Generalized Learning to Create an Energy Efficient

ZMP-Based Walking

Nima Shafii1,2,4, Nuno Lau3,4, Luis Paulo Reis1,5

1
LIACC - Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory, Portugal
2
Dept. of Informatics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Portugal
3
Dept. of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, University of Aveiro, Portugal
4
IEETA - Institute of Electronics and Telematics Engineering of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
5
Dept. of Information Systems, School of Engineering, University of Minho, Portugal
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. In biped locomotion, the energy minimization problem is a

challenging topic. This problem cannot be solved analytically since modeling
the whole robot dynamics is intractable. Using the inverted pendulum model,
researchers have defined the Zero Moment Point (ZMP) target trajectory and
derived the corresponding Center of Mass (CoM) motion trajectory, which
enables a robot to walk stably. A changing vertical CoM position has proved to
be crucial factor in reducing mechanical energy costs and generating an energy
efficient walk [1]. The use of Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy
(CMA-ES) on a Fourier basis representation, which models the vertical CoM
trajectory, is investigated in this paper to achieve energy efficient walk with
specific step length and period. The results show that different step lengths and
step periods lead to different learned energy efficient vertical CoM trajectories.
For the first time, a generalization approach is used to generalize the learned
results, by using a programmable Central Pattern Generator (CPG) on the
learned results. Online modulation of the trajectory is performed while the robot
changes its walking speed using the CPG dynamics. This approach is
implemented and evaluated on the simulated and real NAO robot.
Keywords: Humanoid Walking, Energy Efficiency, Zero Moment Point,
Central Pattern Generators.

1. Introduction

In competitive, non-deterministic environments like RoboCup soccer humanoid robot

leagues, stable omnidirectional biped walking is one of the keys to win a match. Such
movements must accomplish different requirements. For example, in case the target is
far away, the humanoid robot must be capable walking with minimum energy usage,
since the energy resources of a humanoid robots is limited.
Biped walking can be defined as the modeling of the predefined Zero Moment
Point (ZMP) references to the possible body swing or horizontal CoM trajectory. For
approximating the ZMP dynamics, simple physical models have been used, such as
Cart-on-a-table [2] and classical Inverted Pendulum Model [3]. Kajita has utilized an
Cart-on-a-table model as an approach to generate stable CoM trajectory [4]. The
major drawback of the Cart-on-a-table model is its simplification, It models the
walking by considering the CoM height is a fixed position, but biomechanical studies
show that the CoM height is variant during walking [5]. The vertical CoM movement
is also important for energy consumption [1].
A ZMP based walking with variable height can be generated by using inverted
pendulum model [3]..Recently, Kormushev et al. have presented an approach for
generating an energy efficient ZMP based walking [6]. They have used a vertical
CoM trajectory generator, modeled by a Spline representation, and a policy search
reinforcement learning. This approach was applied to minimize the energy
consumption of a walk with only a specific and predefined step length and step
period; however, the shape of an energy efficient vertical CoM trajectory is different
for each walking characteristics, including step length and step period.
In this paper, a novel learning scenario is presented to achieve energy efficient
ZMP-based walking with variable step lengths and step periods. Fourier basis
functions are used as a policy representation for modeling the vertical CoM trajectory.
In order to generate the horizontal CoM trajectory, first the position of the foot during
a walking is planned. Then, the ZMP trajectory is generated based on the support foot
polygon. In the next step, the position of the horizontal CoM trajectory is calculated
by using the approach presented in [11], which is able to solve the differential
equations of the inverted pendulum model numerically with respect to the input
predefined ZMP and vertical CoM trajectories. The Covariance Matrix Adaptation
Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES) [7] is used as a black-box optimizer to find an
optimized and energy efficient vertical CoM trajectory policy. For different input
walk speeds, including step lengths and step periods, different hip height trajectories
are learned. The generated trajectories based on Fourier series are the input to the
programmable Central Pattern Generators (CPGs) based on Hopf oscillator [8]. CPGs
prepare online modulation of trajectories, in the face of changing the walk speed. The
system overview of the proposed approach is provided in figure 1, which illustrates
the role of each component.

