Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Exp Page
Title
No No

Electrical Circuits Simulation using

1 3
Multisim Electronics Workbench
Resistors & OHM’S Law
2 12
Kirchhoff’s Law
3 18

Current and Voltage Divider Rules

4 21

Superposition Theorem
5 26
THEVENIN / NORTON Theorems and Maximum Power Transfer
6 29
The Oscilloscope and Function Generator
7 34
Frequency Domain Analysis
8 38

Maximum Power Transfer

9 43

Average and RMS Values

10 47

Appendix I
51
Appendix II
52
LABORATORY REGULATIONS AND SAFETY RULES
53

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

PREFACE

The EE 204: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Lab is intended to teach the basics of
Electrical Engineering to undergraduates of other engineering departments. The main aim
is to provide the students with hands-on experience to enable them to put theoretical
concepts into practice.

The manual starts off with the basic laws such as Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Current and
Voltage Laws. The two experiments augment students' understanding of the relations of
voltage and current and how they are implemented in practice.

Computer simulation is also stressed as it is a key analysis tool of engineering design.

Multisim is used for the simulation of electric circuits and is a standard tool at numerous
universities and industries in the world. The simulated parameters are then verified
through actual experiment. Use of oscilloscopes is also stressed as an analysis tool. The
important theorems of Thevenin and Norton are also provided along with the frequency
domain analysis of circuits. They greatly simplify the complex electrical networks for
analytical purposes.

By the end, students should have a thorough grasp of the concepts of electric circuits and
be able to apply them further in their field of study.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 1
Electrical Circuits Simulation using
Multisim Electronics Workbench: An Introduction

Simulation is a mathematical way of representing the actual behavior of a circuit. With

simulation, you can determine a circuit’s performance without physically constructing the circuit
or using actual test instruments. Multisim is a complete system design tool that offers a very
large component database, schematic entry, full analog/digital SPICE simulation, etc. It also
offers a single easy-to-use graphical interface for all design needs.

Introduction

Go to StartààProgramsà àMultisim and click on Multisim. This will open the main window as
shown in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1 important toolbars and menu are labeled. In addition to the toolbars
shown in Fig. 1, there may be other toolbars appearing on your screen so concentrate on the
labeled items in Fig. 1 at this time.

You can always open and close a toolbar from the Main Menu. For example, if you want to open
àToolbarsà
or close (select/unselect) the Design Toolbar, select Viewà àDesign. If any toolbar
does not appear on your screen then use the above procedure to make it appear.

Most of the analysis can be performed by turning on/off the simulate switch. If the Simulation
Switch shown in Fig. 1 does not appear on your screen then select Viewà àShow Simulate
Switch in the Main Menu. This will open the Simulation Switch.

Main Menu
Zoom Design
Toolbar Toolbar

Component Simulate
Toolbar Switch

Figure. 1: Main Window of Multisim Simulation Software

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

We will now try to learn about Multisim simulation techniques by solving a simple example.

Example

Build the circuit shown in Fig. 2 using Multisim Electronics Workbench.

Figure. 2: Circuit for Multisim Simulation

STEP A: Placing the Components

1. Place a Battery (DC Source)

a. Bring a DC source into the Multisim workspace:

Open the Multisim program if it is not already open. In the Component Toolbar, select
the Sources icon (refer to Fig. 1 to find the Component Toolbar). This will open another
window with several types of DC sources and other components as shown below in Fig.
3. Click on “DC Voltage Source” in this new window.

Select the Sources Icon from

Component Toolbar

Select the
DC Source

Figure. 3: Selection of DC Voltage Source in Multisim

Now bring your cursor into the workspace area and notice the change in the shape of the
cursor to

Click at any point in the workspace. This will show the voltage source as

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

b. Change the value and name of the voltage source:

Double-click on the voltage source that you just placed in the workspace, and a new
window with the name Battery will appear, as shown in Fig. 4. Select Value in the
Battery menu, if it is not already selected. Change the value from 12 to 30. Keep the unit
as Volts in this menu. Now select Label in this menu and change the Reference ID to
Vs. Click on OK.

Figure. 4: Battery Window for setup of DC voltage source

2. Place a Resistor:

a. Bring a resistor into the Multisim workspace:

In the Component toolbar, select the Basic icon as shown. This will open another window
with several basic components as shown below in Fig. 5.

Select the Basic Icon from

Component Toolbar

Select the
Resistor

Figure 5: Selection of Resistor in Multisim

Click on “Resistor.” This will open the Browser-Basic window, as shown in Fig. 6.
Scroll through the Component List, select 30 kOhm, and click OK. The cursor shape
will change again. Click in the workspace and this will show the resistor as:

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Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Tip To speed up your scroll through the Browser’s Component List, simply type the
first few characters of the component’s name. For example, type 30k to move
directly to the area of the 30 kOhm list.

Figure 6: Setup window for Resistor values

b. Change the name of the resistor:

Double-click on the resistor, and a new window with the name Resistor will open as
shown in Fig. 7. Select Label from the menu of this window. Change the Reference ID
to R1 (if it is not already) and press OK. This will change the name of the resistor to R1.

