RESEARCH SKILLS NOTES

LECTURE ONE

1. Why we do research?

Research is conducted for various reasons, and its importance spans across multiple domains
including academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations. Here are some key reasons
why research is conducted:

Advancement of Knowledge: Research helps to expand our understanding of various phenomena,

whether they are scientific, social, cultural, or technological. By conducting research, we uncover
new information, theories, and insights that contribute to the growth of human knowledge.

Problem Solving: Research allows us to address complex problems and challenges facing society.
Through systematic investigation and analysis, researchers can develop innovative solutions to issues
related to health, environment, technology, economics, and more.

Innovation and Creativity: Research drives innovation by fostering the development of new ideas,
products, and technologies. It provides a platform for exploring novel concepts and pushing the
boundaries of what is possible.

Improvement of Quality of Life: Research outcomes often lead to improvements in various aspects
of human life, such as healthcare, education, communication, transportation, and infrastructure.
Through research, we can enhance standards of living and promote overall well-being.

Evidence-Based Decision Making: Research provides empirical evidence that informs decision-
making processes in diverse fields, including policymaking, business strategy, healthcare
management, and educational practices. Evidence-based approaches help to ensure that decisions
are grounded in reliable data and analysis.

Personal and Professional Development: Engaging in research cultivates critical thinking, problem-
solving skills, and intellectual curiosity among researchers. It also offers opportunities for
professional growth, networking, and collaboration with peers across different disciplines and
institutions.

Validation and Refinement of Existing Knowledge: Research allows for the validation, replication,
and refinement of existing theories, findings, and methodologies. Through rigorous investigation and
peer review, researchers can build upon prior work and contribute to the cumulative advancement of
knowledge in their respective fields.

Exploration of the Unknown: Research enables exploration into uncharted territories and
unanswered questions. It encourages curiosity-driven inquiry and exploration of new frontiers,
leading to unexpected discoveries and breakthroughs.

2. Sources of Human Knowledge

Human knowledge has been acquired and transmitted through various sources over the years. Here
are some of the primary sources of human knowledge throughout history:

Oral Tradition: Before the development of writing systems, oral tradition was the primary means of
passing down knowledge from one generation to the next. Through storytelling, songs, chants, and
rituals, communities preserved their cultural heritage, history, values, and practical skills.
Written Records: The invention of writing systems, such as cuneiform, hieroglyphics, and alphabets,
revolutionized the preservation and dissemination of knowledge. Written records include
manuscripts, scrolls, tablets, inscriptions, and books, which have served as repositories of
information across various civilizations.

Religious Texts: Many religious texts, such as the Bible, Quran, Vedas, and Tripitaka, contain not only
spiritual teachings but also historical accounts, ethical principles, cosmological insights, and practical
guidance. These texts have played a significant role in shaping the beliefs, values, and practices of
diverse religious traditions.

Philosophical Inquiry: Philosophers have engaged in critical inquiry and reflection to explore
fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, politics, and the nature of reality.
Philosophical texts and treatises have contributed to the development of intellectual frameworks and
conceptual paradigms that continue to influence human thought.

Scientific Exploration: The scientific method, characterized by empirical observation, hypothesis

testing, experimentation, and peer review, has been instrumental in expanding our understanding of
the natural world. Scientific knowledge is derived from systematic research conducted in various
fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, and psychology.

Technological Innovation: Technological advancements, such as the printing press, internet,

telecommunication networks, and digital technologies, have revolutionized the accessibility and
dissemination of knowledge. These innovations have facilitated the rapid exchange of information,
collaboration among scholars, and the democratization of learning resources.

Cultural Transmission: Cultural practices, traditions, customs, and rituals have served as vehicles for
transmitting knowledge, skills, and values within societies. Cultural artifacts, folklore, music, art,
architecture, and cuisine embody the collective wisdom and creativity of human civilizations.

Personal Experience and Observation: Individual experiences, observations, insights, and intuitions
contribute to the accumulation of personal knowledge and wisdom. Through direct engagement with
the world, people acquire practical skills, problem-solving abilities, and self-awareness that inform
their understanding of themselves and the world around them.

3. Definition of Research

Research is a systematic and organized process of inquiry that aims to discover, interpret, and expand
knowledge in a particular field of study or discipline. It involves the systematic investigation of
phenomena, concepts, theories, or problems through the collection, analysis, and interpretation of
data and evidence.

Key characteristics of research include:

Systematic Approach: Research follows a structured and methodical approach to inquiry, involving
careful planning, execution, and evaluation of research activities.

Purposeful Inquiry: Research is driven by specific questions, objectives, or hypotheses that guide the
investigation and exploration of a particular topic or issue.

Empirical Investigation: Research relies on empirical evidence obtained through observation,

experimentation, measurement, or data collection methods to support or refute hypotheses and
theories.
Critical Analysis: Research involves critical analysis and evaluation of existing knowledge, literature,
theories, and methodologies relevant to the research topic or problem.

Generation of New Knowledge: Research aims to generate new insights, theories, models, or
discoveries that contribute to the advancement of knowledge within a particular field or discipline.

Ethical Considerations: Research adheres to ethical principles and guidelines to ensure the rights,
dignity, and well-being of research participants, as well as the integrity and credibility of the research
process and outcomes.

Communication of Findings: Research findings are typically communicated through written reports,
scholarly publications, presentations, or other forms of dissemination to share the results and
implications of the research with the broader academic community and society.

4. Research Reasoning:

Research reasoning refers to the logical processes and methods used by researchers to analyze data,
draw conclusions, and make interpretations based on empirical evidence. It involves systematic and
rigorous inquiry aimed at investigating phenomena, testing hypotheses, and advancing knowledge
within a particular field of study. Research reasoning encompasses various forms of logical thinking,
including inductive and deductive reasoning, which are fundamental to the research process.
Researchers employ these forms of reasoning to formulate research questions, design studies, collect
data, analyze findings, and draw conclusions.

