Mathematics in Modern World (MMW) Example:

✓ Contingency table displaying type of fund and

whether a fee is charged
Descriptive Statistics

▪ Organization and Graphic Presentation of Data

▪ Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median,

Mode)

▪ Measures of Dispersion (Range, Variance, Standard

Deviation)

▪ Skewness and Kurtosis

✓ Contingency table displaying type of fund and
whether a fee is charged, based on percentage of
Summary table overall total.

▪ presents tallied responses as frequencies or

Percentages for each category.

▪ helps you see the differences among the Categories

by displaying the frequency, Amount, or percentage of
items in a set of Categories in a separate column.

Example:
✓ Contingency table displaying type of fund and
Summary table that tallies the responses to a survey
that asked adults how they pay their monthly bills. whether a fee is charged, based on percentage of row
total

✓ Contingency table displaying type of fund and

whether a fee is charged, based on percentage of
column total.
From this, you can conclude that more than half the
people pay by check and 82% pay by either check or
by electronic/online forms of payment.

Contingency Table

▪ Contingency tables analyze relationships between

categorical variables
Organizing Categorical Data
▪ Cross-tabulates responses of variables
TRY THIS
▪ Categories of one variable in rows, categories of
A categorical variable has three categories, with the
other variable in column
following frequencies of occurrence:

a. Compute the percentage of values in each category.

b. What conclusions can you reach concerning the

categories?
 The Ordered Array

▪ Ordered array ranks values of a numerical variable

from smallest to largest

▪ Provides a visual representation of the data’s range

▪ Especially useful for datasets with many values

TRY THIS! Example:

The following data represent the responses to two ✓ Cost per person at 50 city restaurants and 50
questions asked in a survey of 40 college students suburban restaurants
majoring in business:

What is your gender? (M = male; F = female)

And What is your major? (A = Accounting; C =

Computer Information Systems; M = Marketing):

a. Tally the data into a contingency table where the two

rows represent the gender categories and the three
columns represent the academic major categories.

b. Construct contingency tables based on percentages

of all 40 student responses, based on row percentages
and based on column percentages.
✓ Ordered arrays of cost per person at 50 city
restaurants and 50 suburban restaurants

The Frequency Distribution

▪ A way of summarizing data by showing the number of

observations that belong in the class intervals

▪ For easy addition, the commonly used class sizes

are in the multiples of 5, 10, etc.

▪ There are no strict rules regarding the number of

classes in a frequency distribution

Organizing Numerical Data

▪ Analyze numerical data by creating ordered arrays or

distributions

▪ Choice of method depends on amount of data and

goals for analysis

▪ Consider how data is arranged in worksheet when

selecting method
Note: Too much information is lost for a frequency
distribution with too few classes, making it impossible
to get any insights about the data distribution.

Graphical Presentation

▪ A good means of communicating the numerical

figures found in tables

▪ The trend and distribution of the data can be easily

seen Statistical Graph

Type of Statistical Charts ✓ Line Chart

▪ line chart ▪ It is appropriate for time series data since it
emphasizes movement and it shows trends, patterns,
▪ column chart
and forecasts
▪ histogram
▪ It is applicable for one or more time series data for
▪ horizontal bar chart comparison purposes

▪ pie chart Guidelines for Line Chart

▪ pictograph 1. Ratio of height to width should be 2:3 or 3:4

▪ statistical map 2. Put the variable of interest on the vertical axis and
the time on the horizontal axis.

✓ Column Chart

▪ It is appropriate for comparing the magnitudes (y-

axis) of the different categories of a variable, either
time series data or quantitative discrete variable (x-
axis)
▪ For time series data, the emphasis is on the ✓ Histogram
magnitude and not the movement or trend
▪ It shows the overall picture or shape of the
Guidelines for Column Chart distribution of the observed values in a quantitative
continuous variable
1. Columns must not be too long or too short, not too
wide or too narrow ▪ Similar to column chart but there should be no gaps
in between the bars
2. The space between the bars must not be too wide
or narrow Example:
3. The usual space between bars is around one-fourth
of the width of the column

4. Use scale figures that are multiples of 5, 10,…,50; if

the observed values are small, use multiples of 2

5. For one series of data, use only one color or pattern;

for two or more series of data, use different colors,
shadings or patterns

6. Avoid wavy or unconventional patterns

✓ Horizontal Bar Chart

▪ This is for qualitative variable given a specific time

▪ It is used to compare the magnitudes of the different

categories of a qualitative variable that place the
categories of the qualitative variable on the y-axis and
the amount or number is on the x-axis

Guidelines for Horizontal Bar Chart

1. The spaces in between the bars may be one-fifth to

one-half the width of the bar

2. Arranging the bars according to length sometimes

facilitates comparisons
 ✓ Pictograph

▪ It is appropriate for qualitative variable sorted into

categories for a given time

▪ It gives only an approximation of the actual figures

with emphasis of getting the reader’s attention

▪ Its symbols selected, that present numbers, should

be self-explanatory and easy to understand

Example:

✓ Pie Chart

▪ It is useful for qualitative variable sorted into

categories for a given time

▪ Its emphasis is to show the component parts with

respect to the total in terms of the percentage
distribution

Guidelines for Pie Chart

1. Use the pie chart if the qualitative variable has less

than 6 categories of the variable

2. Plot the biggest slice at 12 o’clock

✓ Statistical Maps
3. Arrange components of the pie chart according to
magnitude ▪ It shows data in geographical areas (may represent
barangays, cities, district, provinces, and countries)
4. If there is an “Others” category, put it in the last
section ▪ Figures in the map can be numbers, ratios, rates,
percentages, and indices
5. Use different colors, shadings, or patterns to
distinguish one section of the pie to the other sections Example:
Example: