1 { if (E.type=boolean then S.type=S1.type

else S.type=type-error }

Type Checking of Functions:

E->E1( E2) {

else E.type=type-error }

Ex: int f(double x, char y) { ... }

f: double x char->int

argume types return type

Structural Equivalence of Type Expressions:

•How do we know that two type expressions are equal?

•As long as type expressions are built from basic types (no type names), we may use structural
equivalence between two type expressions

Structural Equivalence Algorithm (sequin):

if (s and t are same basic types) then return true

else if (s=array(s1,s2) and t=array(t1,t2)) then return (sequiv(s1,t1) and sequiv(s2,t2)) else if (s = s1 x

s2and t = t1 x t2) then return (sequiv(s1,t1) and sequiv(s2,t2))

else if (s=pointer(s1) and t=pointer(t1)) then return (sequiv(s1,t1))

else if (s = s1 else return false

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Names for Type Expressions:

•In some programming languages, we give a name to a type expression, and we use that name as a
type expression afterwards.

type link = ↑cell; ? p,q,r,s have same types ? var p,q : link;

var r,s : ↑cell

•How do we treat type names?

–Get equivalent type expression for a type name (then use structural equivalence), or

–Treat a type name as a basic type

3. Syntax Directed Translation:

 A formalist called as syntax directed definition is used fort specifying translations for
programming language constructs.
 A syntax directed definition is a generalization of a context free grammar in which each
grammar symbol has associated set of attributes and each and each productions is associated
with a set of semantic rules

Definition of (syntax Directed definition ) SDD :

SDD is a generalization of CFG in which each grammar productions X->α is associated with it a set
of semantic rules of the form

a: = f(b1,b2…..bk)

Where a is an attributes obtained from the function f.

• A syntax-directed definition is a generalization of a context-free grammar in which:

– Each grammar symbol is associated with a set of attributes.

– This set of attributes for a grammar symbol is partitioned into two subsets called synthesized and
inherited attributes of that grammar symbol.

– Each production rule is associated with a set of semantic rules.

• Semantic rules set up dependencies between attributes which can be represented by a dependency
graph.

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• This dependency graph determines the evaluation order of these semantic rules.

• Evaluation of a semantic rule defines the value of an attribute. But a semantic rule may also have
some side effects such as printing a value.

The two attributes for non terminal are :

1) Synthesized attribute (S-attribute) : (↑)

An attribute is said to be synthesized attribute if its value at a parse tree node is determined from
attribute values at the children of the node

2) Inherited attribute: (↑,→)

An inherited attribute is one whose value at parse tree node is determined in terms of attributes at the
parent and | or siblings of that node.

 The attribute can be string, a number, a type, a, memory location or anything else.
 The parse tree showing the value of attributes at each node is called an annotated parse tree.

The process of computing the attribute values at the node is called annotating or decorating the parse
tree.Terminals can have synthesized attributes, but not inherited attributes.

Annotated Parse Tree

• A parse tree showing the values of attributes at each node is called an Annotated parse tree.

• The process of computing the attributes values at the nodes is called annotating (or decorating) of
the parse tree.

• Of course, the order of these computations depends on the dependency graph induced by the
semantic rules.
Ex1:1) Synthesized Attributes : Ex: Consider the CFG :
S→ EN E→ E+T E→E-T E→ T T→ T*F T→T/F T→F F→ (E) F→digit N→;

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Solution: The syntax directed definition can be written for the above grammar by using semantic
actions for each production.

Production rule Semantic actions

S →EN S.val=E.val
E →E1+T E.val =E1.val + T.val
E →E1-T E.val = E1.val – T.val
E →T E.val =T.val
T →T*F T.val = T.val * F.val
T →T|F T.val =T.val | F.val
F → (E) F.val =E.val
T →F T.val =F.val
F →digit F.val =digit.lexval
N →; can be ignored by lexical Analyzer as; I
is terminating symbol

For the Non-terminals E,T and F the values can be obtained using the attribute “Val”.

The taken digit has synthesized attribute “lexval”.

In S→EN, symbol S is the start symbol. This rule is to print the final answer of expressed.

Following steps are followed to Compute S attributed definition

1. Write the SDD using the appropriate semantic actions for corresponding production rule of the
given Grammar.

2. The annotated parse tree is generated and attribute values are computed. The Computation is done
in bottom up manner.

3. The value obtained at the node is supposed to be final output.

PROBLEM 1:

Consider the string 5*6+7; Construct Syntax tree, parse tree and annotated tree.

Solution:

The corresponding annotated parse tree is shown below for the string 5*6+7;

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Syntax tree:

Annotated parse tree :

Advantages: SDDs are more readable and hence useful for specifications

Disadvantages: not very efficient.

Ex2:

PROBLEM : Consider the grammar that is used for Simple desk calculator. Obtain the
Semantic action and also the annotated parse tree for the string

3*5+4n. L→En E→E1+T

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E→T

T→T1*F

T→F

F→ (E)

F→digit

Solution :

Production rule Semantic actions

L→En L.val=E.val

E→E1+T E.val=E1.val + T.val

E→T E.val=T.val

T→T1*F T.val=T1.val*F.val

T→F T.val=F.val

F→(E) F.val=E.val

F→digit F.val=digit.lexval

The corresponding annotated parse tree U shown below, for the string 3*5+4n.

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Dependency Graphs:

Dependency graph and topological sort:

 For each parse-tree node, say a node labeled by grammar symbol X, the dependency graph
has a node for each attribute associated with X.
 If a semantic rule associated with a production p defines the value of synthesized attribute A.b
in terms of the value of X.c. Then the dependency graph has an edge from X.c to A.b
 If a semantic rule associated with a production p defines the value of inherited attribute B.c in
terms of the value X.a. Then , the dependency graph has an edge from X.a to B.c.

Applications of Syntax-Directed Translation

• Construction of syntax Trees
– The nodes of the syntax tree are represented by objects with a suitable number of fields.
– Each object will have an op field that is the label of the node.
– The objects will have additional fields as follows
• If the node is a leaf, an additional field holds the lexical value for the leaf. A constructor function
Leaf (op, val) creates a leaf object.
• If nodes are viewed as records, the Leaf returns a pointer to a new record for a leaf.
• If the node is an interior node, there are as many additional fields as the node has children in the
syntax tree. A constructor function
Node takes two or more arguments:
Node (op , c1,c2,…..ck) creates an object with first field op and k additional fields for the k children
c1,c2,…..ck

Syntax-Directed Translation Schemes

A SDT scheme is a context-free grammar with program fragments embedded within production
bodies .The program fragments are called semantic actions and can appear at any position within the
production body.
Any SDT can be implemented by first building a parse tree and then pre-forming the actions in a left-
to-right depth first order. i.e during preorder traversal.
The use of SDT’s to implement two important classes of SDD’s
1. If the grammar is LR parsable, then SDD is S-attributed.
2. If the grammar is LL parsable, then SDD is L-attributed.

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Postfix Translation Schemes
The postfix SDT implements the desk calculator SDD with one change: the action for the first
production prints the value. As the grammar is LR, and the SDD is S-attributed.
L →E n {print(E.val);}
E → E1 + T { E.val = E1.val + T.val }
E → E1 - T { E.val = E1.val - T.val }
E → T { E.val = T.val }
T → T1 * F { T.val = T1.val * F.val } T → F { T.val = F.val }
F → ( E ) { F.val = E.val }
F → digit { F.val = digit.lexval }

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