Inductive Reasoning:

Inductive reasoning involves drawing general conclusions or patterns based on specific observations,
data, or evidence. It moves from the particular to the general, using specific instances to infer
broader principles, theories, or explanations. Inductive reasoning allows researchers to make
probabilistic assertions about the relationships between variables or phenomena.

Example of Inductive Reasoning:

Observations: Every time you wake up, the sun rises in the sky.

Conclusion: Therefore, you infer that the sun rises every morning.

In this example, the conclusion is drawn from repeated observations and experiences, suggesting a
general principle or pattern.

Deductive Reasoning:

Deductive reasoning involves deriving specific implications or predictions from general principles,
theories, or assumptions. It moves from the general to the specific, using established knowledge or
premises to make logical deductions about particular instances or situations. Deductive reasoning
aims to demonstrate the logical necessity of a conclusion based on the premises provided.

Example of Deductive Reasoning:

Premise: All humans are mortal.

Premise: Socrates is a human.

Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

In this example, the conclusion logically follows from the premises, illustrating how deductive
reasoning allows researchers to infer specific conclusions from broader principles or theories.

Comparison:

Scope: Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations.

Deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions.

Certainty: Inductive reasoning does not guarantee absolute certainty; conclusions are probabilistic
and subject to revision with new evidence.

Deductive reasoning aims for logical certainty; if the premises are true and the reasoning is valid, the
conclusion must necessarily follow.

Use in Research: Inductive reasoning is often used in exploratory research to generate hypotheses,
identify patterns, and develop theories.

Deductive reasoning is commonly employed in hypothesis testing and theory confirmation, where
researchers seek to verify or falsify specific predictions derived from established theories or
hypotheses.

LECTURE 2

1. RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES

Positivism:

Definition: Positivism is a research philosophy that emphasizes the use of empirical evidence and
scientific methods to study observable phenomena. It believes in the existence of an objective reality
that can be observed, measured, and analyzed to uncover general laws and patterns.

Example: A positivist researcher might conduct a survey to measure the relationship between
students' study habits and their academic performance. The researcher would use structured
questionnaires and statistical analysis to gather and analyze data objectively.

Comparison:

Ontology: Positivism assumes that there is an objective reality independent of human perception.

Epistemology: It asserts that knowledge is gained through systematic observation, measurement,

and experimentation.

Methodology: Positivist research emphasizes quantitative methods and statistical analysis to test
hypotheses and establish causal relationships.

Interpretivism:

Definition: Interpretivism is a research philosophy that focuses on understanding human behavior

and social phenomena from the perspective of individuals' subjective experiences, meanings, and
interpretations. It emphasizes the importance of context, culture, and language in shaping social
reality.

Example: An interpretivist researcher might conduct in-depth interviews to explore how individuals
experience and interpret workplace stress. The researcher would seek to understand the unique
perspectives, values, and meanings attributed to stress by participants within their specific
organizational context.

Comparison:

Ontology: Interpretivism acknowledges multiple subjective realities that are socially constructed and
context-dependent.

Epistemology: It argues that knowledge is socially constructed through interaction, interpretation,

and negotiation of meanings.

Methodology: Interpretivist research often employs qualitative methods such as interviews,

observations, and discourse analysis to explore subjective experiences and understand the
complexities of social phenomena.

Pragmatism:

Definition: Pragmatism is a research philosophy that emphasizes practical problem-solving and the
integration of multiple perspectives and methods to address complex research questions. It
prioritizes the relevance and utility of research findings in real-world contexts.

Example: A pragmatic researcher studying healthcare delivery might combine quantitative surveys
with qualitative interviews to gain a comprehensive understanding of patient experiences and
identify areas for improvement in healthcare services.

Comparison:

Ontology: Pragmatism recognizes the existence of multiple realities and emphasizes the importance
of context and practical outcomes.

Epistemology: It views knowledge as provisional, contextual, and problem-oriented, focusing on

what works in practice rather than abstract principles.

Methodology: Pragmatic research adopts a mixed-methods approach, integrating quantitative and

qualitative techniques to address research questions comprehensively and generate actionable
insights.

Summary:

Positivism emphasizes objective observation and scientific methods to uncover general laws.

Interpretivism focuses on understanding subjective meanings and social constructions.

Pragmatism prioritizes practical problem-solving and the integration of diverse perspectives and
methods.

2. TYPES OF RESEARCH

Descriptive vs Analytical

Descriptive Research:

Definition: Descriptive research aims to describe and characterize the features, behaviors, or
phenomena under investigation without attempting to establish causal relationships or explanations.
It provides a snapshot of the current state of affairs and helps researchers understand what exists or
occurs in a particular context.
Key Features of Descriptive Research:

Observation and Description: Descriptive research involves observing and documenting

characteristics, behaviors, or patterns of interest within a specific population or setting.

No Manipulation of Variables: Researchers do not manipulate variables or intervene in the natural

environment. Instead, they focus on collecting data through surveys, observations, or existing
records.

Quantitative or Qualitative Approaches: Descriptive research can utilize quantitative methods (e.g.,
surveys, experiments) or qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, observations) depending on the
research questions and objectives.

Example: A study assessing the demographic characteristics and purchasing habits of customers in a
retail store through surveys and observational methods would be an example of descriptive research.

Analytical Research:

Definition: Analytical research goes beyond mere description to analyze and interpret relationships
between variables, determine causes and effects, or test hypotheses and theories. It aims to
understand the underlying mechanisms or reasons behind observed phenomena by applying
analytical techniques and theoretical frameworks.

Key Features of Analytical Research:

Focus on Relationships and Explanations: Analytical research seeks to identify and explain
relationships between variables, often aiming to establish causal connections or predictive models.

Hypothesis Testing: Analytical research typically involves formulating hypotheses based on

theoretical frameworks or prior observations and testing these hypotheses using appropriate
research designs and statistical analyses.

