PATTERNS OF

CHINESE HISTORY
Dr Sascha Klotzbücher
19.3., 26.3., 2.4.2024
Summer term 2024
Chinese history: what are the patterns
of the past that we could learn?
■ Dynastical cycle: Rise and decline; cycle of the mandate of the heaven: Economic
decline and moral corruption bring down the rule, emperor looses the mandate
of heaven, natural disasters and rebellion are signifier of the end of this cycle.
■ Expansion of the empire and defense against invading troops (mainly from the
North-West)
■ Shifting
Boundaries by natural different natural spaces and forms of economic survival/s
ocial organisation between these spaces
■ Central vs. periphery: central policies or state-making/unification
vs autonomous organization/allowing dynamics and heteronomy
The foundation of the empire: The Qin
秦 Dynasty (221 BC – 206 BC)
■ State cult: Qin Shi Huangdi 秦始皇帝 saw himself more than must a human, but
represented deity
■ Short duration of this dynasty, but very big impacgtg
■ Beginning of irrigation projects and the construction of a canal
■ Establishment of a codex of law
■ Professionalization of a civil administration: the county (xian)
■ Unification of Chinese characters
■ Historical starting point of an empire and title of emperor Qinshi huangdi
■ Qin Shi Huangdi 秦始皇帝as role-model (unifying the empire and title of the emperor
di 帝) and trauma of chaos for later kings/historians soon after his death)
The end of Qin Dynasty/ Beginning of
the Han 汉 Dynasty (206 BC- 220 AD)
■ With the death of Qin Shihuang breaks down the Qin state.
■ Rebellion guided by Chen She (or Chen Sheng)
■ Liu Bang is another leader that will take the lead in the following
The decline of the Han Dynasty -
How do dynasties collapse?

■ 1. Weakness of central administration vs. regional clans /the authority of the

emperor or the emperor's authority is diminished by corrupt eunuchs at the imperial
court.
■ 2. Religious social movements came to light in times of decline of power structures.
■ Rebellion of the 五斗米道 „Way of the Five Pecks of Rice” founded by he first
Celestial Master Zhang Daoling in 142 CE. It was was a Chinese Taoist movement. At
its height, the movement controlled a theocratic state in the Hanzhong valley, north
of Sichuan.
■ Other important Taoist rebellions are: Zhang Jue and the so called “Yellow Turban
Rebellion” 184 BC
Times of splitted empires after the Han
Dynasty
■ Breakthrough of important religions that became important:
■ Buddhism (after 200 AD) as the third religious group. First it was a religion of the
foreign groups. Buddhism spread first in Central Asia and came then to China.
■ Dissemination via „Silk Road“ and sea routes in the South.
■ Delegations of Chinese monks travel from India back to China. Important figure is
Xuan Zang (story is told in book/film The Journey to the West Xiyouji西游记)
Sui 隋 Dynasty (583 AD-604 AD)

■ Decline of the states in the South

■ The reintegration of the south, which had long been relatively united, into a
centralised empire required the bridging of the most diverse interests, but above all
cultural reintegration. Buddhism played a decisive role in this reintegration.
Tang 唐 Dynasty 608-907

■ The interregnum of Empress Wu (Wu Zetian 武则天)

and the "Golden Age“. She officially called for
changing the name of the dynasty,
■ Military expansion
■ Administrative reform and imperial examination
system
■ All three religions are spreading: Taoism,
Confucianism,Buddhism
■ Maoist ideology label uprising mostly as “peasant
uprisings” in Chinese history. One of the most
important one in Tang Dynasty was the “White Lotus
sect” 白蓮教 as one of the most important and
oldest sect. Founded in 4th century,
Tang Dynasty (618-907)

■ Outer Relations:
■ Other nations become regional powers and compete with China: Uighurs, Tujue, East
Turks, Tibet, Tangut empire of the Xixia. These power limit the expansiona and
occupation at
China splitts off into several kingdoms and
the beginning "Chinese renaissance"
(Gernet, 299ff)
■ the Five Dynasties (wudai) 907-960
Song 宋 Dynasty (960-1279): one of the
three great turning points in Chinese history

■ "at the junction of the Neolithic and Bronze ages, with the appearance of writing, the
discovery of alloys, and the use of the cart with a shaft;"

■ "at the time of the ‘state’ revolution of the third century b.c•
■ the age of the spread of iron casting and of armies of peasant infantry;"

