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IB Physics DP Your notes

2.4 Momentum & Impulse

Contents
2.4.1 Force & Momentum
2.4.2 Impulse
2.4.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum
2.4.4 Collisions & Explosions

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2.4.1 Force & Momentum

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Force & Momentum
Linear momentum, p, is defined as the product of mass and velocity

Momentum is a vector quantity - it has both a magnitude and a direction

This means it can have a negative or a positive value
If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling to the left (in
the opposite direction) has a negative momentum
The negative or positive directions are defined by the observer on a case-by-case basis
The SI unit for momentum is kg m s −1
Direction of Momentum
If a ball of mass 60 g travels at 2 m s −1, it will have a momentum of 0.12 kg m s −1
If it then hits a wall and rebounds in the exact opposite direction, it will have a momentum of −0.12
kg m s −1

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When the ball is travelling in the opposite direction, its velocity is negative. Since momentum = mass ×
velocity, its momentum is also negative

Worked example
Determine which object has the most momentum.

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Both the tennis ball and the brick have the same momentum
Even though the brick is much heavier than the ball, the ball is travelling much faster than the brick
This means that on impact, they would both exert a similar force (depending on the time it takes
for each to come to rest)
Force & Momentum
Force is defined as the rate of change of momentum on a body
The change in momentum is defined as the final momentum minus the initial momentum
These can be expressed as follows:

It should be noted that the force in this situation is equivalent to Newton's second law:
F=m×a
Only when mass is constant
In situations where mass is not constant, Newton's second law can only be considered to
assist descriptions and not for calculations

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The force and momentum equation can be derived from Newton's Second law and the definition
of acceleration
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Direction of Forces
Force and momentum are vectors so they can take either positive or negative values
The force that is equal to the rate of change of momentum is still the resultant force
A force on an object will be negative if it is directed in the opposite motion to its initial velocity
This means that the force is produced by the object it has collided with

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The wall produces a force of -300N on the car and (due to Newton’s Third Law) the car also produces a
force of 300 N back onto the wall

Worked example
A car of mass 1500 kg hits a wall at an initial velocity of 15 m s −1. It then rebounds off the wall at 5 m
s −1 and comes to rest after 3.0 s.Calculate the average force experienced by the car.

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Your notes

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Exam Tip
The direction you consider positive is your choice, as long the signs of the numbers (positive or
negative) are consistent with this throughout the questionIn an exam question, carefully
consider what produces the force(s) acting. Look out for words such as ‘from’ or ‘acting on’ to
determine this and don’t be afraid to draw a force diagram to figure out what is going on.

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2.4.2 Impulse
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Impulse
The force and momentum equation can be rearranged to find the impulse
Impulse, I, is equal to the change in momentum:
I = FΔt = Δp = mv – mu
Where:
I = impulse (N s)
F = force (N)
t = time (s)
p = momentum (kg m s –1)
m = mass (kg)
v = final velocity (m s –1)
u = initial velocity (m s –1)
This equation is only used when the force is constant
Since the impulse is proportional to the force, it is also a vector
The impulse is in the same direction as the force
The unit of impulse is N s
The impulse quantifies the effect of a force acting over a time interval
This means a small force acting over a long time has the same effect as a large force acting
over a short time
Rain vs Hail
An example in everyday life of impulse is the effect of rain on an umbrella, compared to hail (froz en
water droplets)
When rain hits an umbrella, the water droplets tend to splatter and fall off it and there is only a
very small change in momentum
However, hailstones have a larger mass and tend to bounce back off the umbrella, creating a
greater change in momentum
Therefore, the impulse on an umbrella is greater in hail than in rain
This means that more force is required to hold an umbrella upright in hail compared to rain

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Your notes

Since hailstones bounce back off an umbrella, compared to water droplets from rain, there is a greater
impulse on an umbrella in hail than in rain

Worked example
A 58 g tennis ball moving horiz ontally to the left at a speed of 30 m s –1 is struck by a tennis racket
which returns the ball back to the right at 20 m s –1.(a) Calculate the impulse delivered to the ball by
the racket(b) State the direction of the impulse