Quantitative Data Analysis: Analytical research predominantly relies on quantitative data analysis
techniques such as regression analysis, correlation, and inferential statistics to examine patterns and
associations between variables.

Example: A study investigating the impact of social media advertising on consumer purchasing
behavior by analyzing survey responses and conducting statistical tests to determine the strength
and direction of the relationship would exemplify analytical research.

Comparison

Objective:

Descriptive research aims to describe and characterize phenomena, while analytical research seeks
to explain relationships, test hypotheses, and establish causal connections.

Data Collection:

Descriptive research primarily involves data collection through surveys, observations, or existing
records to document features or behaviors.

Analytical research employs more rigorous data collection methods and statistical analyses to
examine relationships between variables and test theoretical propositions.

Approach to Analysis:
Descriptive research focuses on summarizing data and presenting findings descriptively without
drawing inferences about relationships.

Analytical research involves deeper analysis and interpretation of data to uncover underlying
patterns, mechanisms, and explanations.

Purpose:

Descriptive research provides a basis for understanding the current state of affairs and generating
hypotheses for further investigation.

Analytical research aims to advance theoretical understanding, inform decision-making, and

contribute to the development of predictive models or practical interventions.

Applied vs Fundamental.

Applied Research:

Definition: Applied research is conducted to address specific practical problems, challenges, or issues
with the aim of providing solutions, recommendations, or interventions that have real-world
applications. It focuses on the direct application of research findings to solve immediate problems or
improve existing practices.

Key Features of Applied Research:

Problem-Solving Orientation: Applied research is problem-oriented and seeks to address practical

issues or challenges faced by individuals, organizations, or communities.

Immediate Relevance: Applied research aims to produce actionable insights and recommendations
that can be implemented to bring about tangible benefits or improvements.

Collaboration with Stakeholders: Applied research often involves collaboration with stakeholders,
such as industry partners, policymakers, or community members, to ensure that research findings
are relevant and applicable to real-world contexts.

Example: A study examining the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student
learning outcomes in a specific school district would be an example of applied research.

Fundamental Research:

Definition: Fundamental research, also known as basic or pure research, is driven by curiosity and
the quest for knowledge without immediate practical applications. It aims to expand theoretical
understanding, explore fundamental principles, and generate new insights or discoveries about the
natural world, human behavior, or other phenomena.

Key Features of Fundamental Research:

Exploratory Nature: Fundamental research is exploratory and seeks to uncover underlying principles,
mechanisms, or patterns governing phenomena.

Theoretical Contribution: Fundamental research contributes to the development of theoretical

frameworks, models, or paradigms that shape our understanding of the world.

Long-Term Impact: While not immediately applicable, fundamental research lays the groundwork for
future innovations, technological advancements, and applied research endeavors.
Example: A study investigating the genetic mechanisms underlying a particular disease or a research
project exploring the fundamental properties of quantum mechanics would exemplify fundamental
research.

Comparison

Objective:

Applied research aims to solve practical problems and address immediate needs, while fundamental
research seeks to expand theoretical knowledge and understanding.

Relevance:

Applied research is immediately relevant to addressing specific issues or challenges faced by

stakeholders, whereas fundamental research may not have immediate practical applications.

Methodology:

Applied research often employs applied methodologies and practical interventions to test solutions
in real-world settings, while fundamental research may involve more theoretical and exploratory
approaches.

Timeline:

Applied research typically yields results within shorter timeframes, as its focus is on addressing
immediate problems, whereas fundamental research may involve longer-term investigations and
discoveries.

Impact:

Applied research has direct and tangible impacts on practice, policy, or industry, while fundamental
research contributes to the advancement of knowledge and lays the groundwork for future
innovations and discoveries.

Conceptual vs Empirical

Conceptual Research:

Definition: Conceptual research involves the exploration and development of theoretical concepts,
frameworks, or models without necessarily collecting empirical data. It aims to clarify abstract ideas,
define key concepts, and establish theoretical foundations to guide further research and inquiry.

Key Features of Conceptual Research:

Theoretical Exploration: Conceptual research delves into abstract concepts, theories, or ideas to
provide conceptual clarity and theoretical coherence.

Development of Frameworks: It involves the construction of conceptual frameworks, models, or

paradigms that organize and explain phenomena within a particular domain.

No Empirical Data Collection: Conceptual research does not rely on the collection of empirical data
but instead focuses on synthesizing existing literature, theories, and ideas.

Example: A study proposing a new theoretical framework to explain the relationship between
leadership styles and organizational culture would be an example of conceptual research.
Empirical Research:

Definition: Empirical research involves the systematic collection and analysis of observable data to
test hypotheses, examine relationships between variables, and draw conclusions based on empirical
evidence. It emphasizes the use of empirical observation and measurement to investigate
phenomena and validate theoretical propositions.

Key Features of Empirical Research:

Data Collection and Analysis: Empirical research relies on the collection of observable data through
experiments, surveys, observations, or archival records, followed by rigorous analysis using statistical
or qualitative methods.

Hypothesis Testing: It involves formulating hypotheses based on theoretical frameworks or prior

observations and testing these hypotheses through empirical investigation.

Focus on Observation and Measurement: Empirical research emphasizes objective observation,

measurement, and replication of findings to ensure reliability and validity.

Example: A study examining the impact of exercise on mental health outcomes by collecting survey
data on exercise frequency and self-reported mental well-being would be an example of empirical
research.

Comparison

Data Collection:

Conceptual research does not involve the collection of empirical data but focuses on the
development of theoretical concepts and frameworks.

Empirical research relies on the systematic collection and analysis of observable data to test
hypotheses and examine relationships between variables.

Focus:

Conceptual research explores abstract concepts, theories, or ideas, aiming to provide theoretical
clarity and coherence.

