[TUS iemere Wa eel) The fully plastic bending moment developed in the preceding section was due to the application of pure bending. A beam would therefore become fully plastic at all cross-sections along the whole length once M, was reached. However, in practice pure bending rarely occurs and bending-moment distribution varies depending on the loading conditions. The point of maximum bending moment along the beam will be the first cross-section which becomes fully plastic as the load magnitude increases. Cross-sections adjacent to the fully plastic section will have commenced yielding to various depths. For a beam simply supported at each end and carrying a central concentrated load the shape of the plastic zone associated with the central fully plastic cross-section is illustrated in Fig. 16.6(a), The boundarv between elastic and plastic material is parabolic in Fig. 16.6 WE J-us—| p+, fay, The plastic zones for distributed loading are triangular in shape, as shown in Fig. 16.6(b). When a cross-section such as those shown reaches the fully plastic state it cannot carry any higher loading and the beam forms a hinge at that cross-section. This is termed a plastic hinge about which rotation of the two halves of the beam occurs, as shown in Fig. 16.7. When one-or more plastic hinges occur such that the beam or structure becomes a mechanism then this situation is described as plastic collapse. ca », WN WY SV (a) " (b) Fig. 16.7 (a) Elastic; (b) plasticInthe example of Fig. 16.7 the maximum bending moment is at the centre and is WL/4. Therefore plastic collapse occurs for the single hinge formation and M, = te or w=“ (16.11) The next example is a cantilever propped at the free end and carrying a concentrated load at mid-span, as shown in Fig. 16.8(a). The resultant bending-moment diagram may be obtained from the superposition of the two load cases namely due to the central load W and the prop load F. The resultant diagram shows two peak values of M at A and B, Now the beam does not become a mechanism and collapse until M, is reached at both A and B, From the geometry of the resultant bending-moment diagram at B, mM, +3M, = ek a or w= me (16.12) each end carrying a sefunit length Elastic BM. diagrams Elastic BM. diagramsuniformly distributed load (Fig. 16.8(6)). It is clear that plastic collapse cannot occur until three hinges have formed at A, B and C, The resultant bending momeat is again obtained by superposition and from the diagram the required condition for collapse is M, +M, = w,L/8 from which 6 = (16.13) The simple examples above illustrate the principles of the concept which may be summarized as follows: (a) Elastic behaviour occurs in a structural member until a plastic hinge is formed at a section. (b) If rotation at this hinge results in diffusion of the load to other parts of the structure or supports then additional load may be carried until another plastic hinge is formed. (c) As each hinge forms the moment remains constant at the fully plastic value irrespective of additional load or deformation. (d) When there is no remaining stable portion able to carry additional load then collapse will occur. (e) The structure as a whole, or in part, will form a simple mechanism at collapse, : (f) The collapse load may be calculated by statical equilibrium if the The above principles may of course, be applied also ta the investigation of the collapse of plane frameworks, which leads on to a fuller treatment of what is termed limit analysis of structures.Fig. 169 ‘The beam illustrated in Fig. 16.9 is made of I-section mild steel having a shape factor of 1.15 and a yield stress of 240 MN/m?. Using a load factor against collapse of 2 find the required section modulus. 100KN SON Phasic collapse condition @ ® ‘The elastic bending-moment diggram is such that peaks (of different magnitude) will occur at A, B and C. Plastic hinges will form when these peaks reach the value of M,. Collapse will occur when the three hinges are formed as shown in Fig. 16.9(0). From the geometry of the figure we have that between A and C having incorporated the load factor of 2. Now the elastic section modulus For the hinge to form at C due to the load at D we shall have M, = WL=30%1=30kN-m ‘This value would require a section modulus of 230 zi 1.15 x 240 = 0.217 m?Fig. 16.10 SION OF SHAFTS: PLASTI eres In the following discussion it will be assumed that we have an ideal stress-strain relationship for the material as shown in Fig. 16.10, that a plane cross-section of the shaft remains plane when in the plastic state, and that a radius remains straight. The shearing strain y at a distance r from the axis of the shat will be given by y =r6/L. Shear stress 7 EE ‘Shear sai ‘When the shaft has a torque applied in the elastic range, the shear stress increases from zero at the shaft axis to a maximum value at the surface of the shaft, and T ae for a solid circular shaft. When the shear stress at the surface of the shaft hhas reached the value ty the torque required to give this stress is we (16.14) If the torque is increased beyond this value, then plasticity occurs in fibres at the surface of the shaft and the stress diagram is as shown in Fig. 16.11, The torque carried by the elastic core is a3 5) TSW (16.15) where ry is the interface radius between elastic and plastic material, and that carried by the plastic zone is, th [22 dr Benin) (16.16) T, and the total torque, 7, is T+ T= bya + darter — 1’) ‘Therefore T= tamer 25 (6.17)Fig. 16.11 Stress distribution \ in the cross-section is ty, and