Figure 7: Battery Window for Label of Resistor

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

d. Add another resistor R2

Place resistor R2 of value 20 k in the workspace through the same procedure.

e. Rotate the resistor:

à90 Clockwise
Select resistor ‘R2’ and press Ctrl-R to rotate the resistor or select Edità
from the Main Menu. This will make the resistor vertical. Labels and values of all the
components can be dragged individually. Drag the label ‘R2’ and value ‘20 kOhm’
individually to put them in a suitable place.

3. Place Ground:
In the Component Toolbar, select the Sources icon. Now click on the Ground icon in the
new window as shown in Fig. 8. Click in the workspace to show the Ground symbol as
below

Select the Sources Icon from

Component Toolbar

Select
Ground

Figure 8: Selection of Ground in Multisim

STEP B: Connecting the Components

1. Arrange the components properly:
Arrange the components according to the circuit given in Fig. 2. You can select and drag the
component to any place in the workspace. Select the components and drag them one by one
to their proper places as shown in Fig. 9.

Figure 9: Arranging the Components in proper order

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

2. Show Grid in the workspace:

àGrid Visible in the
You may show a grid for ease of drawing the connections. Select Viewà
Main Menu if it is not already visible.
3. Connect DC Voltage Source “Vs” to “R1”:
Bring the cursor close to the upper pin of “Vs”; the cursor shape will change to a plus sign.
Click and move a little upward. A wire appears, attached to the cursor. Click again at a small
distance above the “Vs” source. Notice that the line will change direction. Control the flow
of the wire by clicking on points as you drag. Each click fixes the wire to that point as shown
in Fig. 10. In this way, when the cursor reaches the pin of R1 click again and this will connect
“Vs” to “R1”. Notice that a node number is automatically given.

The mouse button was

clicked at this location

Figure 10: Manual connection of components

4. Connect “R1” to “R2”:

Connect R1 to R2 using the same procedure.

5. Making use of the Junction to connect the Ground:

In a similar manner, connect the ground with Vs and R2. Notice that a small black circle
appears just above the ground, this is called the junction. When two or more components are
connected at one point, a junction is created. A junction can also be placed manually by
pressing Ctrl+J or selecting Edità àPlace Junction. This can be used to control the
connection points manually. Also notice that the ground node is automatically given node
number 0. Do not alter it.
This completes the connection and the complete circuit is shown in Fig. 11.

Figure 11: Complete Circuit in Multisim

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

6. Wire paths can be modified using drag points. Click on a wire. A number of drag points will
appear on the wire as shown in Fig. 12. Click any of these and drag to modify the shape. You
can also add or remove drag points to give you even more control over the wire shape. To
add or remove drag points, press CTRL and click on the location where you want the drag
point added or removed.

Drag Points

Figure 12: Drag points for connecting wire

STEP C: Placing Multimeter or Voltmeter in parallel to measure voltage

1. To connect a Multimeter:
àToolbarà
a. Select Viewà àInstruments. The Instruments toolbar will open as shown in
Fig. 13.
Multimeter

Figure 13: Instruments Toolbar

b. Click on the Multimeter icon. Now click in the workspace to place the Multimeter.
Drag it and place it near resistor R1 as shown in Fig. 14. Make a connection from the ‘+’
terminal of the Multimeter to the left pin of R1 and from the ‘–’ terminal to the right pin
of R1. Note that the reversal of + and – terminals will give opposite readings.

Figure 14: Multimeter connection for voltage measurement

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

c. Set the Multimeter to measure DC voltage:

Double-click on Multimeter to open the properties window shown in Fig. 15. Select ‘V’
to measure voltage. Select the DC wave shape. (Notice that the meter can also measure
current ‘A’ and resistance ‘ ’. It can measure AC as well as DC values. Leave the
window open for viewing the measurements.

Selection for Selection for

AC Measurement DC Measurement

Figure 15: Multimeter properties window

STEP D: Placing a Multimeter or Ammeter in series to measure current

1. Place a second Multimeter in the workspace as we did in Step C. Remove the connection
between R1 and R2. Connect the ‘+’ terminal of the Multimeter towards R1 and the ‘-‘
terminal towards R2 as shown in Fig. 16.

2. Set the Multimeter to measure current:

Double click on this multimeter and select ‘A’ in the multimeter properties window. Set the
wave shape to DC. If the current flows from 3 to zero, the meter will read positive.

Figure 16: Multimeter connection for current measurement

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

Example:

V1 V2 IT

Exercise:

IT I1 I2 V1 V2

Conclusion:

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 2
Resistors & OHM’S Law

Objective:

1- To determine the value of a selection of resistors using three different methods:

a. Using the color codes (to give the nominal value)
b. Using the digital Ohmmeter.
c. Using Ohm’s Law.
2- To determine qualitatively the effect of increased power dissipation on a carbon resistor.

Pre-Lab Assignment:

For the circuit shown in the Figure below, calculate V, and I.

Apparatus:
DC Power Supply
Digital Multimeter
Resistor: 100Ω , 470Ω , 1 KΩ.

Theory:

1- The basic relationship between voltage, current, and resistance is determined by Ohm’s law:

V=IR (1)

Where: V = Voltage across the resistor (in Volts)

I = Current through the resistor (in Amperes)
R = Resistance of the resistor (in Ohms)

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

2- Given any resistor, its resistance can be found by one of the three methods:

a- Using the color codes. This value is called the nominal value, and it is only
approximate.
b- Direct measurement using an Ohmmeter.
c- Measuring the voltage across the resistor and the current through the resistor; then
applying Ohm’s law.