Empirical research examines real-world phenomena, seeking to test hypotheses, validate theories,
and generate empirical evidence.

Methodology:

Conceptual research may involve literature reviews, theoretical analyses, and conceptual synthesis to
develop theoretical frameworks.

Empirical research employs research designs, data collection methods, and statistical analyses to
gather and analyze empirical data.

Validation:

Conceptual research aims to establish theoretical validity and coherence of concepts and
frameworks.

Empirical research aims to validate hypotheses and theories through empirical observation and
measurement.
 3. RESEARCH APPROACHES

QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE

Qualitative Research:

Definition: Qualitative research is an exploratory approach that focuses on understanding and

interpreting complex phenomena through in-depth examination of subjective experiences,
meanings, and perspectives. It emphasizes the richness, depth, and contextuality of human behavior
and social phenomena.

Key Features of Qualitative Research:

Subjective Understanding: Qualitative research seeks to understand the subjective meanings,

interpretations, and experiences of individuals within their natural contexts.

Flexible and Iterative Process: It employs flexible and iterative data collection methods such as
interviews, observations, and textual analysis, allowing researchers to adapt their approach based on
emerging insights.

Inductive Analysis: Qualitative data analysis involves inductive reasoning, where themes, patterns,
and categories emerge from the data through iterative coding and thematic analysis.

Rich Descriptive Detail: Qualitative research provides rich descriptive detail and thick descriptions
that capture the complexity and nuances of human behavior and social phenomena.

Example: A qualitative study exploring the experiences of individuals living with chronic illness
through in-depth interviews and thematic analysis to uncover common themes and patterns in their
narratives.

Quantitative Research:

Definition: Quantitative research is a systematic approach that focuses on quantifying relationships,

testing hypotheses, and making predictions using numerical data and statistical analysis. It
emphasizes objectivity, precision, and generalizability of findings.

Key Features of Quantitative Research:

Objective Measurement: Quantitative research relies on standardized measurement instruments and

numerical data to quantify variables and relationships.

Hypothesis Testing: It involves formulating hypotheses based on theoretical frameworks and testing
these hypotheses using statistical analysis of empirical data.

Controlled and Structured Data Collection: Quantitative research employs structured data collection
methods such as surveys, experiments, or archival data analysis to ensure reliability and replicability.

Statistical Analysis: Quantitative data analysis involves statistical techniques such as correlation,
regression, and inferential statistics to examine relationships, make predictions, and test hypotheses.

Example: A quantitative study investigating the relationship between exercise frequency and
cardiovascular health by collecting data on participants' exercise habits and measuring physiological
indicators such as heart rate and blood pressure.

Comparison
Nature of Data:

Qualitative research deals with non-numerical data, focusing on textual, narrative, or visual data
sources.

Quantitative research deals with numerical data, focusing on quantifiable variables and statistical
analysis.

Approach to Analysis:

Qualitative research employs interpretive and inductive approaches to analyze textual or narrative
data, focusing on themes, patterns, and meanings.

Quantitative research employs deductive and inferential approaches to analyze numerical data,
focusing on statistical relationships, probabilities, and generalizability.

Sample Size and Generalizability:

Qualitative research typically involves smaller sample sizes and aims for in-depth understanding
rather than generalizability.

Quantitative research often involves larger sample sizes and aims for generalizability to broader
populations through random sampling and statistical inference.

Research Design:

Qualitative research employs flexible and emergent research designs, allowing for iterative data
collection and analysis.

Quantitative research typically follows a structured and predefined research design with clear
hypotheses, variables, and data collection procedures.

LECTURE 3

RESEARCH PROCESS

Choosing a Topic:

Identify your interests: Select a topic that genuinely interests you as it will keep you motivated
throughout the research process.

Consider relevance: Choose a topic that is relevant to your field of study or area of interest.

Review literature: Look into existing research to identify gaps or areas that need further exploration.

Brainstorm ideas: Brainstorm potential topics and narrow down your choices based on feasibility and
significance.

Problem statement

Clear Identification of the Problem: The problem statement should clearly define the issue or
challenge that the research aims to address. It should be specific and concise, avoiding vague or
broad language.

Context and Background Information: Provide background information and context to help readers
understand the significance of the problem. This may include relevant statistics, previous research
findings, or trends in the field.
Attribution: Attribute the problem to a specific individual, group, organization, or context. This adds
clarity and helps in understanding who is affected by the problem.

Objectives: Clearly state the objectives or goals that the research intends to achieve. What outcomes
or solutions are expected from addressing the problem?

Alternative Means: Discuss alternative approaches or courses of action that could be taken to solve
the problem. This demonstrates critical thinking and an understanding of different methods or
strategies.

Possible Outcomes: Identify the potential outcomes or results that could arise from addressing the
problem. What are the anticipated benefits or consequences?

Varied Chances: Acknowledge that different approaches may have varying chances of success.
Consider factors such as feasibility, resources required, and potential barriers to implementation.

Environmental Context: Consider the broader environment or context in which the problem exists.
This may include social, economic, political, or technological factors that influence the problem and
its potential solutions.

Conciseness and Clarity: Keep the problem statement concise and to the point, using clear and
straightforward language. Avoid unnecessary jargon or technical terms that may confuse the reader.

Relevance and Significance: Highlight the relevance and significance of the problem within the larger
scope of the field of study. Why is it important to address this particular issue?

Research Gap

A research gap refers to an area within a field of study where there is a lack of existing research or
where the existing research is insufficient to fully address a particular question or issue. It signifies an
unexplored or underexplored aspect that warrants further investigation to advance knowledge or
solve a problem. Identifying research gaps is crucial for researchers as it helps them define the scope
of their study, justify its significance, and contribute meaningfully to the existing body of knowledge.
Researchers often uncover these gaps through literature reviews, empirical observations, or
theoretical considerations, highlighting opportunities for new studies, hypotheses, or methodologies
to address unanswered questions or emerging challenges within a given discipline or topic area.