Fig.1. The interaction between each component of the proposed approach

The paper structure is as follows. First, A ZMP-based humanoid walking approach

to control the walking stability is introduced. Then a CoM vertical trajectory
generator based on Fourier basis functions is presented which can produce the
periodic vertical hip motion. This trajectory is the input signals of a CPGs approach,
which is also introduced in Section 3. The learning scenarios with using the CMA-ES
are explained in section 4. At the end of the article, the results of learning scenarios
are presented and the efficiency of the method to generate energy efficient walking is
shown by experiments.

2. Biped Locomotion Control Approach

A humanoid robot contains many degrees of freedom. It is difficult to maintain the

balance of humanoid robot walking. The Zero Moment Point (ZMP) criterion [9] is
widely used as a stability measurement in the literature. For a given set of walking
trajectories, if the ZMP trajectory keeps firmly inside the area covered by the support
foot or the polygon containing the support legs, the given biped locomotion will be
physically balanced.
ZMP based biped walking is assumed as a problem of balancing an inverted
pendulum model, since in the single supported phase human walking can be
represented as an inverted pendulum a predefined vertical CoM trajectory is the input
of this model. Kagami et al. proposed an approach to generate the horizontal CoM
trajectory by solving numerically inverted pendulum equations [10]. Figure 2-a shows
the NAO humanoid robot and the inverted pendulum model. Figure 2-b shows a
schematic view of the inverted pendulum model in XZ plane or in the sagittal plane.
Two sets of inverted pendulum are used to model a 3D walking. One is for
movements in the frontal plane; another is for movements in the sagittal plane.

Fig.2. a) Frontal view of the NAO robot and the inverted pendulum model b) A schematic view
of the inverted pendulum model

In the sagittal plane, the horizontal and vertical positions of CoM are denoted by x
and z, respectively. Gravity g, horizontal CoM acceleration 𝑥 , and vertical CoM
acceleration 𝑧, create a moment Tp around the center of pressure (CoP) point Px. The
Equation (1) provides the moment around P.
𝑇𝑝 = 𝑀(𝑔 + 𝑧)(𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥 ) − 𝑀𝑥 𝑧 (1)

We know from [9] that when the robot is dynamically balanced, ZMP and CoP are
identical, therefore, the amount of moment in the CoP point must be zero, 𝑇𝑝 = 0. By
assuming the left hand side of equation (1) to be zero, equation (2) provides the
position of the ZMP based on the position and acceleration of CoM. In order to
generate a 3D walking, the CoM must also move in the frontal plane; hence, another
inverted pendulum must be used in y direction. Using the same assumptions, equation
(2) is given for movements in the frontal plane denoted by y.
z 𝑧
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑦 − 𝑦 (2)
𝑔+𝑧 𝑔+𝑧
In order to apply the inverted model in a biped walking problem, first the positions
of the support foot during a walk must be determined. In a forward walk, the support
foot positions are calculated based on the desired input step length. Then, the ZMP
trajectory is designed based on support foot positions and the input step period. The
vertical CoM position and acceleration trajectory must also be determined as the input
of the inverted pendulum model, our approach to generate vertical CoM trajectories is
explained in section 3. In the final step, the horizontal position of the CoM is
calculated by solving the differential equations (2). The main issue of using the
inverted pendulum is how to solve these differential equations. The solution is
explained in section 2.1. Finally, an inverse kinematics method is used to find the
angular trajectories of each joint based on the planned position of the feet and
generated CoM position. We used and developed an inverse kinematic approach,
which was applied on the NAO humanoid soccer robot, see details in [11].

