Renewable Energy Resources

Unit - 2

Solar Thermal Energy

 Topics
Solar Thermal Energy:
Solar Radiation
Flat Plate Collector and their material
Applications and Performance
Focusing of Collectors and their materials
Application and Performance
Solar Thermal Power Plants
Thermal Energy storage for solar heating and cooling
Limitations of Solar Power Plant
 Solar Radiation
The solar radiation received by the earth’s surface vary with the
location.
However radiation received outside the earth’s atmosphere is different
than what we received on the earth surface because of absorption,
reflection, scattering, and attenuation by particulates and clouds
present in the atmosphere.
The solar radiation is grouped in the following two categories:
Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation:
a. The intensity of the sun’s radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere is
called extraterrestrial and has no diffuse components.
b. Extraterrestrial radiation is the measure of radiation that would be
received in the absence of atmosphere.
 Solar Radiation
Terrestrial Solar Radiation:
a. The radiation we receive on the earth surface is called terrestrial
radiation and is nearly 70% of extraterrestrial radiation.
b. Solar radiations pass through the earth’s atmosphere and are
subjected to scattering and atmospheric absorption and a part of
scattered radiations are reflected back into space.
 Direct Radiation Diffuse Radiation
Solar radiation received on earth’s The radiation received on a terrestrial
surface without change in direction is surface (scattered by aerosols and
known as Direct Radiation. dust) from all parts of the sky dome is
known as diffuse radiation.
It has unique path. It doesn’t have unique path.
It has least amount of the atmosphere It has the more amount of the
to travel through. atmosphere to travel through.
It maintains intensity and direction. It appears uniformly spread without a
specific light source.
It is stronger in areas directly facing Evenly distributed across the sky.
the Sun.
Crucial for concentrated solar power Provide ambient lighting, contributes
systems; higher intensity. to overall energy generation,
especially on cloudy days.
 Global Radiation Diffuse Radiation
Global Solar Radiation is the total Diffuse solar radiation is the total
amount of solar energy falling on a amount of solar energy falling on a
horizontal surface. horizontal surface from all parts of the
sky apart form the direct sun.
Typical values for daily global solar Typical values for daily diffuse solar
radiation range from 1 to 35 MJ/m^2. radiation range from 1 to 20 MJ/m^2.
The values are usually highest in clear The values are usually highest during
sun conditions during the summer and cloudy conditions and lowest during
lower during the winter or very cloudy clear sky days.
days.
 Solar Constant
The solar constant is the energy received from the sun on a unit area
perpendicular to sun’s rays at the mean distance from the sun, outside
the atmosphere.
A solar constant is a measurement of the solar electromagnetic
radiation available in meter squared at Earth’s distance from the sun.
The standard value of the solar constant based on experimental
measurements is 1367 W/m^2 with an accuracy of (+or-)1.5%.
 Local Apparent Time (LAT)

The time used for calculating the hour angle is the local apparent time.
It is given by
LAT = Standard time + Equation of time correction + 4
(Standard time longitude - longitude of location)
 Solar Collectors

Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert this
energy into the thermal energy by absorbing them.
This thermal energy is further used for heating a collector fluid such as
water, oil or air.
Solar collector surface is designed for high absorption and low emission.
 Solar Collectors
Solar Collectors are classified in two types:
a. Non-Concentrating Collector:
i. AKA Flat plate solar collector.
ii. In these collectors, the area of collector to grasp the solar
radiation is equal to the absorber plate and has concentration
ratio of 1.
b. Concentrating Collector:
i. AKA Focusing type solar collector.
ii. In these collectors, the area of the collector is kept less than the
aperture through which the radiation passes, to concentrate the
solar flux and has high concentration ratio.
Conversion of Solar Energy into Heat
The principle of converting solar energy into heat involves harnessing
the sun’s radiation and transforming it into thermal energy.
When solar radiation from the sun comes in the form of light to the
earth, visible sunlight is absorbed on the ground and transformed into
heat energy.
The material becomes warm and stored heat, conducts it to surrounding
materials (air, water other solids or liquids) or reradiates it to other
material of lower temperature.
Conversion of Solar Energy into Heat
The conversion of solar energy into heat can be summarized in several
steps:
a. Absorption of Solar Radiation
b. Conversion of Light to Heat
c. Transfer of Heat
d. Transportation of Heat
e. Heat Exchange
f. Utilization of Thermal Energy
 Flat Plat Collector
Flat plate collector is simplest in design and it is most important part of
any solar thermal energy system.
It is Non-Concentrating Collectors.
In this collector both direct and diffuse radiations are absorbed and
converted into useful heat.
Flat plate collectors are versatile and can be used in different climates
and applications.
Components of Flat Plate Collector:
a. Absorber plate,
b. Transparent covers,
c. Insulation, and
d. Box.
 Flat Plat Collector
Absorber Plate:
Absorber plate is used to grasp and absorb solar radiation.
The plate is usually metallic (copper, aluminum or steel), sometimes
plastics have been used in some low temperature applications.
Transparent Covers:
These are one or more sheets made of glass for trapping the heat
received by the absorber plate.
It helps in reducing the convective and radiative heat losses.
Insulation:
It minimizes the heat losses by conducting.
Box:
It contains the above components and keep them into desired
position.
 Flat Plat Collector

Diagram of Flat Plate Solar Collector

 Advantages of Flat Plate Collectors

It absorbs both direct and diffuse radiations.

There is not need of tracking.
It has low cost and requires less maintenance.
Disadvantages of Flat Plate Collectors

Low temperature is achieved.

Large heat loss by conduction due to large area.
Heavy in Weight.
 Material of Flat Plate Collector
There are main three categories where properties of materials can be
described for flat plate collector:
Thermophysical property such as thermal conductivity, heat
capacity etc.
Physical property like density, tensile strength, melting point etc.,
Environmental properties like moisture penetration, corrosion
resistance and degradation due to pollutants in atmosphere.
Material for absorber plate should have high thermal conductivity,
tensile strength and corrosion resistance.
Most commonly material used for absorber plate is copper and others
are Aluminum, Iron, Brass, Silver, Tin and Zinc.
 Material of Flat Plate Collector
Material for insulation should have low thermal conductivity and stable
at high temperature. e.g., crown white wool, glass wool, calcium silicate
etc.
For cover plate, tempered glass is common material.
Applications of Flat Plate Collectors
It is used in solar water heating.
Contributing to space heating systems in homes, offices, and
commercial buildings.
Supplying heat for various industrial processes, such as drying, curing
and pre-heating in manufacturing.
It is used in low temperature power generation.
Utilizing collected solar heat for solar cookers, ovens, and other cooking
appliances.
Performance Analysis of Flat Plate Collector
Performance Analysis of Flat Plate Collector:
The performance of solar collector depends on the following
factors:

1.Fin Efficiency Factor (Fe ): It is defined as the ratio of actual rate of heat
transferred to the heat that would be transferred, if entire fins (plate area)
are at base temperature.
Mathematically,
Performance Analysis of Flat Plate Collector
Where,
Performance Analysis of Flat Plate Collector
2. Collector Heat Removal Factor (FH): It is defined as the ratio of actual
useful energy gain by fluid to the rate of heat transferred to the fluid, if the
fin is at inlet fluid temperature.
Mathematically,

Where,
Performance Analysis of Flat Plate Collector
3. Collector Efficiency Factor (FC): It is defined as the ratio of useful heat
removed by flowing fluid in the tubes to the rate of heat transferred to the
fluid, if the fin is at local fluid temperature.
Mathematically,

Where,
Performance Analysis of Flat Plate Collector
3. Collector Efficiency ( ): It is defined
C as the ratio of useful energy
absorbed by collector to the incident solar energy over it.
Mathematically,
 Focusing of Collectors
Concentrating Solar Collector:
Concentrating solar collector is a device to collect solar energy with
high intensity of solar radiation on the absorbing surface by the help
of reflector or refractor.
A concentrating solar collector is a modified form of flat-plate
collector by introducing a reflecting or refracting surface between
the solar radiation and absorber.
 Focusing of Collectors
Principle:
Concentrating solar collector uses reflective surface to concentrate
sunlight to a small area, where it absorbed and converted to heat.
Working:
The collector system consists of concentrator and absorber.
In this system, radiation falls on relatively large area which is
focused through concentrator on to an absorber of considerably
smaller area.
As a result of energy concentration, fluid is heated up to 500 °C or
more.
These systems have high collector efficiency, since losses are much
less as compared to non-concentrating type of collectors.
 Focusing of Collectors
Use of Collector Coating to Improve the Performance of Collector:
Glass covers on solar collectors reflect about 8% of sunlight,
reducing their efficiency.
Applying an antireflection coating on the glass cover can reduce
reflection and improve energy absorption.
A silica antireflection coating has been created using a dip-coating
method.
The coating's refractive index is precisely controlled for optimal
antireflection properties.
Researchers aim to find the ideal refractive index that minimizes
reflection on the glass cover.
They compared a regular glass-covered solar collector with one
having a special sol-gel antireflection coating.
 Focusing of Collectors
The antireflection coating is made using a porous sol-gel process.
The study mentions using a specific refractive index of n = 1.23 for
optimal antireflection performance on the glass cover increases the
energy by factor of approx. 1.05.
Concentration Ratio (C):
It is defined as the ratio of the effective aperture ratio to the
absorber tube area.
Mathematically,
C = Effective aperture ratio
Absorber tube area
Concentrating Collector Flat Plate Collector
Less absorber area. More absorber area.

High collection efficiency. Low collection efficiency.

Suitable for large power generation. Suitable for small power generation.

Heat storage is lower. Heat storage cost is higher.

High initial and maintenance cost. Low initial and maintenance cost.

No need of anti-freeze solutions. Needs anti-freeze solutions.

 Material of Collectors
Mirror glass or front surface mirrors are used because of high
reflectivity.
Glass is more durable with low iron content and is used as a transmitting
material. Nowadays, Plastics are also used.
Acrylic is a good material for Fresnel lenses. Polymethyl methacrylate is
generally used.
Glass and transparent plastic films are generally used as cover material
for receivers.
Glass should have low iron content to reduce absorption in Black paint.
Coating are required to have strong solar absorptivity, weather
resistance, stability at high temperature.
Other metal oxide coatings are black copper oxides, black nickel etc.
Insulation is required to reduce heat losses. Fiber glass with and without
binder, urethane foams are commonly used for insulation.
Advantages of Concentrating Collectors

1. Give high concentration ration.

2. High fluid temperature (up to 500°C).
3. Thermal heat loss is less.
4. Efficiency increases at high temperature.
5. Expensive Process.
Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors

1. These collectors are best suited for places having more number of clear
days in a year.
2. Non-uniform flux on absorber.
3. Costly tracking device.
4. High initial cost.
5. It needs maintenance in order to retain the quality of reflecting surface
against dirt and oxidation.
Application of Concentrating Collectors

1. Used for which need high amount of heat such as power generation.
2. Used in solar power plant.
3. Used to collected large solar energy which is used to convert water into
steam.
 Performance of Collectors
The performance of concentrator collector depends on the following
factors:
Concentration Ratio (C): : It is defined as the ratio of the effective
aperture ratio to the absorber tube area.
C = Effective aperture ratio
Absorber tube area
 Performance of Collectors
Intercept Factor (γ): It is defined as the ratio of radiation intercepted by
absorber tube to the total reflected radiation.
γ = Radiation intercepted by absorber tube
Total reflected radiation

Instantaneous Collector Efficiency (η ): Instantaneous collector

efficiency is given by the relation:
 Performance of Collectors
Collector Efficiency Factor (F c ): Collector efficiency factor is given by
the relation:
 Solar Thermal Power Plant
Solar thermal power uses sunlight to heat a fluid.
The heated fluid powers a turbine using cycles like Rankine or Brayton.
Solar thermal power plants can be classified as low, medium and high
temperature cycles.
Temperature Types:
Low: Operates at around 100°C
Medium: Up to 400°C
High: Above 500°C
Power Plants can be categorized by the temperature cycles they use.
 Solar Thermal Power Plant
Type of Solar Thermal Power Plant:
Low Temperature Solar Power Plant
Medium Temperature Solar Power Plant
High Temperature Solar Power Plant
Central Receiver Power Plant
Low Temperature Solar Power Plant
A Low Temperature Solar Power Plant typically operates at relatively
lower temperatures compared to medium and high-temperature.
Utilizes flat-plate collector arrays (as shown in Fig. 2.18.1) to capture
solar energy.
Hot water, maintained above 90 °C, is collected in an air-insulated tank.
Hot water passes through a heat exchanger, transferring its heat to the
working fluid of the energy cycle.
Methyl chloride or butane are used as the working fluid.
The working fluid has a low boiling temperature up to 90 °C.
It operates on a regular Rankine cycle which includes a turbine,
condenser, and liquid pump.
The overall efficiency of the generating system is about 2%.
Low Temperature Solar Power Plant
Computed as 8% pumped cycle efficiency multiplied by 25% collector
system efficiency.
The temperature difference between the turbine outlet and the
condensed liquid flowing out is small, approximately 50 °C.
Plants of up to 150 kW capacities using this technology have been
operational in Israel for the past 25 years.
Suited for regions with adequate sunlight, as exemplified by its
successful implementation in Israel.
Low Temperature Solar Power Plant
Medium Temperature Solar Power Plant
Uses a special curved mirror (line focusing parabolic collector) to catch
sunlight.
Follows the sun for the best sunlight exposure on a tube filled with
synthetic oil.
Synthetic oil in the tube gets heated by the concentrated sunlight.
Used to increase the inlet steam temperature for the high-pressure
turbine.
Raise the steam temperature for the low-pressure turbine.
Operates a Rankine cycle for power generation.
Generates superheated high-pressure steam for maximum efficiency.
High Temperature Solar Power Plant
For efficient conversion of solar heat into electrical energy, the working
fluid needs to be delivered into turbine at a high temperature.
There are two possible systems-the ‘paraboloidal dish’ and the ‘central
receiver’ to achieve high temperatures.
Thermal Energy Storage for Heating
The solar energy is utilized for space heating in winter and in colder
countries.
The different methods adapted for spacing heating by utilizing the solar
energy are passive and active method.
Solar space heating reduces the considerable heating load on air
conditioning apparatus during winter.

Active Space Heating:

The active method of space heating utilizes perforated collectors
(air heater) through which the cold air is circulated, gets heated and
supplied to the living space directly.
To utilize available heat in the night, hot air is first circulated through
the tank packed with rocks, gravel or pebbles that serves as a
thermal storage.
Thermal Energy Storage for Heating
When there is no Sun or at night the cold air from rooms flow
through this pack and after heating get distributed in the rooms.
The water heating arrangement is provided through the collectors
places at top of the roof.
The hot water stored in a storage tank is circulated through the
tubes attached to black absorber surface of collector.
The heat is delivered to living space by fan blowing the room air
through heating coil in the heat exchanger and heat is extracted by
re-circulated air though the exchanger and transferred to room.
 Thermal Energy Storage for Heating

Active space heating by air collection Active space heating by water collection
 Solar Air Heater
Solar air heater is technology in which the energy from the solar
insolation is captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air.
It uses roof, wall or window mounted solar collectors.
Solar air heater is a flat plate collector with an absorber plate.
Transparent cover system at the top and insulation at the bottom and
on sides
Whole assembly is closed with sheet metal container.
 Solar Air Heater

Application of Solar Air Heater:

Provides ventilation and process air heating.
Serves as a weather cladding.
Thermal Energy Storage for Cooling
Also known as Solar air conditioning system.
A system for cooling and heating that utilizes solar power, rather that
electricity.
It can be done through passive solar, solar thermal energy conversion
and photovoltaic conversion.
It is eco-friendly and energy efficient.
It can be operated with green resources of heat as backup resources
when solar radiation isn’t available.
Thermal Energy Storage for Cooling
Solar Absorption Refrigeration System for Space Cooling:
Can be used for cooling the buildings and preserving food.
The cycle used for cooling with utilization of solar energy is vapour
absorption cycle.
Performance depends on working fluid pair i.e., refrigerant and
absorbent.
Absorption systems can be classified as:
Ammonia or water absorption system.
Ammonia or water or hydrogen electrolux refrigeration system.
Lithium Bromide (LiBr) or water absorption system.
Thermal Energy Storage for Cooling
Ammonia or Water Absorption System:
Ammonia is the most commonly used refrigerant in absorption
systems.
Ammonia is inexpensive, easily available.
Ammonia works well with water.
Used for cooling things, even as low as -50 °C.
The heat required in the generator is supplied by water heated in a
flat plate collector.
Heated water transfers heat to the mixture of absorbent and
refrigerant pair, which becomes rich in refrigerant.
Refrigerant in vapor form enters the condenser and Weak solution
returns to the absorber.
Thermal Energy Storage for Cooling
Ammonia or Water Absorption System:
 Limitation of Solar Power Plant
Large area required for collecting solar thermal energy.
Low energy density 0.1 to 1 kW/m 2 .
Direction of rays changes continuously with time.
Energy not available during night and during clouds.
Energy storage is essential.
High initial cost.
Requires hybrid plant with storage facility for supplying energy during
night.
Solar central power plants in MW range are not economical.
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