Example

1.1 Research Gap

Other studies were looked at relating to technology adoption in developing countries to determine
research gaps. Enegbuma et al. (2016) looked at peoples’ perceptions, processes, and technology in
Malaysia's construction industry. However, the study limited the respondents to certain professions in
the construction industry. Similarly, Moshood et al. (2020) study limited respondents to project
managers, site managers, and quantity surveyors in the Nigerian construction industry. Oke et al.
(2020) study looked at assessing the challenges faced in adopting the Internet of Things (IoT) in the
construction industry in Nigeria. The study addressed that the government only strategy to overcome
IoT adoption. These perspectives include gaps in understanding the mechanisms that generate the
conditions for implementing innovative technology (Serdyukov, 2017).

This research emphasises applying innovative working processes and novel technology as AI
technology provides several benefits and efficiency gains. This research looked at the organisational
adoption of new technology solutions (Maali, et al., 2020). These include the potential ability to
identify risks with more incredible speed and accuracy than otherwise possible (Bigham, et al., 2019),
the use of AI technologies in minimising exposed design errors before construction, enhanced clarity
of design before actual construction, the knowledge of construction professionals in using AI tools,
strategies to address AI adoption the influence of cost in the adoption of technology, the availability
of skilled personnel, creation of AI institutes for graduates, the enforcement from regulatory bodies
(Aka et al., 2020; Oke et al., 2020; Noruwa et al., 2020). A change in technology and organisational
structure, task, and personnel influence the result of AI implementation. The prerequisite identified
limited literature on AI adoption and implementation in African, with no evidence on South African
studies. This indicated a research gap within the South African construction industry.

1.2. Research Problem Statement

As a potential solution in mitigating this problem, developing countries are looking at introducing AI
tools and technologies, as an industry norm, to all construction practices and stages. However, most
construction players in developing countries have difficulty implementing AI as they do not know
what, how, where, who, and when to begin with AI in construction projects. Advances in new
technology require new knowledge (2013). Various research theories focus on different obstacles
limiting AI utility or limiting the ability to adopt AI in construction projects. How these other theories
interact is, however, not very well documented. It is necessary to understand better how these factors
combine and how they may be considered. There is also no clear consensus on how construction
organisations should lead to the development and adoption of AI to address this low-performance
level. Thus, this study aimed to assess the adoption of AI in the South African construction industry
and developed a framework for AI adoption in developing countries.

Formulating Research Questions or Objectives:

Develop clear research questions or objectives that guide your study.

Ensure that your questions are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

Literature Review:

Conduct a comprehensive literature review to understand existing research and theories related to
your topic.

Identify key concepts, methodologies, findings, and gaps in the literature.

Synthesize the literature to provide context for your research and justify its significance.

Research Design:

Select an appropriate research design (e.g., experimental, observational, qualitative, quantitative)

based on your research questions and objectives.

Determine your sampling strategy and sample size.

Choose data collection methods and tools (e.g., surveys, interviews, experiments) that align with
your research design.

Data Collection:

Collect data according to your chosen methods and tools.

Ensure data validity, reliability, and ethical considerations throughout the data collection process.
Keep detailed records and documentation of your data collection procedures.

Data Analysis:

Clean and organize your data to prepare it for analysis.

Choose appropriate analytical techniques based on your research design and data characteristics.

Analyze your data using statistical software, qualitative analysis tools, or other methods.

Interpret the results in relation to your research questions and hypotheses.

Interpreting Results:

Interpret the findings of your analysis in the context of existing literature and theory.

Discuss the implications of your results and their significance for your field of study.

Address limitations and potential sources of bias in your research.

Consider alternative explanations and areas for future research.

Conclusion and Recommendations:

Summarize the key findings of your study.

Provide recommendations for practice, policy, or further research based on your findings.

Reflect on the strengths and limitations of your study and suggest areas for improvement.

Documentation and Reporting:

Document your research process, including methods, data, and analysis procedures.

Write a clear and concise research report or paper following the appropriate format and style
guidelines.

Cite sources properly and adhere to ethical standards in academic writing.

Peer Review and Revision:

Seek feedback from peers, advisors, or experts in your field through peer review.

Revise your research based on feedback and critique to strengthen its quality and validity.

REFERENCING

While there many referencing styles, we are mainly going to talk about Havard referencing as it is the
mostly used. In Harvard referencing, in-text citations include the author's surname and the
publication year, and a full reference list is provided at the end of the document, arranged
alphabetically by author's surname.

Here are some notes and examples of Harvard referencing:

In-text citations:

When citing a source within the text, include the author's surname and the publication year in
parentheses. For direct quotations, also include the page number.

Example: (Smith, 2010) or (Smith, 2010, p. 25)

If there are multiple authors, list them all in the same parentheses, separated by commas.

Example: (Smith, Jones, & Brown, 2015)

Reference list:The reference list provides full details of all sources cited in the document, arranged
alphabetically by author's surname. Each entry should include the author's surname, initials,
publication year, title of the work, publication information, and, if applicable, the DOI or URL.

Example: Smith, J. (2010). The Art of Writing: A Comprehensive Guide. London: Publisher.

Jones, A., & Brown, B. (2015). Research Methods: A Practical Approach. New York, NY: Publisher.

Online sources: For online sources, include the author (if available), publication year (if available),
title of the webpage or article, website name, URL, and access date.

Example: Doe, J. (2018). The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity. Environmental Studies
Journal. Retrieved from https://www.example.com/climate-change-biodiversity

(Accessed January 9, 2024).

Books: When referencing books, include the author's surname, initials, publication year, title of the
book, edition (if not the first), place of publication, and publisher.

Example: Brown, C. (2017). Introduction to Psychology (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Publisher.

Journal articles: For journal articles, include the author's surname, initials, publication year, title of
the article, journal name, volume number, issue number (if available), page range, and DOI (if
available).

