Academic Year 2023-24

Unit: Organization in Life (Part 2 notes) Grade: MYP 4

Key concept: Systems Related concept: Pattern, Function

Global context: Identities and relationships (students will explore identity formation).

SOI: Our identity is determined by the relationship between different patterns and
functioning of the cells which work together to create a larger, functioning system.

Topics: Cell cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis

Purpose of the Notes:

The purpose of giving notes for above topics is to provide students with a condensed and
organized summary of the important information and knowledge covered in the lesson.
Notes help students consolidate information, serve as a reference for later review,
visually represent complex ideas and support personalized learning.

Learning outcomes:
 Identify the structure and function of chromosomes, DNA, and genes, and
understand their role in carrying genetic information.
 Explain the process of mitosis and meiosis, including the key events and changes
that occur during each phase.
 Compare and contrast the phases of mitosis and meiosis, including interphase,
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
 Understand the role of mitosis in asexual reproduction and of meiosis in sexual
reproduction.
Cell cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis:

Introduction:

Chromosomes are located in the nucleus of cells

They are thread-like structures of DNA, carrying genetic information in the
form of genes
A gene is a short length of DNA found on a chromosome that codes for a
specific protein
 This could be a structural protein such as collagen found in skin cells, an
enzyme or a hormone
Genes control our characteristics as they code for proteins that play important
roles in what our cells do
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-i1_JagCL1U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EmV3H-ALSqg

source: https://cdn.savemyexams.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/DNA-genes-and-chromosomes.png

Genes are short lengths of DNA that code for a protein. They are found on
chromosomes

Diploid and haploid nuclei:

All humans have 23 different chromosomes in each cell

In most body cells, not including the gametes (sex cells), we have 2 copies of each
chromosome, leading to a total of 46 chromosomes
Nuclei with two sets of chromosomes are known as diploid nuclei.
The gametes (egg and sperm cells) only have one copy of each chromosome,
meaning they have a total of 23 chromosomes in each cell
Nuclei with one set of unpaired chromosomes are known as haploid nuclei.
 Source:
“Diploid versus Haploid | BioNinja.” Bioninja.com.au, 2019, ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/32-
chromosomes/diploid-versus-haploid.html.

What is a cell cycle?

Cells divide into new (daughter) cells through a series of events that take place in
steps. The products formed in each round replicate the process in the next round.

A cell cycle is thus a sequence of events that a cell goes through as it grows and
divides to produce new cells. Therefore, it can be called the life cycle of a cell.

Cell division is responsible for a newborn baby gradually growing into an adult.
Similarly, a caterpillar turning into a butterfly. Other living organisms, such as
a plant or bacteria, also follow a series of developmental stages following birth
until reproduction.
 Cell cycle:

Source: Sciencefacts.net. 2021. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Interphase-Mitosis.jpg>

It is the first phase of the cell cycle, recognized by the growth period where the
chromosome gets duplicated as the cell prepares for division.
Interphase happens between one cell division or mitotic (M) phase and the next.
It is the longest part of the cell cycle involving three sub-phases.
The typical duration of this phase is 23 hours.

a. G1-phase: Also known as the first-gap phase, during this period, the cells
grow in size, synthesize cell organelles and other macromolecules such as proteins that
serve as the building block of the cell. The cells also accumulate sufficient energy
required for division.

b. S-phase: Also known as the synthesis phase, the existing DNA is copied
within the nucleus. This process of DNA synthesis is also known as DNA-replication.
The centrosome is also duplicated during this phase and gives rise to spindle fibers.
The entire S-phase requires energy expenditure to proceed.
 c. G2-phase: This is the second gap phase and is somewhat similar to the G1-
phase. During this period, the cells grow further in size, making more proteins and
organelles. All preparations for mitosis get completed before the cells enter the mitotic
phase.

Mitosis:

Most body cells have two copies of each chromosome.

We describe these cells as diploid.
When cells divide their chromosomes double beforehand.
This ensures that when the cell splits in two, each new cell still has two copies of
each chromosome (is still diploid).
This type of cell division is used for growth, repair of damaged tissues,
replacement of cells and asexual reproduction and is known as mitosis
Mitosis is defined as nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells.
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-ldPgEfAHI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=da7lzIrxh7E

Process:
Source:
V1.nitrocdn.com. 2021. [online] Available at:<https://v1.nitrocdn.com/kDXDIJNDOaszRbpagqNqUtquAQQkiLpO/assets/static/optimized/rev-
0f796fc/wp- content/uploads/2020/01/Mitosis.png>
Importance:

All cells in the body (excluding gametes) are produced by mitosis of the zygote.
Mitosis is important for replacing cell eg, skin cells, RBC's and for allowing
growth (production of new cells).