Part (a)
Step 1: Write the known quantities
Taking the initial direction of the ball as positive (the left)
Initial velocity, u = 30 m s –1
Final velocity, v = –20 m s –1
Mass, m = 58 g = 58 × 10–3 kg

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Step 2: Write down the impulse equation

Impulse I = Δp = m(v – u) Your notes
Step 3: Substitute in the values
I = (58 × 10–3) × (–20 – 30) = –2.9 N s
Part (b)
Direction of the impulse
Since the impulse is negative, it must be in the opposite direction to which the tennis ball
was initial travelling (since the left is taken as positive)
Therefore, the direction of the impulse is to the right
Impulse on a Force-Time Graph
In real life, forces are often not constant and will vary over time
If the force is plotted against time, the impulse is equal to the area under the force-time graph

When the force is not constant, the impulse is the area under a force–time graph
This is because
Impulse = FΔt
Where:
F = force (N)

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Δt = change in time (s)

The impulse is therefore equal whether there is Your notes

A small force over a long period of time
A large force over a small period of time
The force-time graph may be a curve or a straight line
If the graph is a curve, the area can be found by counting the squares underneath
If the graph is made up of straight lines, split the graph into sections
The total area is the sum of the areas of each section

Worked example
A ball of mass 3.0 kg, initially at rest, is acted on by a force F which varies with t as shown by the
graph.

Calculate the magnitude of the velocity of the ball after 16 s.

Step 1: List the known quantities

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Mass, m = 3.0 kg
Initial velocity, u = 0 m s −1 (since it is initially at rest)
Your notes
Step 2: Calculate the impulse
The impulse is the area under the graph
The graph can be split up into two right-angled triangles with a base of 8 s and a height of 4 kN

Area = Impulse = 32 × 103 N s

Step 3: Write the equation for impulse
Impulse, I = Δp = m(v – u)
Step 4: Substitute in the values
I = mv
32 × 103 = 3.0 × v
v = (32 × 103) ÷ 3.0
v = 10 666 m s –1 = 11 km s –1
Step 5: State the final answer
The final magnitude of the velocity of the ball is:
v = 11 km s –1

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Exam Tip
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Remember that if an object changes direction, then this must be reflected by the change in sign
of the velocity. As long as the magnitude is correct, the final sign for the impulse doesn't matter
as long as it is consistent with which way you have considered positive (and negative)
For example, if the left is taken as positive and therefore the right as negative, an impulse of 20 N s
to the right is equal to −20 N s
Some maths tips for this section:
Rate of Change
‘Rate of change’ describes how one variable changes with respect to another
In maths, how fast something changes with time is represented as dividing by Δt (e.g.
acceleration is the rate of change in velocity)
More specifically, Δt is used for finite and quantifiable changes such as the difference in time
between two events
Areas
The area under a graph may be split up into different shapes, so make sure you’re
comfortable with calculating the area of squares, rectangles, right-angled triangles and
trapez iums!

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Impulse in Context
In Sports Your notes
For example, in cricket:
A cricket ball travels at very high speeds and therefore has a high momentum
When a fielder catches the ball, it exerts a force onto their hands
Stopping a ball with high momentum at once will cause a large force onto their hands
This is because a change in momentum (impulse) acts over a short period of time which
creates a large force on the fielder's hands and could cause serious injury
A fielder moves their hands back when they catch the ball, which increases the time for its
change in momentum to reduce
This means there will be less force exerted on the fielder's hands and therefore less chance
of injury

A cricket fielder moves their hands backwards when catching a cricket ball to reduce the force it will exert
on their hands

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In football:
Increasing the contact time is sometimes used to advantage, as the longer the contact time,
the larger change in momentum Your notes
When kicking a football, after a strong kick the motion is followed through
This creates a large impulse and the ball then has a higher velocity

The follow through action of a football kick increases the change in momentum of the ball

Worked example
A tennis ball hits two rackets with a change in momentum of 0.5 kg m s −1. The first racket has a
contact time of 2 s. The second racket has a contact time of 0.1 s.For the different contact
times, which tennis racket experiences more force from the tennis ball?