Example: Johnson, K. (2019). Understanding Consumer Behavior. Journal of Marketing Research,

25(3), 45-60. DOI: 10.1234/jmr.2019.12345

LECTURE 4

STRUCTURING THE DISSTERTAION

Title Page:

Title of your dissertation.

Your name.
Your institution.
Date of submission.

Abstract:

A concise summary of your dissertation.

Includes the research problem, methodology, key findings, and conclusions.
Typically around 150-300 words.

Acknowledgements:

Express gratitude to those who supported and assisted you during your research.

Table of Contents:
Lists all the main sections and subsections of your dissertation with corresponding page numbers.

List of Figures and Tables:

If applicable, lists all figures and tables along with their page numbers.

Introduction:

Introduce the topic of your dissertation.

Clearly state the research problem and objectives.
Provide an overview of the structure of the dissertation.

Literature Review:

Review relevant literature and theoretical frameworks.

Discuss previous research related to your topic.
Identify gaps in the existing literature that your research aims to address.

Methodology:

Describe the research methods and techniques used.

Justify your choice of methodology.
Explain how data was collected and analyzed.

Results:

Present the findings of your research.

Use tables, figures, and graphs to illustrate data where appropriate.
Provide clear and concise explanations of the results.

Discussion:

Interpret and analyze the results in relation to the research question.

Discuss the implications of your findings.
Compare your results with existing literature.
Address any limitations of your study.

Conclusion:

Summarize the main findings of your research.

Restate the research problem and objectives.
Discuss the contributions of your study to the field.
Suggest areas for future research.

References:

Provide a list of all the sources cited in your dissertation.

Follow a consistent citation style (e.g., HAVARD, APA, MLA, Chicago).
Appendices:

Include any additional materials such as questionnaires, interview transcripts, or raw data.
Number the appendices and refer to them in the main body of the dissertation when necessary.
LECTURE V
LITERATURE REVIEW
Outcomes
-Understand the purpose of the critical literature review
-Adopt a critical perspective in your reading;
-Know what you need to include when writing your critical review;
-Be aware of the range of primary, secondary and tertiary literature sources available;
-Identify key words and to undertake a literature search using a range of methods;
-Be able to evaluate the relevance, value and sufficiency of the literature found;
-Be able to apply the knowledge, skills and understanding gained to your own research project
Reasons
o First, to generate and refine your ideas; gap-toothing; reading to get your
topic of interest into a question;
o Then critical review (describe what has been done, its limitations and how your research fits in)
– limitations in perspectives, problem context, theoretical pre-considerations,
methodology/approach/tools and techniques in line with the context, timeline
-Essence/principle - What do we already know? What are people talking about? What is missing?
What is the expected outcome (objectives/contribution)
-A recombination of existing knowledge – you don’t have to always bring something new – you can
add a little element that can change things significantly
-There is little point in reinventing the wheel . . . the work that you do is not done in a vacuum, but
builds on other people’s ideas. This requires you describe what has been published, to draw
information in a relevant and critical way (Snyder, 2019)
-Connecting to grand challenges, locally and internationally – Nature of the problem, Context
(relevance) – symmetry of potential outcomes, industry, set your topic in context (good knowledge
of the lit
Sources
-Databases, journals, conference papers, organisations (WHO, ILO);
-Recent and up-to-date articles (except seminal papers),
-Academic review articles (up-to-date and contain recommendations that may form the bases of
your research;
-Harzing’s Publish or Perish,
-Attending conferences /reviewing conference proceedings on topical issues / issues of interest;
follow key researchers (who they have cited or otherwise), citation analysis
Types/Approaches
-Could be integrative, systematic, combination of both (understand, criticise, analyse/interpret);
therefore could be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
-Quantitative - Assume that a clear theoretical position is developed prior to the collection of data
(the deductive approach), bibliometrics, scientometrics
-Qualitative – Eg, grounded theory – theory is developed after the data has been collected (the
inductive approach), integrative, collect systematically (preview, select/sort, interpret systematically
with a clear purpose)
-Mixed methods – eg, bibliometrics and content analysis
 Approach Systematic Semi-systematic Integrative
Typical purpose Synthesize, compare Overview of research area, Critique, synthesise
evidence trend analysis (track
arguments/developments
over time)
Research Specific Broad Narrow or broad
questions
Search strategy Systematic Mixed Usually not systematic

Sample Quantitative articles (meta Research articles Research articles, books,

characteristics analysis) other texts,
Analysis and Quantitative Qualitative/quantitative Qualitative, hand
evaluation searching, citation
chaining/searching
Possible Evidence of effect (meta State of knowledge, Taxonomy/classification,
contributions analyses); historical overview, theoretical mode
Inform policy and practice research agenda, /framework
theoretical model,
themes in literature
Knowledge gap
Typical Bibliometrics, Bibliometrics and content Content analysis
outcomes Scientometrics analysis Thematic analysis
Software VosViewer NVivo, Atlas-ti

Review considerations
-Develop your strategy – including development of research question, keywords/concepts with
Boolean operators (AND OR NOT), forming criteria, search strategy, searching databases, protocol
registration, title, abstract, full-text screening, manual searching, extracting data, quality
assessment, data checking, statistical analysis, double data checking, and manuscript writing.
-Clear strategy – ensure comprehensive and exhaustive research, eliminate bias, improve
reproducibility
-Use of appropriate synonyms, acronyms, natural language, spelling variation, multiple databases use
same string and adapt other search strategies as needed.
-Further reading - Osei-Kyei & Chan, 2015.
Bibliometric and Scientometrics
-Bibliometrics - utilizing quantitative analysis and statistics to describe patterns of publications within
a given period; emerging trends, journal performance,
collaboration patterns, and research constituents/institutions and to explore the intellectual
structure of a specific domain in the extant literature. Therefore, it can be used to identify knowledge
gaps and refine your intended contribution.
-The scientometric analysis is used to objectively map the scientific knowledge area; then the critical
review aims to explore and describe the research themes and the
corresponding challenges based on the scientometric results – citation analysis/mapping, co-
authorship networks, link strength, topic clusters
-Further reading – Makabate et al. 2021