Occurs in:

Growth: Mitosis produces new cells.

Repair: To replace damaged or dead cells.
Asexual reproduction: Mitosis produces offspring that are genetically identical to
the parents.

Prophase:

Source: Sciencefacts.net. 2021. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Prophase-Mitosis.jpg> [Accessed

30 July 2021].

It is the first and the longest of all phases of mitosis. Prophase shows the
following distinct changes within the cell.
The beginning is marked by the appearance of thin thread-like condensing X-
shaped chromosomes.
Each chromosome is made of two coiled filaments called sister chromatids.
As the stage progresses, the sister chromatids become increasingly shorter and
thicker that join together at a site called the centromere.
The two pairs of centrioles, formed during interphase, move away from each other
to the opposite poles of the cell.
 Spindle fibers formed of microtubules and proteins begin to appear and
gradually extend across the cell between the centrioles as they move towards
opposite poles.
On reaching the end of this phase, the nuclear envelope starts to break apart
thus releasing the chromosome.
The nucleolus gradually disintegrates. The chromosomes begin to migrate
towards the centre of the cell, marking the end of prophase.

Metaphase:

Source: Sciencefacts.net. 2021. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Metaphase-Mitosis.jpg>

It is the second phase of mitosis and is marked with the complete disappearance
of the nuclear envelope that had started during prophase.
The chromosomes, which are at their shortest and thickest stage with two sister
chromatids, get attached to the spindle fibers present at the opposite poles.
They then align end to end along the middle of the cell.
The spindle fibers then attach to each of the sister chromatids.

Anaphase:

Source: Sciencefacts.net. 2021. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Anaphase-Mitosis.jpg>

 It starts by splitting each paired chromosome into two sister chromatids, now
known as daughter chromosomes.
The daughter chromosomes are pulled towards the opposite end of the cell due to
the contraction of the spindle fibers.
At the end of this phase, each pole contains a complete set of chromosomes.

Telophase:

Source: Sciencefacts.net. 2021. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Telophase-Mitosis.jpg>

It is the last recognized phase of mitosis marked by the end of the daughter
chromosome’s migration to the opposite poles.
Nuclear envelope redevelops around each group of chromosomes to form
daughter nuclei.
Mitotic apparatus disappears with a reduction in the viscosity of cytoplasm,
followed by the synthesis of RNA.
The nucleolus reappears with the chromosomes becoming slender and extended.

Cytokinesis:
Source: Sciencefacts.net. 2021. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/cytokinesis-Mitosis.jpg>

This is the process where the cytoplasm gets divided to produce two
independent daughter cells, each containing a complete set of chromosomes.

Cytokinesis begins at the anaphase stage and continues through telophase and
into the interphase.

In the end, mitosis results in two genetically identical daughter cells, each
having diploid (2n) number of chromosomes.

The Difference in Cytokinesis between Plant and Animal Cells: In animals,

cytokinesis occurs through a constriction of the cell membrane in-plane of the
metaphase plate, while in plants the division happens through the formation of
the cell plate.

Meiosis:

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=arzBfhXAu2k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQu6Yfrr6j0

Meiosis is a cell division process where a single (parent) cell divides twice to
produce four independent (daughter) cells, each having half the chromosomes as
the original cell.

The term ‘meiosis’ came from the Greek word ‘meiosis’, meaning ‘lessening’.

Meiosis takes place only in the reproductive cell types (sperm and egg cells) of
sexually reproducing organisms, including humans.
 For a cell to undergo meiosis, it must have a diploid (2n) chromosome number.

Source: Sciencefacts.net. 2021. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Meiosis.jpg>

Meiosis involves two successive stages or phases of cell division, meiosis I and
meiosis II.
Each stage includes a period of nuclear division or karyokinesis and a
cytoplasmic division or cytokinesis. Although not a part of meiosis, the cells
before entering meiosis I undergo a compulsory growth period called interphase.