2.1 Horizontal CoM Trajectory Generation

Kagami et al. proposed an approach to generate walking patterns by solving the ZMP
equations numerically [10]. Kajita et al. used this numerical approach and the inverted
pendulum model in order to generate the horizontal CoM trajectory of a ZMP based
biped running [3].
In this numerical approach, in order to generate horizontal CoM, first the position
and acceleration of CoM are discretized with a small time step ∆𝑡.
𝑥(𝑖∆𝑡) → 𝑥(𝑖) (3)
𝑥 𝑖 − 1 − 2𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑥(𝑖 + 1)
𝑥 𝑖∆𝑡 →
∆𝑡 2
Then, a tridiagonal system for the equation (2) is written as:
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 − 1 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 + 1  (4)

Where,
1 𝑧(𝑖∆𝑡) 2 𝑧(𝑖∆𝑡) (5)
𝑎𝑖 = − 2
( ) 𝑏𝑖 = 1 + 2
( )
∆𝑡 𝑔 + 𝑧(𝑖∆𝑡) ∆𝑡 𝑔 + 𝑧(𝑖∆𝑡)

For generating CoM trajectory, the linear system is obtained, which is presented in
equation (6). In order to solve this tridiagonal system Thomas algorithm can be
applied. The solution can be obtained in O(n) operations. Here, n= Ts/∆t, in this study
∆𝑡 is assumed to be 0.005 s, and Ts is the total time in which CoM is calculated.
 𝑍𝑀𝑃𝑥 𝐾 𝐶𝑜𝑀𝑥 (6)
𝑃(1) 𝑏1 𝑎1 … 0 𝑥(1)
𝑃(2) 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑥(2)
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑎3 ⋮ 𝑥(3)
= 
⋱ ⋱ ⋱
⋮ ⋮ 𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑏𝑛 −1 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋮
𝑃(𝑛) 0 … 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑥(𝑛)

Since n must be a finite value, therefore, boundary conditions must be used.

Kagami et al. [10] assumed Ts to be a given time period of the walking step, and he
presented boundary conditions for the beginning and the end of the walking step. The
walk was assumed to be statically stable in the beginning and end of each walking
step, and a1=an=0. In this algorithm, the initial and final positions of CoM during a
walk step need to be defined before the robot actually starts to walk. These are
drawbacks of this approach, since the beginning of each walking step is not always
statically balanced, i.e. the initial acceleration and velocity of the CoM have not been
considered. In addition, before the robot starts to walk, it is not possible to define the
exact position of CoM in the beginning and final of the walking step.
In order to remedy the aforementioned problems, we use the presented method by
assuming 𝑥(1) equal to the middle of the feet at the beginning of the previous two
walk steps, and 𝑥 𝑛 is also equal to the middle of the feet in the predicted position of
the following five steps. Consequently, the ZMP trajectory is given to the algorithm
for a walk, which has been starting in the previous two steps and lasting in the future
five steps. The CoM trajectory of the current walking step is extracted from the
calculated CoM trajectory. At the beginning of each walking step, the presented
procedure is repeated.

3. Vertical CoM trajectory Model

We consider the height trajectory as the periodic movement. In this study, vertical
CoM trajectory is represented by the first five terms of the Fourier basis functions.
Therefore, the equation of our vertical CoM trajectory generator is given in (7).
i=2
𝑖𝜋𝑡 (𝑖 − 1)𝜋𝑡 (7)
𝐹 𝑡 =∁+ 𝛽𝑖 cos + 𝛼𝑖 sin
𝐿 𝐿
i=1
The parameter L is equal to the step period, therefore the generator has five
parameters such as ∁ , 𝛽1 , 𝛽2 , 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 . A black-box optimization approach can be
applied in order to find the optimized hip height trajectory generator with respect to
energy efficient walking, in the section 4 we describe our optimization scenario. The
generated trajectory by Fourier basis functions is the input to the programmable
CPGs.
In the CPGs implementation studies, nonlinear oscillators i.e. Hopf are interesting
because of their synchronization properties when they are coupled with other
oscillators or with an external drive signal. Most CPGs use phase-locking behavior for
their coupling method [12]. If intrinsic frequency of the oscillator is close to
frequency component of the periodic input, phase-lock behavior will appear, and
synchronization will be done perfectly. In 2006, Righeti et.al. designed an adaptive
oscillator based on Hopf oscillator which was able to learn CPGs frequency from the
frequency of periodic input signals [8]. They called their adaptive mechanism
dynamic Hebbian learning because it shared similarities with correlation-based
learning found in neural networks [13]. The structure of the network of adaptive Hopf
oscillators is shown in figure 3.