Writing
▶ Link/juxtapose ideas;
▶ Logical flow
▶ Go straight to the point
▶ Be coherent
▶ Paraphrase – review and draft your understanding of the paragraph
▶ Reference correctly – Harvard style (surname in-text; first author et al.; list at the end must
be complete)
Basic steps of a literature review
1. Determine the scope: Define the boundaries of your literature review by specifying the
specific aspects of construction health and safety plans you want to focus on. For example, you might
consider technologies related to hazard identification, risk assessment, safety training, or monitoring
systems.
2. Identify keywords: Determine the keywords related to your topic, such as "construction
health and safety," "information technology," "innovative technologies," and any specific
technologies you want to cover.
3. Search for relevant literature: Conduct a comprehensive search using academic databases,
research journals, conference proceedings, and reputable sources related to construction,
technology, and health and safety. Use your keywords to refine your search and identify relevant
studies, articles, reports, and case studies.
4. Organize your literature review: Create an outline or structure for your literature review. It
can be organized chronologically, thematically, or conceptually, depending on how you want to
present the information. Consider dividing the review into sections based on different technologies
or aspects of construction health and safety plans.
5. Summarize and synthesize the literature: Read and analyze the selected sources to
understand the key findings, methodologies, and contributions of each study. Summarize the main
points of each source and identify common themes, trends, or gaps in the literature. Look for
evidence of the effectiveness, benefits, challenges, or limitations of the technologies.
6. Critically analyze the literature: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the existing
studies, methodologies used, and the applicability of the findings to real-world construction settings.
Compare and contrast different technologies and their impact on construction health and safety
plans.
7. Identify gaps and future directions: Highlight any gaps or limitations in the current literature.
Identify areas where further research is needed and suggest potential future directions for the
application of innovative information technology in construction health and safety plans.
8. Write the literature review: Begin by introducing the topic and providing context for the
importance of construction health and safety plans. Then, present a summary of the existing
literature, emphasizing the key findings, trends, and gaps identified. Organize the information based
on your chosen structure and provide critical analysis and evaluation throughout the review.
Conclude by summarizing the main points and highlighting the significance of using innovative
information technology in construction health and safety plans.

LECTURE 6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Writing Research Methodology
• This is a critical section of your research, and a lot of energy must be invested. The section must
present research design, research approach, sampling design, data types, data collection
techniques/tools, data analysis techniques/tools, research reliability and validity, research ethics.
• Research Design
• This subsection presents the type of design that you use in your research. There are different types
of designs eg experimental design etc.
• In most of your research studies, IT IS A CASE STUDY PHENOMELOGICAL DESIGN. Read and write
more about it.
• Research approach
• This is the type of approach that is used in your study. There are several approaches e.g qualitative
etc.
• In most of your research studies, IT IS MIXED- METHOD APPROACH, WHERE QUALITTAIVE, and
QUANTITATIVE AND SPATIAL METHODS ARE USED IN A SINGLE STUDY. Read and write more about
these.
• Sampling design
• This section presents the type of target population, sampling techniques/methods as well as
sampling size the researcher settles on. There are about two sampling approaches eg they fall within
probability and non-probability sampling.
• In most of your studies you use BOTH PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES EG PURPOSIVE, RANDOM, STRATIFIED, SYSTEMATIC etc. Read and research more about
these.
• Data Types
• This section presents the types of data that is used. There are basically two types that are
secondary and primary.
• In most of your studies your use both secondary and primary data types that are obtained from
literature sources and the field respectively. Read and research more about these.
• Data collection techniques/methods/tools
• This section presents the various methods of collecting data. There are various techniques that are
used to collect data from the field and these among others include, interviews, observations etc.
• In most of your studies your use several methods to collect data that among others include
interviews, observations, questionnaires etc. Read and research more about these.
• Data analysis techniques/methods/tools
• There are various techniques that are used to analyse qualitative, quantitative
and spatial data.
Data Analysis
Data analysis in research is the process of examining, cleaning, transforming, and interpreting data to
uncover meaningful patterns, trends, relationships, and insights that address research questions or
hypotheses. It is a crucial stage in the research process, whether in qualitative or quantitative
research methodologies. Here are the key steps and considerations in data analysis in the
methodology section:
Choosing the Right Analysis Methods: Depending on the research questions and the nature of the
data, researchers select appropriate analysis methods. These may include descriptive statistics,
inferential statistics, regression analysis, factor analysis, cluster analysis, content analysis, thematic
analysis, or other qualitative and quantitative techniques.
Quantitative Data Analysis: In quantitative research, researchers analyze numerical data to identify
patterns and relationships. This often involves statistical techniques such as hypothesis testing,
correlation analysis, regression analysis, chi-square tests, ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), and more
advanced methods depending on the research design and objectives.
Qualitative Data Analysis: In qualitative research, researchers analyze textual, visual, or audio data to
identify themes, patterns, and meanings. Common techniques include content analysis, thematic
analysis, grounded theory, narrative analysis, and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA).
Qualitative data analysis often involves coding, categorizing, and interpreting data to generate
insights.
Interpreting Findings: Researchers interpret the results of data analysis in the context of the research
questions or hypotheses. They discuss the significance of the findings, consider potential limitations
or biases, and relate them to existing literature or theoretical frameworks.
Ensuring Rigor and Validity: Researchers strive to ensure the rigor and validity of their data analysis.
This includes transparency in analytical procedures, documenting analytical decisions, addressing
potential sources of bias, and conducting sensitivity analyses.
Reporting Results: Researchers communicate their findings through research reports, papers,
presentations, or visualizations. They should clearly describe the data analysis methods used, present
key findings, and discuss implications for theory, practice, or policy.
Reproducibility and Transparency: Researchers should strive to make their data analysis process
transparent and reproducible. This includes documenting the steps taken during analysis, providing
access to data and code (where possible), and adhering to standards for transparency and openness
in research.
Ethics in research- Ethics in research refers to the principles and standards that guide the conduct of
research involving human participants, animals, and the environment. Ethical considerations are
crucial in ensuring that research is conducted responsibly, with integrity, and with the well-being of
participants, communities, and society at large in mind. Some of the key considerations to take note
of in research ethics are.
Informed Consent: Researchers must obtain voluntary and informed consent from participants
before involving them in the study. This includes providing clear information about the purpose,
procedures, risks, benefits, and alternatives involved in the research.
Beneficence: Researchers must ensure that the potential benefits of the research outweigh any
potential risks to participants. They should strive to maximize the well-being of participants and
minimize harm.
Non-maleficence: Researchers must take precautions to avoid causing harm to participants. This
includes minimizing physical, psychological, social, and economic risks associated with participation
in the research.
Respect for Participants: Researchers must respect the dignity, privacy, and autonomy of research
participants. This includes protecting their confidentiality and anonymity, as well as allowing them to
withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.
Justice: Researchers must ensure that the benefits and burdens of research are distributed fairly
among participants and communities. This includes avoiding exploitation of vulnerable populations
and ensuring equitable access to the benefits of research.
Integrity: Researchers must conduct research honestly and transparently, accurately reporting their
methods, findings, and conclusions. They should also disclose any conflicts of interest that may
influence the research.
LECTURE 7
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
Writing Findings/Results and Discussion
• This section presents and discusses the results of the study.
• Normally, the length of this section must be of the same size with the literature review
section if not longer.
• It demonstrates the extent to which you have achieved the aim and objectives of your
manuscript.
• Specific objectives must guide the sequence and structure of the results presentation
and due diligence must be exercised in doing so.
• The work must demonstrate new findings within the area of study.
• The meaning and implications of the findings must be discussed, hence results must be
presented first and then analysed appropriately and discussed at length.
Some of the key considerations in this chapter are:
Introduction to Data Presentation and Analysis:

Start with an overview of why data presentation and analysis are crucial in various fields such as
business, science, social sciences, etc.
Explain the significance of data visualization and statistical analysis in interpreting and drawing
meaningful insights from data.
Types of Data:
Discuss different types of data such as quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (categorical).
Explain the distinction between discrete and continuous data.
Mention the importance of understanding the nature of the data before choosing appropriate
presentation and analysis techniques.
Data Presentation Techniques:
Discuss various techniques for presenting data including tables, charts, graphs, and diagrams.
Explain when to use each technique based on the type and purpose of the data.
Provide examples of different types of charts such as bar charts, line graphs, pie charts, histograms,
scatter plots, etc.
Data Analysis Techniques:
Introduce basic statistical measures such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, variance, etc.
Discuss exploratory data analysis (EDA) techniques such as summary statistics, histograms, box plots,
etc., to understand the distribution and patterns in the data.
Introduce inferential statistical techniques such as hypothesis testing, confidence intervals,
regression analysis, etc., for making inferences about populations based on sample data.
Data Visualization Tools and Software:
Discuss popular data visualization tools and software such as Microsoft Excel, Tableau, Python
libraries like Matplotlib and Seaborn, R programming language, etc.
Highlight the importance of choosing the right tool based on the complexity of the data and the
requirements of the analysis.
Best Practices in Data Presentation and Analysis:
Emphasize the importance of clarity, simplicity, and accuracy in presenting and analyzing data.
Discuss principles of effective data visualization such as choosing appropriate chart types, labeling
axes properly, avoiding clutter, etc.
Highlight the importance of data integrity, transparency, and reproducibility in data analysis.
Case Studies and Examples: Provide real-world examples and case studies to illustrate the concepts
discussed in the chapter. Demonstrate how data presentation and analysis techniques are applied in
different domains such as business analytics, scientific research, marketing, etc.
Conclusion:
Summarize the key points discussed in the chapter.
Reinforce the importance of data presentation and analysis in decision-making and problem-solving.
Provide suggestions for further reading or resources for those interested in delving deeper into the
topic.
LECTURE 8
Writing Conclusions And Recommendations
• The conclusion must summarise the whole work.
• There must be NO new information within the conclusion.
• However, frameworks and models can be created using new found information from
the findings and results to demonstrate and recommend new knowledge or ways of
doing things.
• The conclusion must be reasonably long but not excessively long.
• Recommendations must be directly linked to finding and results within the manuscript
and not from literature that is not related to your work.
For more reading
REFERENCES
Donthu, N., Kumar, S., Mukherjee, D., Pandey, N. and Lim, W. M. How to conduct a bibliometric
analysis: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 133: 285-296
Makabate, Musonda & Okoro. 2020. Scientometric analysis of BIM adoption by SMEs in the
architecture, construction and engineering sector. ECAM.
Osei-Kyei, R. & Chan, A. P. C. 2015. Review of studies on the Critical Success Factors for Public–Private
Partnership (PPP) projects from 1990 to 2013. International Journal of Project Management xx (2015)
xxx–xxx
Page, MJ, McKenzie, JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020
statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews.
Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal
of Business Research, 104: 333-339.
Price, P. C., Jhangiani, R. S., & Chiang, I. (2015). Research Methods in Psychology (2nd Canadian
Edition). The Saylor Foundation, (2nd Canadian Edition). Scientific Research Publishing.
https://www.scirp.org/%28S%28czeh2tfqyw2orz553k1w0r45%29%29/reference/
referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=2951711
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Educational Research.
Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research methods for business students.
Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, Adrian. (2007). Research methods for business students.
Financial Times/Prentice Hall.