it follows from eqn. (16.16) that the fully plastic torque is given by Band (16.18) and the ratio Z,/Ty is tet ty 3 ‘When the fibres at the outer surface of the shaft are about to become plastic, the angle of twist is given by ek Gry and when the shaft is in the clastic—plastic condition, the angle of twist of the clastic core is given by (16.19) by. gabe = (16.20) Since we have assumed that radii remain straight, then the outer plastic region has the same angle of twist. From eqns. (16.19) and (16.20) it follows that Oty 6% (16.21) ‘Avis evident that as the shaft approaches the fully plastic state, the angle of twist tends to infinity. Equation (16.17) may be expressed in the form tee de Fy 1/827] (16.22)A mild steel shear coupling in a metal-working process is 40 mm in diameter and 250mm in length. It is subjected to an overload torque of 1800 N-m which is known to have caused shear yielding in the shaft. Determine the radial depth to which plasticity has penetrated and the angle of twist. ty = 120 MN/m?, G = 80 GN/m?. GGSOIRAA—Using eqn. (16.17) for the elastic-plastic torque 1800 = 3 x 0.02! 120 x 101 - | from which ry = 15 mm. Hence depth of plastic deformation is mm. ‘The shear strain at ry = 15 mmis 120 x 10° Y= g0x10” but yL= 10 Therefore 0.0015 x 0.25 = 0.0156 = 0.0015 and 6 = 0.025 rad = 1.43°EES Pe ‘The problems analysed in the previous sections only involved a uniaxial stress condition, and hence a simple tensile or shear yield stress was sufficicat to define the onsct of plastic deformation. in two- or three-dimensional stress systems itis necessary to use a yield criterion of the type discussed in Chapter 13 in order to determine the initiation of plastic flow. A thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel is a good example Of this type of situation in that there will be radial and hoop stresses and generally also axial siress. The process of inducing plastic deformation Partly through the wall thickness is known as awofreuage and its purpose ‘was described in Chapter 15. ‘The following analysis will only consider an ideal elastic-plastic material, since the problem for a strain-hardening material is beyond the scope of this text. Furthermore, in order to simplify the mathematics the ‘maximum shear stress (Tresca) theory of yielding will be adopted. For a thick cylinder under internal pressure, the maximum shear stress ‘occurs at the inner surface (see Fig. 15.4) and therefore as the pressure is . . ~~ atthe bore and penetrate deeper and deeper into the wall, until the whole vessel reaches the yield condition. Ata stage when plasticity has penctrated partly through the wall, the vessel might be regarded as a compound cylinder with the inner tube plastic and the outer elastic. Ifthe elasticplastic interface is at a radius a and the radial pressure there is p,, then from eqns, (15.36) and (15.37), co BS (14%) (16.24) (16.25) and Pa= 3,5 (ni — a") (16.26)From this value of p, the stress conditions in the elastic zone can be determined using eqns. (15.36) and (15.37). It is now necessary to consider the equilibrium of the plastic zone in order to find the internal Pressure required to cause plastic deformation to a depth of r = a. The equilibrium equation is (15.12). rE + 0,— a =0 (16.27) Integrating this equation gives (1628 Now, at r=a, 0, =—p,; therefore —Pa= oylogea+C or C=—p,- dylog.a Substituting for C in eqn. (16.28), 0, = oy log. —p, ~ oy 0g. @ (16.29) =—orloge?— py (46.30) Therefore, using eqn. (16.26), = ~0y loge? — (re ~a’) . (16.31) which gives the distribution of radial stress in the plastic zone; and at rah =P therefore P= = tovlog.s +25 08-02) (16.32) re 2%where p; is the internal pressure to cause yielding to a depth of r = a. The hoop stress is G@=oyto, ‘Therefore = oy{ 1—Iog, 2) — 2% (42 — a?) = on(1 toe.£) mee) (16.33) The internal pressure, Pec» Tequired to cause yielding right through the wall is found by putting @ = ry in eqn. (16.32): Pre = +oy lop, = (16.34) i and from eqns. (16.31) and (16.33) (16.35) (16.36) ‘The stress distribution of o, and oy for the cases considered above are eS ae here m= Zr Compression [Tension «| Compression “Tension Coapression O Terston Plastic @ OO) ©A thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel has to be autofrettaged prior to its use for a high-pressure chemical process. The radius ratio is 2.5 and 20% of the wall thickness has to be brought into the plastic range of the alloy steel which has a yield stress of 400MN/m?. Calculate the internal pressure required to achieve the specified plastic deformation. What are the values of hoop stress at the bore, elastic-plastic interface and the ‘outer surface caused by that internal pressure? Determine the reserve factor against yielding right through the wall thickness. HESERUTRONENEE] To determine a, the radius of the elastic-plastic interface, in terms of 1, ‘we know that 20% of the wall thickness is in the plastic range so that a= 140.2 = 1) =1.37, From eqn. (16.32), 400, 1.35\7) p= 40tog. 13+ 2 [1 (52))] = 104.8 + 146 = 250.8 MN/m* At the bore 9, = -250.8 MN/m? and 04 = 400 ~250.8= 149.2 MN/m? At the interface from eqn. (16.31) putting $007, 238\] sag nant? (9 = 400 — 146 = 254 MIN mt ‘The value of o, atthe interface is also the value ofp, in eqn. (16.26). ‘Therefore at r ,=0 and from eqn. (16.24) 1462 29 =p gy ~ 108.5 MN/e? ‘The shape of the stress distribution is similar to that in eq. 16.15( For yielding right through the wall we use eqn. (16.34) 366.4 MN/m? ‘The reserve factor on pressure is Pras =400 log, 2.