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Your notes

Momentum Conservation & Safety

The force of an impact in a vehicle collision can be decreased by increasing the contact time
over which the collision occurs
The contact time is the time in which the vehicle or the passenger is in contact with what it has
collided with
Vehicles have safety features such as crumple zones, seat belts and airbags to account for this
For a given force upon impact, these absorb the energy from the impact and increase the
time over which the force takes place
This, in turn, increases the time taken for the change in momentum of the passenger and the
vehicle to come to rest
The increased time reduces the force and risk of injury on a passenger

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The seat belt, airbag and crumple zones help reduce the risk of injury on a passenger
Designing Safety Features
Vehicle safety features are designed to absorb energy upon an impact by changing shape
Seat belts
These are designed to stop a passenger from colliding with the interior of a vehicle by
keeping them fixed to their seat in an abrupt stop
They are designed to stretch slightly to increase the time for the passenger's momentum to
reach z ero and reduce the force on them in a collision
Airbags
These are deployed at the front on the dashboard and steering wheel when a collision
occurs
They act as a soft cushion to prevent injury on the passenger when they are thrown forward
upon impact
Crumple zones
These are designed into the exterior of vehicles
They are at the front and back and are designed to crush or crumple in a controlled way in a
collision
This is why vehicles after a collision look more heavily damaged than expected, even for
relatively small collisions

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The crumple z ones increase the time over which the vehicle comes to rest, lowering the
impact force on the passengers
Your notes
The effect of the increase in time and force can be shown on a force-time graph
For the same change in momentum, which depends on the mass and speed of a vehicle, the
increase in contact time will result in a decrease in the maximum force exerted on the vehicle
and passenger
This is demonstrated by a lower peak and wider base on a force-time graph

The increase in contact time Δt decreases the force for the same impulse

Worked example
A 7 kg bowling ball has an impulse of 84 N s act upon it. The bowling ball was initially at rest and
sitting on a flat frictionless surface.Predict the distance moved by the bowling ball in the first 3
seconds after the impulse was delivered.

Step 1: List the known quantities

Mass of the bowling ball, m = 7 kg
Impulse acting on the bowling ball, I = 84 N s
Bowling ball initial velocity (at rest), u = 0 m s −1

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Time of movement, t = 3 s
Step 2: Find the velocity caused by the impulse Your notes
The velocity caused by the impulse can be found from the equation linking mass, velocity,
and impulse:
Impulse, I = Δp = m(v – u)
Step 3: Rearrange and solve for v
I = m × v (since u = 0 m s −1)
v = I ÷ m = 84 ÷ 7 = 12 m s −1
Step 4: Find the distance travelled
This can be found using time and velocity
v=d÷t
d=v×t
d = 12 × 3 = 36 m
Step 5: State the final answer
The bowling ball moved 36 m

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2.4.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum

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Conservation of Linear Momentum
The principle of conservation of linear momentum states:
The total momentum before a collision = the total momentum after a collision
provided no external force acts
Linear momentum is the momentum of an object that only moves in one dimension
Momentum is a vector quantity
This means oppositely-directed vectors can cancel each other out resulting in a net
momentum of z ero
If after a collision an object starts to move in the opposite direction to which it was initially
travelling, its velocity will now be negative
Momentum, just like energy, is always conserved

The conservation of momentum for two objects A and B colliding then moving apart

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External & Internal Forces

External forces are forces that act on a system from outside of it e.g. friction and weight Your notes
Internal forces are forces exchanged by the particles in the system e.g. tension in a string
Forces that are internal or external will depend on the system itself
For example, in a mass-spring system:
The internal force is the spring force
The external force is the weight

Internal and external forces on a mass on a spring

Systems with no external forces may be described as ‘closed’ or ‘isolated’
These are keywords that refer to a system that is not affected by external forces
For example, a swimmer diving from a boat:
The diver will move forwards, and, to conserve momentum, the boat will move backwards
This is because the momentum beforehand was z ero and no external forces were present to
affect the motion of the diver or the boat

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Worked example
Your notes
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B whilst travelling at
3.0 m s –1. Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley A. On impact, the trolleys stick together.
Using the conversation of momentum, calculate the common velocity of both trolleys after the
collision.

