Particles & the atom

‰ All materials are made of very, very small particles held together by forces. Matter has
mass and occupies space; there are three states of matter - solids, liquids and gases.
Mass is the amount of matter in an object; it is measured in kilograms or grams, using a
balance.
‰ Density is how much mass is packed into a measured volume. Density is calculated as
follows: Density(D) = Mass(M) ÷ Volume(V). It has the units: Density - g/cm³, Mass - g or
kg, Volume - cm³ or m³. Mass is measured on scales or balances. Volume is measured
by calculation for regular objects or by displacement of water for irregular
shapes. N.B. The density of water is 1g/cm³. Objects with a lower density
float, those with a higher density sink.
‰ Solids: In a solid the particles are held very close together so they can hardly
move. They do not flow like liquids, they keep their shape and they generally
stay in one place.
‰ Liquids: In a liquid the particles are not so tightly packed, so they can move a
little. Liquids flow easily and change their shape, and take the shape of the
container they are in. Liquids always take up the same amount of space so
when liquids change shape their volume stays the same.
‰ Gases: The particles are spread apart and can move easily and freely in a
gas. Gases change their shape and can be squashed (compressed) as there
is a lot of space between the particles.
‰ Ease of compression order: gases >>> liquids > solids (almost impossible to
compress a solid)
‰ The three states of water are solid - ice, liquid - water and gas - water vapour.
A common mistake is to say “steam”. Steam, e.g. from a electric jug, is a mixture of water
droplets (tiny particles of liquid which you can see) and water vapour (a gas which you
can't see).
‰ Matter can be changed from one state to another when heat is added/removed; changes
of state are boiling, evaporating, condensing, subliming, melting, & freezing (solidifying).
‰ Heat will change a material from a solid to a liquid to a gas. A solid melts into a liquid
when it is warmed. A liquid evaporates into a gas when it is warmed. Removing heat
(cooling) will change a material from a gas to a liquid to a solid. A gas condenses into a
liquid when it is cooled. A liquid freezes into a solid when it is cooled. Sublimation is
when a solid, on heating, directly changes into a gas, AND the gas, on cooling, re-forms a
solid directly.
‰
Substance Melting Point (OC) Boiling Point (OC) State at 20O C
ethanol -114. 78 liquid
carbon (diamond) 3500 3930 solid
copper 1083 2300 solid
gold 1063 2856 solid
hydrogen -259 -253 gas
mercury -39 357 liquid
oxygen -218 -183 gas
water 0 100 liquid
Eg ethanol melts at -114oC but doesn’t boil until 78oC so it will be a liquid at room
temperature (20oC).
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 ‰ A heating curve summarises the changes solid → liquid → gas. The temperature stays
constant during the state changes of melting and boiling because all the energy absorbed
in heating at these temperatures goes into weakening the forces between the particles
without temperature rise.

A – solid
B – solid/liquid = MELTING
Temperature

(melting point is 0oC)

C – liquid
D- liquid/gas= BOILING
(boiling point is 100oC)

Time

‰ A cooling curve summarises the changes gas → liquid → solid. The temperature stays
constant during the state changes of condensing and freezing.
‰ Expansion and contraction. As objects are heated the particles move apart and they take
up move space - expansion. As objects cool the particles move closer together, they take
up less space - they contract. Some everyday examples are: The sag in outdoor
electrical cables is much greater on hot summer days than it is on cold winter days; the
rails for trains are installed during warm weather and have small gaps between the ends
to allow for further expansion during very hot summer days; A stuck metal lid on a glass
container can be loosened by running hot water over the joint between the lid and the
container, because the metal expands more than glass.
‰ Bimetallic strips. When heated, a strip of steel would expand less than an equal length
piece of aluminium. Welding together a thin piece of each of these materials produces a
bimetallic strip. The difference in expansion causes the bimetallic strip to bend when the
temperature is changed. This movement has many common uses including: thermostats
to control temperature, oven thermometers to measure temperature, and switches to
regulate toasters.
‰ When a substance dissolves, it is said to be soluble. Substances which do not dissolve
are insoluble. A solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution. In a
suspension the solid settles to the bottom when left standing. Solutions do not settle.
‰ A dilute solution contains only a small amount of solute in a given volume of solvent. A
concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute.
‰ Diffusion. Diffusion is the gradual mixing of substances caused by the random movement
of particles. If a crystal of potassium permanganate is put in the bottom of a beaker of
water, the purple crystal dissolves and then the colour spreads throughout the water in
quite a short time due to the random movement of water particles. This spreading out is
called diffusion. Diffusion is faster in hotter water than at room temperature water as the
water particles are moving faster and colliding with more energy. Diffusion occurs fastest
in gases – you can smell cooking in the kitchen as soon as you open the front door. The
smaller the molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion.
‰ Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter. A molecule is two or more atoms
joined together by chemical bonds.