■ "and finally round about 1000 AD, a time particularly fruitful in technical progress which
saw the start of skilled rice-growing, the big junk, and the mariner^ compass, the
appearance of new weapons, print..“ (Gernet 423)
■
Liao 辽Dynasty (946-1125)

■ After the dissolution of Song, several

states are founded and compete about
the power in Central China. Liao ,
founded by the Khitanis north of
Beijing, is one of them (Gernet, 299ff)
Yuan 元 Dynasty (1279-1368)

■ Movement of the new capital to Khanbalik (Peking)

■ Administration by non-Chinese
■ Multilanguage documents
■ Dual management:
■ Race politics of clear four ethnic groups with different rights and duties:
1. Mongols
2. Turks
3. Han-Chinese
4. Manzu, „(South) Barbarians Genghis Khan (1160-1227)
THE MING 明
DYNASTY
1368-1644
Dr. Sascha Klotzbücher
06
March 27th,2024
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

■ Destablizing factors:
■ Several famines and disasters,

■ Rebellions in several regions against the Mongols occupiers: Secret societies of the
Red Turbans 紅巾 hongjin
■ Leader of one rebel group: Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-) conquers the leadership of the
Red Turbans and liberate finallly in 1387 liberates whole China.
 MING DYNASTY 明朝 1368-1644
secret societies: White Lotus and Red Turbans (later head: Zhu Yuanzhang,
the Hongwu Emperor 洪武帝)

knock out of other rebel leaders

attacks Dadu (today's Beijing), the former Yuan capital

first capital in Nanking 南京

later, 1402 Yongle Emperor moved it to Yan, 北平 and renamed it Beijing 北京
1407-1420 construction of the new capital incl. Forbidden City
Zheng He trips to Indian Ocean and even Africa
Three important emperors: Hongwu, Yongle und Wanli

Collapse of Ming in 1644: rebellion led by Li Zicheng

ZHU YUANZHANG, PEASANT, MONK, HEAD OF LOCAL
GANGS AND HEAD OF THE SECRET SOCIETY OF THE
RED TURBANS

This painting depicts Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋), Emperor Taizu of the Ming
dynasty (明太祖), who reigned from 1368 to 1398. Hongwu (洪武) was the
title of his reign period. Thus, he is called the Hongwu Emperor.
ZHU YUANZHANG, THE HONGWU EMPEROR
Is millenary movements (like Buddhism, Communism)
Secret Society of the Red Turbans
Extensive control of the population and the administration
Absolutism (Gernet, 388ff)
Law beyond the law (fawai zhi fa) (Brook, 87ff)
Secret police
Purge of Hu Weiyong: self-estimated 15,000 victims, in fact more than 40,000 officials
executed. “inflicted a greater tauma on the educated elite than anything the Mongols had
ever done” (Brook, 90).
Military families took over the property and land from the Mongols
https://thechinaproject.com/2023/02/01/a-14th-century-purge-in-the-ming-dynasty/
Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu Emperor) wanted a return to the golden age of the Song
Dynasty, but continued to introduce social discrimination in social classes.

Yuan: Ming:
Mongols Military families (junhu)
Han Families of craftsmen (jianghu)
Barbars from the South Familes of peasants (Nonghu)
NEW EMPEROR TRIES TO ESTABLISH HIS
REGIONAL POWER
Reconstruction of the country by Hongwu Emperor

Ideal that every peasant has enough land. Expectations did not meet reality. A lot of
peasants were forced to migrate or join the army (Brook, 108)

Tribut payments and trade shows power in the region. A lot of delegation from
abraod did not show up, so Yongle Emperor put together a delegation led by the
Muslim Zheng He to get in contact with powers in South East Asia and Africa.
YONGLE EMPEROR (REIGNED 1402-1424)
Moved capital (back) from Nanjing to Beijing
Restored the Grand Canal, one of the most important communication and transport
channel betwenn the South and the North (Brook, 111ff)
Initiated the expeditions led by Zheng He. During the reign of the previous emperor,
the Jianwen Emperor, no tribute missions came to Beijing. Aim is to bring back the
tribute/trade delegations back to the capital (Brook, 221).
THE EXPEDITIONS OF ZHENG HE 郑和 (1371-
1433)
THREATS FROM OUTSIDE
A. Continental: Traditionally speaking
threats are coming from the North

neighbouring powers:
Khanate of the Oirat Mongols
Uigurs
Dominion Djaghatai and Duglat
Tibet
B PIRATES: THREATS FROM THE EAST AND SOUTH