Fig. 3. A Schematic view of network of adaptive Hopf oscillators as a CPG block

In this study the external drive signal, or teaching trajectory, is the output trajectory
of the presented Fourier based generator. Each oscillator is responsible for learning
one frequency component of the signal. The network can be designed by four
oscillators and each oscillator is denoted by i. The output of the system is the
weighted sum of the output of the oscillators 𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 (𝑡) = 𝑖 𝑎𝑖 𝑥𝑖 , here a i is
assumed the amplitude of each learned frequency. By using negative feedback loop,
the already learned frequencies will be subtracted from the teaching signal F t =
Pteach (t)- Q learned (t). It leads the system to adapt to remaining frequencies
component which have not yet converged. According to the fact that each oscillator
has its own phase shift, a variable encoding phase difference between the oscillator
and the first oscillator of the network is associated with each of them. In order to
reproduce any phase relationship between the oscillators, the Kuramoto coupling
scheme [14] is used. The Equations describing the Total CPG’s learning and
dynamics are given as follow.
𝑥𝑖 = 𝛾 𝜇 − 𝑟𝑖 2 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜔𝑖 𝑦𝑖 + 𝜖𝐹 𝑡 + 𝜏 sin(𝜃𝑖 − ∅𝑖 ) (8)
𝑦𝑖 = 𝛾 𝜇 − 𝑟𝑖 2 𝑦𝑖 − 𝜔𝑖 𝑥𝑖 (9)
𝑦𝑖
𝜔𝑖 = 𝜖𝐹 𝑡 (10)
𝑟𝑖
𝑎𝑖 = 𝛽𝑥𝑖 𝐹(𝑡) (11)
𝜔𝑖
∅𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜃 − 𝜃𝑖 − ∅𝑖 ) (12)
𝜔0 0
 𝑦𝑖
𝜃𝑖 = 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑥𝑖 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (− ) (13)
𝑟𝑖
Equation 8, 9 and 10 are representing Hopf oscillator and its frequency learning,
where γ controls the speed of recovery after perturbation. In equation 8, the
Kuramoto coupling method is represented by τ sin(θi − ∅i ) in order to achieve phase
synchronization between oscillators. Each adaptive oscillator is coupled with
oscillator 0, with strength τ to keep correct phase relationships between oscillators.
∅i is the phase difference between oscillator i and 0.
Equation 12 and 13 shows how ∅i can converge to the phase difference between
the instantaneous phase of oscillator 0,θ0 scaled at frequency ωi and the instantaneous
phase of oscillator i, θi Learning rule for updating a i is presented by equation 11,
where β is learning rate. Learning rule shows how correlation between 𝑥𝑖 and F(t)
will be maximized. The correlation will be positive on average and will stop
increasing when frequency component 𝜔𝑖 disappears from F(t) because of the
negative feedback loop. The negative feedback is working like amount of the error,
and learning rule is working like the perceptron rule and since the input signal
is linearly separable, the above online algorithm will converge.
As conclusion, applying learning rules given as differential equations, parameters
such as intrinsic frequencies, amplitudes, and weights of phase coupling can be
automatically adapted to a teaching signal. One of its interesting aspects is that the
learning is completely embedded into the dynamical system, and does not require
external optimization algorithms.
Using Fourier basis functions together with presented CPG concept the proposed
trajectory generator model , or policy representation, has the following advantages:
Smoothness: Using the CPGs increase basin of stability of walking. CPGs
generate smooth and continuous trajectories without sudden accelerations, which
enable the robot not fall and also reduce its energy consumption. By changing the step
length and period during the walk, the robot may change its energy efficient vertical
CoM trajectory; CPGs make able this change to be smoothly. CPGs also have the
ability of frequency adaptation when walking step period and CoM trajectory period
changed.
Periodicity: The Fourier basis function is easily able to represent periodic or cyclic
movement. A biped walk often consists of periodic movements.
Convergence: the frequency of a walk is equal to the frequency of its vertical CoM
trajectory. Using Fourier basis function the frequency parameters is eliminated,
therefore the robot converges to the energy efficient walk faster compared to the
approaches uses Spline basis function [6].

4. Learning Scenario

In this study, the vertical CoM trajectory is represented by the first five terms of the
Fourier basis functions. The optimized energy efficient vertical CoM motion must be
achieved for different step periods and step lengths. Since the step length and step
period are continuous variables, they are discretized with a proper resolution. The
boundaries of the step lengths and step period resolutions used in this work are the
following:
Step Length= [0.06…..0.18] m; Resolution = 0.04
Step Period= [0.4…. 0.8] s; Resolution = 0.2
There are 12 possible combinations of the step periods and step lengths, and for
each of them the energy optimization is performed. The optimized values of the
Fourier basis functions terms must be found, with respect to minimization of actuator
electrical power consumption. Bipedal walking is known as a complicated motion
since many factors affect walking style and stability, such as robot's kinematics and
dynamics, collision between feet and the ground. In such a complex motion, relation
between gait trajectory and walking characteristic, e.g. energy consumption, is
nonlinear. Stochastic optimization algorithms can be applied to find the optimized
parameter values of the CoM vertical trajectory generator with respect to generate an
energy efficient walk.
In this paper, Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES) is used
as a stochastic optimization algorithm for our gait optimization scenario. CMA-ES is
a population-based stochastic, derivative-free method, which can be used in black-box
optimization problems or direct policy search reinforcement learning. It has been
successfully applied previously on gait optimization scenarios [15][16]. It is also
reported that CMA-ES could achieve better results and faster convergence compared
to other famous stochastic optimization techniques such as particle swarm
optimization (PSO) and Genetic Algorithm (GA) [16].
CMA-ES generates a set of candidates, as the population, sampled from a
multivariate Gaussian distribution. After generating the population, CMA-ES
evaluates each candidate with respect to a fitness measure. After evaluating all the
candidates in the population, the mean of the multivariate Gaussian distribution is
recalculated as a weighted average of the candidates with the highest fitness. The
covariance matrix of the distribution is also updated to bias the generation of the next
set of candidates toward directions of previously successful search steps. In this study
the population size is assumed to be 8.
For minimization of electrical power and energy consumption, the electrical power
must be measured. The electrical power for a motor can be given in a simple form by
Pm = I2R, where I is the current, R the resistance. The motor stall torque is calculated
by τ = KtI, where Kt is the motor torque constant. By combining these expressions, the
𝑟
electrical power can be rewritten as Pe= 2 𝜏 2 . Therefore, in this study, the cost
𝐾𝑡
metric is measured by the sum of the joint-torques squared.

5. Results and Discussions

In this study, a simulated NAO robot is used in order to test and verify the approach.
The NAO model is a kid size humanoid robot that is 58 cm high and 21 degrees of
freedom (DoF). The simulation is carried out using the RoboCup soccer simulator,
rcsssever3d, which is the official 3D simulator released by the RoboCup community,
in order to simulate humanoids soccer match. The simulator is based on Open
Dynamic Engine (ODE). The ODE can report the produced torque of each joint in
each simulation step time, therefore the sum of the joint-torques squared can be
calculated as the cost function.
Using the CMA-ES, after 30 iterations and 240 trails, the robot could reduce its
energy usage by 25 percent, on average in all learning scenarios. The optimization is
performed for 10 seconds walking with all the step lengths and step periods, which
were presented in section 4. Figure 4, shows the convergence of the cost function of
the learning scenario for the walk with step length 0.1 m and step period 0.4 s. The
optimized vertical CoM trajectory for this walk is also shown in the figure 5.

Fig 4. CMA_ES convergence for walk with step length 0.10 m and step period 0.4 s

Fig. 5. CoM vertical trajectory for a walk during 1.6 s

The walking achieved by the above learning scenario presented in figure 4 is

compared to the fixed height walking with the height assumed to be the offset of
learned trajectory. The results show the sum of squared torques of the walk with
variable height is reduced by 25 percent compared to the walk with fixed height. The
same walking parameters with minor tuning are tested on a real NAO robot and the
robot achieved to a more energy efficient walking. Please refer to
https://www.dropbox.com/s/ft1en4blotnwcrx/Real_Robot_Experiment.wmv to watch
the video of the fixed height walking versus the variable height walking. Figures 6
and 7, show the convergence of the cost function and the energy efficient vertical
CoM vertical trajectory for the walk with step length 0.1 m and step period 0.8 s.

Fig 6. Learning convergence for walking with step length 0.10 m and period 0.8 s
 Fig. 7. Energy efficient CoM vertical trajectory during two step periods

Figures 8 and 9, also show the convergence of the cost function and the optimized
vertical CoM trajectory of the walk with step length 0.14 m and step period 0.4 s.

Fig. 8. CMA_ES convergence for walk with step length 0.14 m and step period 0.4 s

Fig. 9. Optimized vertical CoM vertical trajectory for the above walking scenario

As shown in figures 5, 7 and 9, the optimized CoM vertical trajectory for different
walking characteristics are different. By using programmable CPGs, the robot can
change its walking speed, and modulation of the CoM trajectories can be done
autonomously. Figure 10 shows the modulation of CoM trajectory of a walk when the
robot, changes its walking characteristics from walk with step length 0.10 m and step
period 0.8 s to the walk with step length 0.14 m and step period 0.4. This change is
happening after the four seconds from the starting of the walk.

Fig. 10. Modulation of the vertical CoM trajectory by using the CPGs
 For the same walking scenario shown in the figure 10, we test the change of the
vertical CoM trajectories, this time with only use the Fourier basis function generator.
Figure 11, shows this experiment. This figure also illustrates that, at the time when the
change is happening, the CoM vertical trajectory has the sudden acceleration. In our
experiment the robot in this scenario fell four times in 10 tests, this happens because
of the explained sudden acceleration in vertical CoM trajectory. Nevertheless, by
using CPGs for the same walking scenario the robot did not fall in 10 times tests,
because of the smooth change in vertical CoM trajectory, as it is shown in figure 10.

Fig. 11. Changing the vertical CoM trajectory by the Fourier based generator

7. Conclusions

This paper presented an approach to create an energy efficient walk. The walking
controller approach is a ZMP based approach, which the ZMP dynamics is modeled
by an inverted Pendulum model. A numerical approach is used to generate the
horizontal CoM trajectory. The main contribution of this paper is the using of the
CPG approach with Fourier based function in order to formulate the vertical CoM
trajectory generator. By using the CMA-ES, an energy efficient walk is achieved for
walking types with different characteristics, including the step lengths and periods.
The results show that by optimizing the vertical CoM trajectory, the energy
consumption of the walk is reduced by as much as 25 percent compared to the
walking with fixed height. For different step lengths and periods, the optimized CoM
vertical trajectory is different in shape and characteristics. By using CPGs the online
modulation and change of the vertical CoM trajectories is done smoothly and without
jerk.
Since a ZMP-based approach is used and CPGs can generate smooth trajectories,
the generated walking is stable, and the risk of hardware damage during the gait
learning procedure is low. Therefore, Future work will be concerned with performing
the gait learning directly on a real NAO robot. For improving the learning
generalization, the linear regression may also be used to obtain the predicted values of
the Fourier basis function terms based on new walk parameter values.

Acknowledgements

The first author is supported by the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
under grant SFRH/BD/66597/2009 and PEst-OE/EEI/UI0127/2014. This work was
funded by FCT in the context of the projects PEst-OE/EEI/UI0027/2014 and also
supported by project Cloud Thinking (funded by the QREN Mais Centro program,ref.
CENTRO-07-ST24-FEDER-002031).

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