Steps of meiosis I:

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1k1ew-5f3M
Prophase I:

Source: Sciencefacts.net. 2021. [online] Available at: <https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Prophase I-Meiosis.jpg>

It is the longest phase of meiotic division involving a series of events and is

divided into the following steps:
The duplicated chromosomes condense, resembling an X-shaped structure with
two sister chromatids that become distinctly visible within the nucleus.
The homologous chromosome pair (one inherited from each parent) comes closer
and associate along the entire chromosome length, forming a tetrad. Each
tetrad is composed of four chromatids.
The homologous chromosomes exchange parts of DNA with each other; this
process is known as crossing over. The points of physical contact from which
the genetic materials are exchanged are known as chiasmata.
Spindle fibers originate from the centrioles on either side of the cell, getting
attached to each chromosome’s centromere.
The last step of prophase involves the breakdown of the nuclear envelope. The
chromosomes then start moving towards the middle of the cell.

Metaphase I:

Homologous chromosomes align along the centre of the cell.

The centrioles reach the opposite poles of the cell with the spindle fibers
extending from them.
The centromeres orient themselves towards the opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase I:

The chromosomes with two sister chromatids are separated, and they begin to
migrate to the opposite poles. This separation is achieved because of the
contraction of the spindle fibers attached to each chromosome’s centromere.
The homologous chromosomes start to migrate to the opposite poles.

Telophase I:

The chromosomes stop migrating with each pole containing a haploid number of
chromosomes.
The nuclear envelope is formed around the chromosome, and the spindle fibers
disappear.
The chromosomes uncoil and become less dense with the nucleolus appearing
within the nucleus.

Cytokinesis I:

It involves the division of the cytoplasm to produce two individual daughter cells.
In animals, cytokinesis occurs by constriction of the cell membrane, while in
plants, it happens through the formation of a cell plate. In most cells, cytokinesis
occurs at the same time as telophase.

Result of meiosis I: At the end of cytokinesis I, two different daughter cells are formed,
each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell (having 23 chromosomes
having 23 pairs of chromatids). Meiosis is thus also called the reduction division.
 Steps of Meiosis II:

The daughter cells produced in meiosis I enters the second round of division called
meiosis II.

Prophase II:

The nuclear membrane initiates to break down, and the spindle fibers appear
again.
Each centriole divides, forming two pairs of centrioles.
Chromosomes do not replicate any further in this phase of meiosis and begin
migration towards the centre of the cell.

Metaphase II:

Chromosomes arrange on the equator of the cell with the help of the spindle
fibers.
The centrioles are now at opposite poles in each of the daughter cells.
Centromere divides, producing two sister chromatids, now known as daughter
chromosomes, with the spindle fibers attached to each chromosome.

Anaphase II:

The daughter chromosomes are pulled towards the opposite poles of the cells
with the help of the spindle fibers.
At the end of anaphase II, each end of the cell contains a complete set of
chromosomes.

Telophase II:

The nuclear membrane forms around each chromosome with the disappearance
of the spindle fibers.
Nucleolus reappears as the cell prepares for the second round of cytoplasmic
division.
Cytokinesis II:

This step is identical to cytokinesis I, involving the second cytoplasm division,

resulting in the formation of two individual daughter cells.

End Result of Meiosis:

Thus at the end of meiosis II, four non-identical, haploid daughter cells are formed,
each having half chromosome number as the original parent cell.

Source: “Meiosis II | Biology.” Wizeprep, www.wizeprep.com/online-courses/16916/chapter/12/core/2/1

Guiding Questions

1. State cell cycle.

2. What are chromosomes, and state their location within a cell?

3. Differentiate between diploid and haploid nuclei.

4. Outline the key events that occur during each phase of mitosis (prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase) and cytokinesis.

5. Explain the results of meiosis.

Resources:
Books:
 MYP Biology 4/5: A Concept Based Approach. By- David Mindorff and Andrew Allott
 MYP by concepts 4 & 5. By- Andrew Davis and Patricia

Bibliography:
Books:
 Davis, Andrew. MYP by Concept 4&5 Biology. Hodder Education, 2016.
 Mackean, D. G., and Dave Hayward. Cambridge IGCSE Biology. Hodder Education,
2014.
 Prasad, Anita. A Textbook of ICSE Biology. General Printers and Publishers, 2008.
Websites:

 https://www.sciencefacts.net/meiosis.html

 https://www.sciencefacts.net/mitosis.html

 https://www.savemyexams.co.uk/notes/igcse-biology-cie-new/17-inheritance/17-
1-inheritance-cell-division/17-1-4-cell-division/

 https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/33-meiosis/stages-of-
meiosis.html