Network of traders, mafia, and pirates that

trade silver of America via Japan with cotton
and silk from China. High profits, esp. When
China try to block this trade.
C. THREAT FOR MING FROM NORTH
(MANDCHURIA)
THE END OF THE MING DYNASTY
Droughts
Floods

Rebellion: Main two leaders: Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong (Brook, 252ff)
Instability of the regime made it easy for the Mandchus to invade China from
Liaoning (Gernet, see map and )
CHONGZHEN (GOVERNED 1627-1644), THE LAST
EMPEROR OF THE MING DYNASTY
The last emperor committed suicide in 1644 on the hills next to the
Forbidden City.
The new emperors of the Qing dynasty showed him the posthumous
respect, placed a stele in front of his tomb – and declared the Ming
dynasty at an end. (Brook, 240).

Parts of Ming, the Zhu clan, survived in the Southern Ming, which
was conquered in 1648
THE WAY HOW PEOPLE IN CHINA PERCEIVE AND
REMEMBER THE CHONGZHEN EMPEROR

https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2023/10/xi-parallels-suspected-
behind-withdrawal-of-book-on-ill-fated-chongzhen-emperor/
OVERLAPPING AND COMPETING KINGDOMS
 THE SHORTENED AND SIMPLIFIED TIMELINE OF
DYNASTIES IN CHINA
• Xia Dynasty (2100 B.C. to 1766 B.C.)

• Shang Dynasty (1766 B.C. to 1047 B.C.)

• Zhou Dynasty (1047 B.C. – 256 B.C.)

• Qin Dynasty (221 B.C. – 206 B.C.)

Find some more short information here:
• Han Dynasty (206 B.C. – 220 A.D.)
https://culturachina.net/en/history-of-china/chinese-dynasties/
• Jin Dynasty (265 – 420)

• Sixteen Kingdoms or Dynasties (304 – 409)

• Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 – 589)

• Sui Dynasty (581 -618)

• Tang Dynasty (618 – 907)

• Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907 – 960)

• Liao Dynasty (916 – 1125)

• Song Dynasty (960 – 1279)

• Yuan Dynasty (1279 – 1368)

• Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644)

• Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1911)

MORE COMPLEX TIMELINE OF DYNASTIES
 THE QING 清
DYNASTY (1644-
1911)
Formation of the Qing Dynasty (1644-
1911)
■ The people who in 1635 were to assume the name of Manchus (Manchou) were
Jurchen 女真 , descendants of the Tungus tribes who in the twelfth century had
founded the Jin 金 Dynasty (1115-1234) in the north-eastern territories and North
China.
Consolidation and assimilation

■ Consolidation takes 44 years. Resistance in the South

■ Important actor: Zheng Chenggong 鄭成功 or Koxinga had his own power base in
Fujian by partly illegal but highly lucrative trade. He joined the Ming forces (Rowe,
25ff.). He first pushed out the Dutch from Taiwan in 1661 and founded his own
dynasty from 1661-1683 (Gernet, 483)

■ Mandchu gentry on the top, but do not touch the existing structure of the society (and the
privileges of the gentry).
■ Reestablishment of the Imperial Court exam
■ Important leaders: Kangxi (reigned 1662-1722), Yongzhen (1723-1735), Qianlong (1736-
1795),Guangxu (1875-1908) and the empress dowager Cixi (influential 1875-1908)
■ Assimilation and adapation into Chinese culture and colonisation/integration of other
ethnic communities
(Rowe, 291)
Territorial expansion of the Qing-Empire

■ Re-orientation to the North and Peking becomes capital

■ Upgrading of Lamaism as a tribute to the nomadic countries and make Qing/Peking
as a centre: Yonghegong becomes Lama-Temple
■ Integration of Tibet into the empire 1751
■ Creation of the „New Territories“ (Xinjiang) in 1751 and biggest expansion in 1759
(Gernet ??)
„Colonisation“ of the Qing or
„integration“ of other ethnic tribes?
■ Extension to Central Asia and conflicts in Tibetian
zones, costly wars with now imported Western
weapons
■ Conflict with the expanding Russion colonising
empire of Russia in Xinjiang (Ili Region. (Gernet) and
at the Pacific region (later Wladiwostok). Issued
early treaties.
■ Dealing with Vietnamese pirates in the 18th
century.
Economic prosperity and growth of
population of the 18th century during
Kangxi-reign (1662-1722)

■ „Peace“ inside China, economic

growth and a working state
administration, capable leader
(Kangxi Emperor)
Corruption and growing conflicts during
Qianlong-reign (1736-1795) in the first half
of 18th century
■ Expensive wars and the inner court (incl. Eunuchs) costs
a lot of money.
■ Problem of over-centralization (Gernet) destabilizes the
political system: Rebellion led by secret societies like the
White Lotus Sect 白莲教
Western influence in China: Painting,
architecture and several groups like the
Jesuits
Opium trade and the Treaty of Nanking
with England in 1842
■ Increasing wealth in China, accumulation of silver in the trade with silk
■ East Indian Company and their products do not find markets in China.
■ It was the imports of opium which between 1820 and 1825 caused the sudden
imbalance in foreign trade. .. from that time onwards the balance of payments
showed a deficit. (Gernet, 538)
■ 1839: Lin Zexu confiscate opium in the harbour of Canton (Guangzhou)
■ Military intervention of the British by ship along the coast of the sea and the Yangzi
The beginning decline of the Qing

■ Uprising by peasants and secret societies and revolts of colonized people (Gernet,
491)
■ Acceptance of the gold standard and the devaluation of silver (Gernet, 541ff). „The
reversal in China’s trade balance about 1820-25 coincided with the start of a fresh
fall in the value of silver on the international market—a fall hastened by the adoption
of the gold standard by the Western powers in the second half of the nineteenth
century…” (Gernet 541)
1842: Treaty of Nanking

(Gernet, 540)
The Taiping Rebellion (1851-64) and their
„Kingdom of Heaven“
■ Hakka Hong Xiuquan 1813-1864 (Gernet, 547ff)
■ Rebellion begins 1850
■ Signifier: cut off their hair braid
■ 1851: self-proclaiming a "King of Heaven" (tian wang)
■ Part of social uprising in the West and in Xinjiang (Nian rebellion)
■ NOT a peasant uprising
■ Parallel to threat from outside and economic problems are social rebellions and this
civil destablize and weaken a whole country.
Extension of the Kingdom of Heaven
and other uprisings

(Gernet 554-555)
Social rebellions and insurrections of secret
societies and rebellion of the colonized at
the periphery of the empire
■ The weakness of the central dynasty and the „decayed state of the traditional
Chinese armies” (Gernet, 563). The evolution of regional warlords
■ Zeng Guofan
■ Zuo Zongtang
■ Li Hongzhang (Gernet, 563)
■ All these persons were successful in suppressing the anti-Qing rebellions and
became regional military leaders.
The collapse of the empire in 1911

■ Social insurrections
■ Poverty, decline of Chinese industry against the foreign companies (favored by low
tax etc.)
■ Military aggression from Western powers
Gernet, 578-579
■ Second Opium War and (second) Treaty of Nanjing 1858 (Gernet, 577ff)
■ Russia occupies the territories occupied by the rebellions in the Ili-region (Gernet,
5811)
Efforts of reform and modernization

■ Before the Opium war: Only singular and no systematic import of Western weapons
(Gernet, 567)
■ Three main key figures responsible for the suppression begin to buy-in Western
weapons after 1860 (Gernet, 568)

■ Obvious signs of failures:

■ 1885: Victory of French troups
■ Defeated by the Japanese : „disastrous defeat of 1894 and the Draconian
conditions of the Treaty of Shimonoseki” (Gernet, 569)
The Hundred Days Reform (1898)

■ After submission of a petition to the imperial court, Kang Youwei and his pupil Liang
Qichao and other intellectuals succeed in gaining influence of the imperial court and
especially the Guangxu Emperor between June 11 and September 21, 1898.
(Gernet, Rowe, 242
■ modernization of the recruitment competitions, reform of the administration,
publication of the state budget, creation of a ministry of the economy, and so on.
This was the period known as the „Hundred Days of Reform““ (Gernet, 604)
■ After 100 days, the emperor dowager Cixi returns from Summer Palace and put her
son, the Guangxu emperor into house arrest. Kang Youwei can flee to Hong Kong,
Liang Qichao flees to Japan, others are executed. (Rowe, 243)
Boxer Uprisings (1899-1901)