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‰ An element is a pure substance made of atoms of only one type. It cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances by chemical reactions. There are about 100
different elements, each with its own symbols. Elements can be single atoms (eg
box with 6 atoms) or molecules (eg box with 5 molecules, each made up of 2 atoms),
but both only contain only ONE1 type of atom

‰ A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more different elements that are
chemically joined together. The chemical formula for a compound tells you what
elements it contains. It also tells you the ratio of the atoms of the elements. Eg
CuSO4
‰ Mixtures contain two or more different substances. (They could be mixtures of elements,
mixtures of elements and compounds, or mixtures of compounds).

‰ Chemical reactions produce new substances by rearranging atoms. The compounds

that are formed have different properties from the original substance(s) with
properties different from the original substance. Eg magnesium (a silvery grey
metal) burns in oxygen (a colourless gas) with a bright white flame to make a new
substance called magnesium oxide (a white powder)
‰ Atoms are composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by tiny
negatively charged electrons. Inside the nucleus are protons (positive charge)
and neutrons (no charge).
‰ Know the rules for "building atoms" : atomic number = no. of protons and no of
orbiting electrons; mass number = number of protons + neutrons. Electrons are found in
regions called shells (energy levels). 1st shell holds up to 2 electrons. 2nd and 3ro shells up to
8 electrons each.
‰ Properties (chemical and physical) of common metals are related to their uses eg

Copper Iron Aluminium

Water pipes, electrical wires, Bridges, gates, car bodies, Aircraft, overhead electricity
bottoms of saucepans reinforcing concrete cables, cooking foil, drinks
cans
Copper is a good electrical Hard, strong, cheap BUT it Aluminium is shiny, non-
conductor, good heat does corrode when in toxic, low density (light for its
conductor and doesn’t contact with air and water. size), good electrical
corrode. (When iron corrodes we call conductor, and doesn’t
this rust.) corrode.

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‰ Some common elements

Element Physical property Chemical property

Magnesium Silvery grey metal, bendy Burns with a bright white flame
Sulfur Dull, yellow, brittle, solid non-metal Burns with a blue flame to make a
choking gas
Hydrogen Lighter than air, colourless, Burns with a squeaky pop if lit with
odourless gas a match
Mercury A silvery metal that is liquid at room Poisonous
temperature

‰ Elements vary in their appearance and state. There are many more metals than non-
metals.

Property Metals Non metals

Appearance Shiny Dull
Melting and High (they are all solid at room Lower than metals (bromine is a
boiling points temperature, except mercury which liquid at room temperature, and
is a liquid) eleven others are gases).
Density High (they feel "heavy" for their Low (they feel "light" for their size)
size)
Strength Strong (they can hold heavy loads Not strong
without breaking)
Malleability Malleable (they can be hammered Brittle (they break or shatter when
into different shapes without hammered).
breaking).

Ductility Ductile (they can be drawn out to Not ductile.

make wires).

Heat Good Poor

conductivity
Electrical Good Poor (but graphite, a form of
conductivity carbon, is an exception).

‰ Materials have properties – things that tell us what its like eg hard, soft, light, strong,
heavy, flexible (bendy), transparent, texture (rough or smooth). Glass, metal, ceramics
and plastic could all be used to make a cup. Each has properties that make it suitable but
each may have disadvantages.
‰ Different materials are used for different purposes as their properties make them suitable,
eg copper, glass, lead, limestone, Perspex, polystyrene, rubber, steel, wood.

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