3- The product of the voltage across a resistor and the current through the resistor give power
P (Watt), namely:

P = V I =I2 R = V2 /R (2)

where equation (1) has been used to express P in terms of I2 and in terms of V2.

The power absorbed by the resistor appears in the form of heat. The physical size of the resistor
determines the amount of power that it can safely dissipate. This amount is referred to as the
power rating. The dissipation of power that exceeds the power rating can damage the resistor
physically.

When the resistor gets heated due to excessive power dissipation, its resistance changes .It will
either increase or decrease depending on the temperature coefficient. A carbon resistance is
expected to increase as the temperature increases.

Resistances that are operated above the power rating will deviate from the straight line
relationship between V and I. The resistor in this case is operating in the non-linear region. In
such case, the resistance is no longer equal to the slope of the V versus I graphs. It may however,
be calculated using the ratio V/I.

Procedure:

You will be supplied with sets of 5 resistors.

1. Find the nominal value and the tolerance of each resistance using the Resistor colour code
chart shown below. Note the relation between the power rating and the physical size of the
resistance.
2. Using the digital multimeter as an ohmmeter, measure and record the resistance of each
resistor.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure. 2 for R = 100 Ω and perform the following :
a- Set the source voltage Vs to 10 V.
b- Measure V and I.
c- Repeat steps 3a and 3b for the remaining resistors.
d- Record your results in Table 1.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

4. Using a 1 W resistor (R = 470Ω), vary the input voltage from 6 to 20 volts. Measure V and I
and calculate the resistance R (by calculating the ratio V/I) and the power dissipated in the
resistance (by calculating the product VI). As the measurement proceeds, touch the resistor
from time to time to observe the temperature rise. Record the results in Table 2.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Questions:

1. Plot P versus R in Fig. 3.

Figure. 3: P versus R

Comment on the linearity of R as P increases.

2. Does the resistor in step 4 operate in the linear region or non-linear region? Explain by
considering the power rating of the resistor.
3. An electric heater takes 1.48 kW from a voltage source of 220 V. Find the resistance of
the heater.
4. If the current in a resistor doubles, what happens to the dissipated power? (Assume the
resistor operates in the linear region).
5. A 4 Ω resistor has to be used in a circuit where the voltage across the resistor is 3V .If
two 4 Ω resistors with 2 W and 3 W power ratings are available, which will you use and
why?

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Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Table 1. Resistor values:

Resistor R1 R2 R3
Nominal value / Tolerance
Ohmmeter reading
V/I
% Deviation from nominal value
Actual value within tolerance?

Ω, 1W)
Table 2. Power Rating: (R = 470Ω

V (volt) 6 10 15 20
I (mA)
R (Ohm) = V/I
P (Watt)

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

Table. 1: Resistor Values

Resistor R1 R2 R3
Nominal value / Tolerance
Ohmmeter reading
V/I
% Deviation from nominal value
Actual value within tolerance?

Table .2: Power Rating

P
Figure. 3: R versus P

Answer to Questions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 3

Kirchhoff’s Law

Objective:

To verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Law experimentally.

Pre-Lab Assignment:

For the circuit shown in Figure 1, calculate:

1- VAB , VBC , VAD , VDC , VBD , and VAC.

2- I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5.

Apparatus: DC Power Supply

Digital Multimeter
Carbon Resistors: 100Ω, 150Ω, 220Ω, and 330Ω

Theory:

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ( KVL ):

The algebraic sum of all voltages around any closed path is equal to zero.

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law ( KCL ):

The algebraic sum of all currents at a junction point is equal to zero.

Procedure:

1- Check the values of the resistors, used in the circuit of Figure.1, using a multimeter.
Record the values in Table 1.
2- Connect the circuit as shown, and have it checked by the instructor. Adjust the supply
voltage Vs to 10 V, using a DC voltmeter (DMM).
3- Measure the voltages VAB, VBC, VAD, VDC, VBD, and VAC. Record their values (including
the signs) in Table 2
4- Measure the currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 and record their values (including the signs) in
Table 3

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Report:

1- Verify KVL by adding the experimental values of voltages around the loops :

a) ABCEFA
b) CDAC

2- Verify KCL by adding the experimental values of currents at nodes:

a) A
b) B
c) C

Questions:

1- Do the experimental and theoretical values of voltages and currents agree? Indicate
the percentage of differences.
2- Give possible reasons for any discrepancies.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

Table 1 Resistor Values:

Resistor R1 R2 R3 R4
Nominal value (Ohm ) 100 150 220 330
Ohmmeter reading

Table 2 Voltages:

Voltage VAB VBC VAD VDC VBD VAC

Theory
Experiment
% Error

Table 3: Currents:

Current I1 I2 I3 I4 I5
Theory
Experiment
% Error

Report:
1.

2.
Answers to Questions:
1.

2.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 4
Current and Voltage Divider Rules

Objective:

To experimentally verify the Current Divider Rule (CDR) for parallel circuits and the Voltage
Divider Rule (VDR) for series circuits.

Pre-Lab Assignment:

For the circuit shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, calculate:

1- The unknown voltages and currents shown. Vs=10V.
2- The equivalent resistance seen by Vs.

Hint: Read through this experiment.