■ Boxer Rebellion, also known as the Boxer Uprising,

the Boxer Insurrection, or the Yihequan 义和
拳 Movement ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists",
Rowe 243), was an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist, and
anti-Christian uprising in North China between 1899
and 1901. Empress dowager Cixi /Qing court
allied with Boxers against foreign invaders.(Rowe,
243)
■ Retaliation of the so-called “Eight-Nation-Alliance",
looting and burning down the Summer Palace
designed by Jesuit architects around 200 years
ago
■ Boxer Protocoll in 1901: massive payments, tax
income of the court to be controlled by foreigners
(Rowe, 245)
Initiated reforms ("New policies") after
the Boxer Protocoll
■ Introducing a series of reform reminiscent of those advocated by Kang Youwei and his
friends in 1898. “These reforms included
■ the creation of ministries between 1903 and 1906,
■ the publication of the details of the budget from 1908 onwards,
■ the abolition of the traditional competitions of the imperial exam system (1905) and the
reform of the educational system (see traditional exam cells in Guangzhou in the picture),
■ the creation of provincial assemblies (1909), and
■ the proclamation of a new code of law” (Gernet, Rowe 255ff )

Another initiative:
"Commission to Study Constitutional Government"
(1907): Delegations sent to the US, Japan and
Europe (including imperial Austria-Hungary) (Rowe,
258)
Qing as a failed or failing state?
■ Exodus and migration
(Chinese migrate to the
US (gold rush) and to
South East Asia
(Singapore etc.)
■ Shrinking tax income
■ Natural disasters:
famines, epidemics,
floods at the beginning
of the 20 century
 The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911
■ Revolt of one of the
better trained armies
in Wuchang (now
district of today's
Wuhan, the provincial
capital of Hubei
Province)
■ Local Chamber of
Commerce solidarizes
with army (Rowe,
281)
■ Spill-over to other
provinicial cities
■ Pu Yi leaves the
Forbidden City in
1912

Sewing of China's last emperor Pu Yi, Xuantong Emperor (reigned 1909-12)

the detained at the Fushun War Criminals Management Center, 1950s.
New leaders

■ Sun Yat-sen 孙中山 or 孙逸仙, the head of the secret

"
society "Tongmenhui 同盟會 worked on the revolution
from abroad, the US. Slogan: to expel
the Manchu rulers, to revive Zhonghua (the Chinese
Nation), to establish a Republic, and to distribute
land equally among the people. (驅除韃虜, 恢復中華
, 創立民國, 平均地權; Qūchú dálǔ, huīfù Zhōnghuá,
chuànglì mínguó, píngjūn dì quán) returns from the
US to China after he heard from the uprising. After
his arrival around December 21st, 1911, become
first proclaimed president of the Republic of China in
1912.
As a preparation for the final exam

1. Go through the slides carefully

2. Mandatory reading:

A. About the crisis at the end of Qing Dynastsy: Gernet English edition: 615-628 („Natural
calamities“-„foreign banks“) (in translated German edition it would be pp.514-527
B. About the Hongwu Emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋, the founder of the Ming 明 Dynasty
(1368-1644), please read the following pages: Gernet, pages 387-402 and Brook, pages 86-
89
C. Please be reminded that the page numbers are the printed page numbers in the books, not
the numbers within the pdf-dcoument
D. You can download these two books in the teams
folder. https://liveuniba.sharepoint.com/:f:/s/FiF.KVA-boVS-
00315Dejinyvchodnejzie1/EiDe7latL1pFtZT0jfj_PCMBU771DpB4-CcKJaKnhqkJjQ?e=dgbUj0
Lecture on April 17th, 9.05-10-35:

https://sway.cloud.microsoft/Jif6fsCfqXlQDap9?ref=Link
Recommended further reading and
screening for the summer break
■ Bertolucci, Bernardo: The last emperor. 1987. The Last Emperor Original Trailer (Bernardo
Bertolucci, 1987) (youtube.com)
■ This film is based on the book Pu Yi. From Emperor to Citizen. Beijing: Foreign Language Press,
1987.
■ Huang, Ray. 1981. 1587: A Year of no Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. New Haven and
London: Yale University Press.
■ Savage, Alan. 1992. Die weiße Lotosblüte. (eng. Original: The Eight Banners). Bergisch Gladbach:
Bastei Lübbe.
■ Read topics what you are interested in Gernet and Rowe's book. You can also check out the
mentioned (and in the folder available) Cambridge History or China...
■ And for those who want to explore the history of the Republic of CHina and the People's Republic of
China, please read: Chang, Jung. 1981. Wild Swans: three daughters of China. London: Flamingo.
■ Happy reading!!