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Your notes

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Worked example
Your notes
The diagram shows a car and a van, just before and just after the car collided with the van, which is
initially at rest.

Use the idea of conservation of momentum to calculate the velocity of the van when it is pushed
forward by the collision.

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Your notes

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Your notes

Exam Tip
If it is not given in the question already, drawing a diagram of before and after helps keep track of
all the masses and velocities (and directions) in the conversation of momentum questions.

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2.4.4 Collisions & Explosions

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Collisions & Explosions
In both collisions and explosions, momentum is always conserved
However, kinetic energy might not always be
A collision (or explosion) is either:
Elastic – if the kinetic energy is conserved
Inelastic – if the kinetic energy is not conserved
Collisions are when objects strike against each other
Elastic collisions are commonly those where objects colliding do not stick together and
then move in opposite directions
Inelastic collisions are commonly those where objects collide and stick together after the
collision

Elastic collisions are where two objects move in opposite directions. Inelastic collisions are where two
objects stick together
An explosion is commonly to do with recoil
For example, a gun recoiling after shooting a bullet or an unstable nucleus emitting an alpha
particle and a daughter nucleus

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To find out whether a collision is elastic or inelastic, compare the kinetic energy before and
after the collision
The equation for kinetic energy is: Your notes

Worked example
Two similar spheres, each of mass m and velocity v are travelling towards each other. The spheres
have a head-on elastic collision.What is the total kinetic energy after the impact?

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Worked example
Your notes
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B at speed 3.0 m s –1. Trolley B
has twice the mass of trolley A.The trolleys stick together and travel at a velocity of 1.0 m s –
1.Determine whether this is an elastic or inelastic collision.

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Exam Tip
Your notes
If an object is stationary or at rest, its velocity equals 0, therefore, the momentum and kinetic
energy are also equal to 0When a collision occurs in which two objects are stuck together, treat
the final object as a single object with a mass equal to the sum of the two individual
objectsDespite velocity being a vector, kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and therefore will
never include a minus sign - this is because in the kinetic energy formula, mass is scalar and the v2
will always give a positive value whether its a negative or positive velocity

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Applying Conservation of Momentum

The principle of conservation of momentum can be used to solve various types of problems for Your notes
isolated systems such as problems involving:
Collisions
Fluid jets
Conveyor belts
Explosions & many more
Kinetic energy can also be used to check if a collision is elastic or inelastic
In elastic collisions, momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
In inelastic collisions, momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not
Inelastic includes explosions

Worked example
Two trolleys X and Y are of equal mass. Trolley X moves towards trolley Y which is initially
stationary. After the collision, the trolleys join and move off together.Show that this collision is
inelastic.

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Your notes

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Worked example
Your notes
A 2 kg crossbow is fired and a 100 g arrow is fired horiz ontally. The arrow is released from the
crossbow at 40 m s −1.Determine the magnitude of the recoil velocity of the crossbow.

Step 1: List the known quantities

Mass of the crossbow: 2 kg
Mass of the arrow: 100 g = 0.1 kg
Speed of arrow during release: 40 m s −1
Step 2: Determine the momentum before release
Since before release neither the arrow nor the crossbow was moving, their momentum
together is 0 kg m s −1
Step 3: Determine the momentum of the arrow
The momentum of the arrow can be found from the equation:
p=m×v
parrow = 0.1 × 40 = 4 kg m s −1
Step 4: Determine the recoil velocity of the crossbow

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The arrow has a momentum of 4 kg m s −1 and the system had a total momentum of 0 kg m s −1
before the collision
Therefore, the crossbow must have a momentum of 4 kg m s −1 in the opposite direction to Your notes
the arrow
Therefore:
pcrossbow = m × v
pcrossbow ÷ m = v
v = 4 ÷ 2 = 2 m/s in opposite direction to arrow
Step 5: State the final answer
The magnitude of the recoil velocity of the crossbow is 2 m s −1.

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