Apparatus: DC Power Supply

Digital Multimeter
Carbon Resistors: 100Ω , 150Ω , 220Ω and 330Ω .

Objectives:
1. To study the voltage current relationships of series and parallel circuits
2. To verify the voltage current divider and voltage divider rules.

Introduction:

Figure. 1: Series circuit Figure. 2: Parallel circuit

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

For a series circuit shown in Fig. 1, the voltages across resistors R1, R2 and R3 can be written as:

R1
V1 = Vs
R1 + R 2 + R 3
R2
V2 = Vs (1)
R1 + R 2 + R 3
R3
V3 = Vs
R1 + R 2 + R 3

This is the Voltage Divider Rule (VDR).

For a parallel circuit given in Fig. 2, the branch currents can be written in terms of the total
current as:

R2
I1 = Is
R1 + R 2
(2)
R1
I2 = Is
R1 + R 2

This is known as the Current Divider Rule (CDR).

Figure. 3: Series-parallel circuit I Figure. 4: Series-parallel circuit II

VS = 10V, R2 = 100Ω, R3 = 150Ω, R4 = 220Ω, R6 = 330Ω

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Procedure:

Simulation
1. Build the circuit given in Fig. 3 on Multisim Electronics Workbench.
2. Connect voltmeters, ammeters (or multimeters) at appropriate positions to measure
the voltages and currents shown in Table 1.
3. Disconnect the voltage source. Connect a multimeter, measure the total resistance and
record the value in Table 1. (Remember: resistance is always measured without any
source connected to the circuit.)
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the circuit given in Fig. 4 and record the values in Table 2.

Hardware Experiment

5. Build the circuit of Fig. 3 with the hardwired components. Take the voltage current
measurements and Req and record them in Table 1. Considering the Workbench results as
the base, compute the percentage errors.
6. Build the circuit of Fig. 4 with the hardwired components. Take the voltage current
measurements and Req and record them in Table 2. Considering the Workbench results as
the base, compute the percentage errors.

Check the values of resistors used in the circuit of Figure 2, using the Multimeter. Record
the values in Table 1.

Figure. 3: Series-parallel circuit I Figure. 4: Series-parallel circuit II

R2 = 100Ω, R3 = 220Ω, R4 = 150Ω, R6 = 330Ω

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

7. Connect the circuit of Figure 2a and adjust the supply voltage Vs to 10 V, using the DC
voltmeter.
8. Measure all the unknown voltages and currents shown. Record their values in Table 2.
9. Measure Req using an Ohmmeter and record its values in Table 2.
10. Connect the circuit of Figure 2b and adjust the supply voltage Vs to 10 V, using the DC
voltmeter.
11. Measure all the unknown voltages and currents shown. Record their values in Table 3.
(Recall that when measuring current with an ammeter, the ammeter should be placed in
series with the element in which the current passes. Keep this fact in mind when
measuring I5
12. Measure Req. and record its value in Table 3.

Questions

1. Give reasons for any discrepancies between the theoretical and experimental values of
voltages and currents and the equivalent resistance of both circuits.

By referring to the circuit of Figure 3:

2. Are R4 and R6 in parallel or in series?
3. Are R3 and R4 in parallel or in series?
4. Are Vs and R6 in series or in parallel?
5. Is VDR applicable for R3 and R4?
6. Is CDR applicable for R4 and R6?
7. Is the parallel combination of R4 and R6 in series or in parallel with R2?

TABLE 1
Resistor Values:
Resistor R2 R3 R4 R6
Nominal Value (Ohm) 100 220 150 330
Ohmmeter reading

TABLE 2
Circuit of Figure. 2a:
Unknown I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 Req
Theory
Experiment
% Error

TABLE 3
Circuit of Figure. 2b
Unknown I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 Req
Theory
Experiment
% Error

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

Answers to Questions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 5
Superposition Theorem

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to verify the superposition theorem experimentally and using
simulation.

Pre- Lab Assignment:

For the circuit shown in Figure 1:

1. Find the & superposition.
2. Record your values in Table 2 and 3.

Note:
• , are due to 5 V source
• , are due to 10 V source
• & are due to both sources

Apparatus: DC Power Supply (Two)

Digital Multimeter.
Carbon Resistors: 10 kΩ, 22 kΩ, 33 kΩ, 47 kΩ, and 1 kΩ.
PC for simulation with multisim

Introduction

The voltage and current responses in a network from two or more sources acting simultaneously
can be obtained as the sum of the responses from each source acting alone with other sources
deactivated. A deactivated current source is an open circuit. A deactivated voltage source is a
short circuit.

Procedure:

Note: do all the steps using computer simulation and experimentally.

Step 1 is experimental only.
1. Check the values of the resistors using the multimeter. Record the values in Table.1.
2. Connect the circuit of Figure.1 and measure &
3. Deactivate the 10 V source and measure &
4. Reactivate the 10 V sources and deactivate the 5 V source. Measure , and
5. Record the results in Tables 2 and 3

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Figure. 1

Questions:

1- Discuss the reasons for any discrepancies between the theoretical and experimental
values for all cases.

2- Does computer simulation represent actual circuit behavior? Discuss your answer by
referring to your results

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

TABLE 1
Resistor Values:
Resistor R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Nominal value (Ohm) 10KΩ 22KΩ 1KΩ 47KΩ 33KΩ
Ohmmeter Reading

TABLE 2
Superposition Theorem:
(V) (V) (V) (mA) (mA) (mA)
Theory
Simulation
% Error

TABLE 3
(V) (V) (V) (mA) (mA) (mA)
Theory
Experiment
% Error

Answers to Questions:

1.

2.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 6
THEVENIN / NORTON Theorems and Maximum Power Transfer

Objective:

1- To experimentally verify the Thevenin and Norton Theorems.

2- To experimentally verify the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for resistive circuits.

Pre- Lab Assignment:

For the circuit shown in Figure 1:

1- Find the VTH, ISC and Rth seen by RL.

2- Use the Thevenin equivalent circuit you obtained to find the values of VL
when RL is varied from 2.5 K to 10.5 K in steps of 1 K Ohms. Calculate
VL in each case.
3- Calculate the power PL absorbed by RL in each case of step 2.
4- Find the value of RL for Maximum Power Transfer and the value of the Maximum
Power.
Summarize your results in Tables 2, 3 and 4.

Apparatus: DC Power Supply (Two)

Digital Multimeter.
Carbon Resistors: 10 kΩ, 22 kΩ, 33 kΩ, 47 kΩ, and 1 kΩ.
Decade Resistor Box.

Theory:

• Thevenin’s Theorem:

A two–terminal network can be replaced by a voltage source with the value equal to the
open circuit voltage across its terminals, in series with a resistor with the value equal to
the equivalent resistance of the network.

• Norton’s Theorem:

A two-terminal network can be replaced by a current source with the value equal to the
short circuit current at its terminal, in parallel with a resistor with the value equal to the
equivalent resistance of the network. The equivalent resistance of a two–terminal network
is equal to the open circuit voltage divided by the short circuit current.

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• Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

In a resistive circuit, a resistive load receives maximum power when the load resistance is
equal to Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the circuit (i.e. RL = RTH). The maximum
power can be calculated using the expression:

2
VOC
p=
4 RTH

where VTH is the open circuit voltage.

Procedure:

Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.

1. Check the values of the resistors using the multimeter. Record the values in
Table.1.
2. Remove RL from the original circuit and measure the open circuit voltage Voc
(or VTH).
3. Measure the short circuit current Isc. This is accomplished by placing an ammeter
between A and B. In this manner, the ammeter will act as a short circuit.

4. Replace the voltage sources with short circuits. With RL removed from the circuit,
measure Rth using a multimeter.
5. Record the results in Table 2.

Fig. 1

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Maximum Power Transfer:

6. Reconnect the circuit as shown in Figure 1, but replace the 22 KΩ resistor

between A and B with a variable resistor (i.e. RL in this case is the variable
resistor).
7. Vary RL from 2.5 KΩ to 10.5 KΩ in steps of 1 KΩ and measure VL in each case.
8. Record the results in Table 3.
9. Calculate PL from Step. 7 above and record the results in Table 4.

Questions:

1. Draw Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuit obtained experimentally.

2. Plot the theoretical and experimental values of PL versus RL (on the same graph)
and compare the two graphs.
3. Discuss the reasons for any discrepancies between the theoretical and
experimental values for all cases.
4. Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are very useful. List at least two reasons why.
5. Is the Maximum Power Theorem verified experimentally? Explain.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

TABLE 1

Resistor R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Nominal value (Ohm) 10K 22K 1K 47K 33K
Ohmmeter Reading

TABLE 2

VTH ( V ) Isc ( mA ) RTH ( K Ohm )

Theory
Experiment
Error

TABLE 3

RL
2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5
(K Ohm )
VL
(Theoretical)
VL
(Experimenta
l)

TABLE 4

RL
2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5
(K Ohm )
PL
(Theoretical )
PL
(Experimental)
% Error

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Answers to Questions:
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

1.

2.

PL

RL
3.

4.

5.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 7

The Oscilloscope and Function Generator

Introduction
The oscilloscope is one of the most important electronic instruments available for making circuit
measurements. It displays a curve plot of time-varying voltage on the oscilloscope screen.

The controls on the oscilloscope are as follows:

1. The TIME/DIV control adjusts the time scale on the horizontal axis in time per division. The
X_POS control determines the horizontal position where the curve plot begins.
2. The CHANNEL A control adjusts the volts per division on the vertical axis for the
CHANNEL A curve plot. The POSITION control located on top of CHANNEL A
determines the vertical position of the CHANNEL A curve plot relative to the horizontal
axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the CHANNEL A vertical input and the
circuit testing point. Selecting “GROUND” connects CHANNEL A vertical input to ground.
3. The same thing applies to CHANNEL B.

The Function Generator

The Function Generator is a voltage source that supplies different time-varying voltage
functions. The Function Generator can supply Sine Wave, Square Wave, and Triangular Wave
voltage functions. The waveshape, frequency, amplitude, and DC offset can be easily changed.
The controls on the Function Generator are as follows:

1. You can select a waveshape by selecting the appropriate waveshape (Sine wave, Square
Wave and Triangular Wave) on the top of the Function Generator.
2. The frequency control allows you adjust the frequency of the output voltage. Select the
frequency button and select the frequency with the appropriate scale.
3. The AMPLITUDE buttons allow you to adjust the peak-to-peak value or RMS of the output
voltage. The peak-to-peak value is twice the amplitude setting.
4. The OFFSET buttons adjust the DC level of the voltage curve generated by the Function
Generator. When selecting the DC option on the Oscilloscope, an offset of 0 positions the
curve plot along the x-axis with an equal positive and negative voltage setting. A positive
offset raises the curve plot above the x-axis and a negative offset lowers the curve plot below
the x-axis.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Procedure

1. Connect the output of the Function Generator to CHANNEL A on the oscilloscope.

2. Turn the Function Generator and select the Sine Wave button. Set frequency to 1 kHz and 2
Vp-p. Set the DC offset to 0 V DC.

3. Turn on the oscilloscope and select the GROUND button. Using the POSITION control on
the top, bring your line to the center of the screen. Now select the AC position.

4. Select the TIME/DIV to 0.2ms and CHANNEL A to 0.5 V/DIV.

Question: What was the time period (T) and the frequency of your signal?

5. Select the “GROUND” on the oscilloscope channel A.

Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope Channel A curve plot? Explain.

6. Change the oscilloscope channel A to 1V/div.

Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope Channel A curve plot? Explain.

7. Change the oscilloscope Time Base to 0.1ms/div.

Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope Channel A curve plot? What is the period
and the frequency of your signal? Compare the results to that of step 4.

8. Return the oscilloscope time base to 0.2m/DIV and CHANNEL A to 0.5V/DIV. Select the
Triangular Wave shape on the Function Generator.
Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope curve plot?

9. Select the Square Wave on the Function Generator and run the analysis again.
Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope curve plot?

10. Change the AMPLITUDE on the Function Generator to 2Vp-p

Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope curve plot? Explain.

11. Change the frequency on the Function Generator to 2 kHz.

Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope curve plot? Explain.

12. Change the offset on the Function Generator to 1V.

Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope curve plot? Explain.

13. Select the DC setting on CHANNEL A of the oscilloscope.

Question: What change occurred on the oscilloscope curve plot? Explain.

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

Answers to Questions in Procedures

Question of Step 4

Question of Step 5

Question of Step 6

Question of Step 7

Question of Step 8

Question of Step 9

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Question of Step 10

Question of Step 11

Question of Step 12

Question of Step 13

Question of Step 13

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 8
Frequency Domain Analysis

Objective:

1. To experimentally verify frequency domain calculations using the phasor method.

2. To experimentally measure the phase difference between two sinusoidal signals.

Pre-Lab Assignment:

For the circuit shown in Figure 2:

1- Assume that the inductor has an internal resistance of 4 Ohms.

2- Add 1.5 KΩ resistor with the inductor.
3- Let the source voltage Vs have a peak amplitude of 5 V and frequency f =
20 kHz. Assume that Vs has a zero phase angle.
4- Use the phasor method to calculate all voltages and currents shown.

Record your results in Table 2.

Apparatus:
Signal Generator.
Digital Multimeter.
Oscilloscope.
Capacitor 0.022 µF.
Inductor 10 mH
Resistor: 1.5 KΩ.

Theory:
In the frequency domain (phasor domain), the currents and voltages are represented by complex
numbers whose magnitudes are equal to the maximum values of the sinusoidal time-domain
quantities, and whose angles are equal to the phase angles of the time-domain functions
expressed as cosines.
In terms of voltage and current phasors and the complex impedance Z , Ohm’s law becomes:

V =IZ (1)

Where Z = R for a resistance

= jω L for an inductance
1
= for a capacitance
jωC

where ω = 2πf is the angular frequency of the source . The bar indicates a complex quantity.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

V
In general, for V = V∠θ1 and I = I∠θ 2 , the impedance Z = ∠θ 1 − θ 2
I
Analytically, frequency-domain circuits are treated in the same method as used in DC circuits,
except that the algebra of complex numbers is used.

Experimentally, the frequency-domain phasors can be measured on the oscilloscope. The

magnitudes can be measured by means of calibrated vertical scales. Phase difference can be
measured by using the dual traces and measuring the time difference between two waveforms, as
illustrated in Figure. 2.

IMPORTANT NOTE:

When measuring the phase difference between two signals, make sure that the control knobs in
the oscilloscope are set properly such that the signals are not relatively inverted.

Vc (t)

A B

T
t

Figure. 1 Time shift = τ

τ
Phase shift = 360 ( ) degrees
T
Signal B lags signal A.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Figure. 2

Procedure:

1- Measure the resistor value and the internal resistance of the inductor, using an
ohmmeter.
2- Connect the circuit of Figure. 2. Adjust the source voltage to 5 V peak at 20 kHz,
while it is connected to the circuit.
3- Use the oscilloscope to measure the magnitudes and phases of all voltages and record
the values in Table 2.
4- Find the value of the current using the following equation:

I=VR/R.
Important Note:

1. When measuring the phase difference between two signals, make sure that the control
knobs of the oscilloscope are set properly such that the signals are not relatively inverted.
2. Whenever two signals are to be displayed simultaneously on the oscilloscope, they
should have one common node as a reference. Therefore, you may have to change the
position of some elements to be able to measure two signals simultaneously.
3. To find I2, measure the voltage on the 1.5KΩ resistor.

Report:

1- Draw the circuit of Figure 2 in the frequency domain (in the phasor representation). Use
the space available in the report sheet at the end of the experiment.
2- Record the theoretical and experimental values in Table 2.
3- Draw the phasor diagram, showing all the voltages and currents, based on the
experimental values. Use the space available in the report sheet at the end of the
experiment.
4- Discuss the sources of discrepancies between the theoretical and experimental values.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Questions:

1. For a resistance and capacitance in series with a voltage source, show that it is possible to
draw a phasor diagram for the current and all voltages from magnitude measurement of
these quantities only. Illustrate your answer graphically.

2. The equivalent impedance of a capacitor in series with an inductor is equivalent to a

short circuit (i.e. equal to zero) at a certain frequency. Derive an expression for this
frequency.

3. The equivalent impedance of a capacitor in parallel with an inductor is equivalent to an

open circuit (i.e. equal to infinity) at a certain frequency. Derive an expression for this
frequency.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

TABLE 1

Resistor R1 Internal resistance of Inductor

Nominal Value ( Ohm ) 1.5KΩ
Ohmmeter Reading

Internal resistance of the inductor = Ω

TABLE 2

VR VL VC I
Theoretical Magnitude
Values ( Volts )
Phase Shift
( Degree )
Experimental Magnitude
Values ( Volts )
Phase Shift
( degrees )
% Error Magnitude
(Volts)
Phase Shift
( degrees )

CIRCUIT IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN PHASOR DIAGRAM

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 9

Maximum Power Transfer

Objective:

1. To obtain maximum output power from a sinusoidal source with an internal impedance.
2. To experimentally verify the theory of maximum power transfer.

Pre- Lab Assignment:

3. For the circuit shown Figure 1:

1. Assume that the inductor has an internal resistance of 4 ohms;

account for this resistance in this calculation.
2. Find the value of RL and CL for maximum power transfer, and:
3. Calculate the maximum power transferred to this load.
4. Summarize your results in Table 4.

Apparatus:
• Signal Generator
• Digital Multimeter
• Decade Resistance Boxes RDB and RDA
• Decade Capacitance Box CDA
• Inductor (10 mH)
• Resistance (100 Ohms)

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Theory:
Consider Figure 1. If the source impedance has resistive and reactive parts, the maximum power
is transferred to the load (actually to the resistive part of the load) when the load resistance
equals the source resistance and the load reactance is opposite to the source reactance. Namely

ZL = ZS* (1)

Equation (1) implies that if the source impedance is inductive the load impedance must be
capacitive and vice versa. In order to compute the value of a capacitance, one can use the
following relation

ω = 1 / LC
(2)
C = 1/ ω 2 L

Note that since ZL=ZS, VS sees a combined load with impedance ZL+ZS=ZS+ZS=2RS which is
purely resistive. This means, under this condition (the condition of maximum power transfer), VS
becomes in phase with the current through the load and thus VS becomes in phase with the
voltage across the load resistance.

The maximum power transferred to the load in this is

V s2
Pmax = (3)
4 Rs

Procedure:
1. Consider the 10 mH inductor in the circuit of Fig. 1 as part of the source impedance.
Measure its internal resistance Ri, then add 100 Ohm in addition to this resistance. This
means RS= Ri+100. Set the source voltage to a sinusoid of 1 VRMS and frequency of 15
KHz.
2. With RL set at the value of RS, vary C from 0.007 µF to 0.015 µF in steps of 0.001 µF
(use two decade capacitors in parallel). Measure the voltage across RL in each case,
maintaining an input voltage of 1 VRMS. Record the values in table 2.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

3. Display the source voltage and the voltage across RL simultaneously on the oscilloscope.
Vary C and notice the phase shift between the two signals. Record the value of C that
makes the two signals in phase.
4. With C set at the value found in step 3, vary RL from 80-120 and measure the voltage
across RL in each case, again maintaining an input voltage of 1 V RMS. Record the values
in table 4.
Note: Record your results in Table No. 1, 2, 3 & 4 and answer the questions:

Questions:
1) What is the phase difference between the current and the voltage source when maximum
power transfer is achieved?
2) If the frequency of the source is doubled, what change should be made to maintain
maximum power transfer to the load? How does this change affect the value of the
maximum power? Explain.
3) Comment on the causes of errors between the measured and calculated values.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

Table 1. Resistive value

Resistor R1
Nominal Value ( Ohm ) 4
Ohmmeter Reading

Internal Resistance of the inductance Ri =

Table 2. Results for C

C ( µF ) 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.0147 0.0153

VL ( V )
PL ( W )

Table 3. Results for RL

RL ( Ohm ) 80 90 95 100 Rs 110 120

VL ( V )
PL ( W )

Table 4. Comparison at Maximum Power Transfer

RL C Pmax
Theory
Experiment
% Error

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Experiment No. 10

Average and RMS Values

Objective:

1- To measure the average and Root Mean Square (RMS) values of some electrical signals.
2- To compare the calculated and experimental values.

Pre-Lab Assignment:

1- For the periodic signals shown in Figure 1, find:

a) The average value of each signal.

b) The RMS value of each signal.

2- For the periodic signals shown in Figure 2, find the average value of each
signal.

Apparatus:
Oscilloscope
Signal Generator
Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Theory:

1- Average Value:

The average value of a periodic signal f(t) is defined as:

T
1 area under one period
f avg = ∫ f (t )dt = (1)
T0 period

2- The Root Mean Square value:

The RMS value of a periodic signal f(t) is defined as :

T
1
T ∫0
f rms = f 2 (t )dt = Square root of the average of f2 (t). (2)

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

For a general sinusoidal signal f(t) = A cos(ωt + φ ) ., it is easy to show that

favg= 0 (3)

A
fmax= (4)
2

For a signal that consists of DC and AC parts such as, f(t) = B + A cos(ωt + φ )
where B = constant, it is equally easy to show that the average value is equal to the DC
part only, namely:

favg= B (5)

Procedure:

1- Set the oscilloscope controls as follows:

Time / Div. 0.1 ms Volts / Div. 0.5 V

Vertical Display A Coupling D.C.

2- Connect the output of the signal generator to channel A of the oscilloscope.

3- Set the signal generator to a sinusoid of 2000 Hz and a peak to peak voltage Vp-p = 2 V.
4- Set the DC offset of the signal generator to zero, so that the signal you obtain on the
oscilloscope has no DC value as shown in figure 1.
5- Measure :

(a) The average value of the signal with a DMM (set the voltmeter to D.C.).
(b) The RMS value of the signal with a DMM (set the voltmeter to AC).
(c) The period of the signal from the oscilloscope. Then calculate the
corresponding frequency from the relation f = 1/T.
6- Repeat steps 3-5 for a square signal with the same Vp-p and frequency.
7- Repeat steps 3-5 for a triangular signal with the same Vp-p and frequency.
8- Set the DC offset of the signal generator to 1 V so that the signal you obtain on the
oscilloscope has no DC value of 1 Vas shown in figure 1.
9- Repeat the measurement of the average value for the same signals as in previous steps
with the following changes:

(a) Adjust the ground level to the bottom of the screen.

(b) Adjust the D.C. offset of the signal generator, so that the signals start from
zero and reach a peak value of 1 V as shown in Figure.2.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

1
t
T T t
t
T/2 T T/2

-1

Figure. 1

t t t
T T/2 T T/2 T

Figure.2
Note: Record your results in Table No. 1 & 2 and answer the questions.

Questions:

1- The frequency of the voltage in your house is 60 Hz. How much time is required for the
waveform to complete three cycles?
2- What is the difference between AC and DC coupling of the oscilloscope? Explain how to
use them to measure the average value of any periodic signal.
3- Some meters are calibrated to read RMSvalues of sinusoidal waveforms from the basic
unit that responds to the peak value of the waveform. In terms of the peak value, Vp , the
Vp
meter will read , which is the correct RMS value for a sinusoidal signal. Can this
2
meter be used to read the correct RMS value for other waveforms like square, triangular,
etc? Explain.

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

NAME ______________________ SEC # __________

ID # ______________________ SERIAL# __________

TABLE 1

Sinusoidal Square Triangular

T (ms)
f (Hz)
Average Value (Calculated)
Average Value
(Experimental)

RMS Value ( Calculated )

RMS Value (Experimental)
% Error

TABLE 2

Sinusoidal Square Triangular

Average Value (Calculated)
Average value
(Experimental)
% Error

Answers to Questions:

1.

2.

3.

50
Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Appendix I

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Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

Appendix II

Capacitor conversion table for pico-Farads, nano-Farads, and micro-Farads

micro-Farads (µF) Nano-Farads (nF) Pico-Farads (pF)

0.000001 0.001 1

0.00001 0.01 10

0.0001 0.1 100

0.001 1 1000

0.01 10 10000

0.1 100 100000

1 1000 1000000

10 10000 10000000

100 100000 100000000

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 Laboratory Manual 204 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

LABORATORY REGULATIONS AND SAFETY RULES

The following regulations and safety rules must be observed in all laboratory locations.

1. It is the duty of all concerned who use any electrical laboratory to take all
reasonable steps to safeguard the HEALTH and SAFETY of themselves and all
other users and visitors.
2. Be sure that all equipment is properly working before using for laboratory
exercises. Any defective equipment must be reported immediately to the lab
instructors or lab technical staff.
3. Students are allowed to use only the equipment provided in the experiment manual
or equipment used for senior project laboratory.
4. Power supply terminals connected to any circuit are only energized in the presence
of the instructor or lab staff.
5. Students should keep a safe distance from the circuit breakers, electric circuits or
any moving parts during the experiment.
6. Avoid any any body contact between energized circuits and ground.
7. Switch off equipment and disconnect power supplies from the circuit before leaving
the laboratory.
8. Observe cleanliness and proper laboratory housekeeping of the equipment and
other related accessories.
9. Wear the proper clothes and safety gloves or goggles required in working areas
involving fabrications of printed circuit boards, chemical process control systems,
antenna communication equipment and laser facility laboratories.
10. Double check your circuit connections specifically in handling electrical power
machines, AC motors and generators before switching “ON” the power supply.
11. Make sure that the last connection to be made in your circuit is the power supply
and first thing to be disconnected is also the power supply.
12. Equipment should not be removed or transferred to any location without
permission from the laboratory staff.
13. Software installation in any computer laboratory is not allowed without the
permission from the laboratory staff.
14. Computer games are strictly prohibited in the computer laboratory.
15. Students are not allowed to use any equipment without proper orientation and
actual hands-on equipment operation.
16. Smoking, eating and drinking in the laboratory are prohibited.

The above rules and regulations are necessary precautions in the electrical laboratory to
safeguard the students, laboratory staff, the equipment and other laboratory users.

53