NUCLEI ( Ch-13 )

Class- XII

 ATOMIC MASS UNIT ( amu or u ):

It is defined as the 1 / 12th of the mass of one C-12 atom.

1 amu =

 COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS:
The atomic nucleus consists of two types of elementary particles, named as protons and neutrons. These particles
collectively are called nucleons
Protons:
i) Positive charge (e) = + 1.6 x 10 – 19 C
ii) Mass (mp) ≈ 1.6726 × 10 - 27 kg (≈1.00727 u )
iii) Symbol : + 1 p 1 or 1 H 1 (nucleus of Hydrogen atom)
Neutron:
i) Electrically neutral
ii) Mass (m n ) ≈ 1.6749 × 10 – 27 kg (≈1.00866 u )
iii) Symbol : 0 n 1
 SYMBOL OF NUCLEUS: The nucleus of an element X is represented by

Z XA Mass Number

Atomic
number Number of nucleons ( sum of protons & neutrons)

Number of protons

 Isotopes - Atoms of same element having same atomic number & different mass number.
1 2 3
1 H , 1 H , & 1 H

 Isobars – Atoms of different elements having same mass number & different atomic number .
40
18 Ar , 19 K 40 & 20 Ca 40
 Isotones – Atoms having same number of electrons.
39
19 K & 20 Ca 40
 Iso-electronic – Atoms having same number of electrons.

 SIZE OF THE NUCLEUS:

From scattering experiments suggested by Rutherford, it was found that the volume of the nucleus is directly
 proportional to it’s mass number.

 DENSITY OF NUCLEUS:

 MASS – ENERGY EQUIVALENCE:

Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can convert mass-energy into other forms of
energy and vice-versa. Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation –

E=mc2
Where c(speed of light in vacuum) = 3 x10 8 m/s
If m = 1 amu , then corresponding energy ,
E = m c 2 = ( 1 amu) x ( 3 x 10 8 m/s) 2
= 1.660539 x 10 – 27 kg x 9 x 10 16 m2 / s2
= 931.5 MeV
Thus 1 amu = 931.5 MeV

 NUCLEAR FORCE:
This is the strongest known force in nature that acts only within the range of nucleus and binds the nucleons together
to form the nucleus.
This force is so strong that it overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged protons held within
the nucleus.
Properties of nuclear force:
i) It is the strongest known force in nature.
ii) It is a short range force that dominates only within the
range of order of 10 – 15 m ( fm ).
iii) It shows saturation effect . It means each nucleon exerts
the nuclear force on it’s just neighboring nucleons
& not beyond them.
iv) It is charge independent. It means it acts equally between
proton-proton, neutron – neutron or proton – neutron .
v) It is spin dependent. It means it is stronger between the
nucleons having same direction f spin than those having
opposite direction of spin.

 MASS – DEFECT:
It is found that the mass of nucleus is slightly less than the sum of the
rest masses of the particles ( protons & neutrons) forming the nucleus.
This difference in the mass of nucleus & the total rest mass of the nucleons
forming it is called mass defect . It is given by -

Explanation of Mass- Defect- It can be explained using Einstein’s mass energy relation. According to it, when the
protons & neutrons come close enough to form the nucleus, certain amount of their rest masses is converted into
energy & gets released. This energy is termed as “binding energy” of that nucleus & given by
 Binding energy of a nucleus is defined as the amount of energy released when the free protons & neutrons combine
to form the nucleus.
OR
Binding energy of a nucleus is defined as the amount of energy required to break the nucleus & moving it’s
constituent particles out of the influence of each other.
Usually the binding energy is measured in MeV . ( 1 MeV = 10 6 eV)
Note: High binding energy means more energy released while nucleus formation.

 BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON:

It is defined as the binding energy per unit mass number of the given nucleus.

Note: More the binding energy per nucleon, more stable is the nucleus.

 BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON CURVE ( Variation in binding energy per nucleon with mass number)

Features of the Binding energy per nucleon curve:

i) The binding energy per nucleon is practically almost constant, i.e. practically independent of the atomic
number for nuclei of middle mass number ( 30 < A < 170).
ii) The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56 ( iron Fe ) and has a value of 7.6 MeV for A = 238
(uranium U).
iii) Binding energy per nucleon is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).

Conclusions from Binding energy per nucleon curve:

 i) The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.
ii) The constancy of the binding energy per nucleon in the range 30 < A < 170 is a consequence of the fact that
the nuclear force is short-ranged & show saturation.
iii) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to that of a nucleus with
A = 120. Thus if a nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more tightly bound. This
implies energy would be released in the process. It has very important implications for energy production
through nuclear fission,( splitting of heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei)
iv) Consider two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) joining to form a heavier nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon of
the fused heavier nuclei is more than the binding energy per nucleon of the lighter nuclei. This means that the
final system is more tightly bound than the initial system. Again energy would be released in such a process
of fusion. ( combining lighter nuclei to for heavier nucleus).
v) Nucleus present on the sharp peaks of the curve are more stable than their neighbor nuclei.
vi) Iron nuclei (Fe-56) is the most stable with highest binding energy per nucleon.

 NUCLEAR REACTION : It is the reaction in which nuclei take part. It is different from the chemical reactions

are comparatively much more violent . They are of two types-

i) Nuclear Fission : When a heavy nucleus is bombarded with other nuclear particle like neutron, the heavy
nucleus breaks into smaller nuclei with the release of huge amount of energy . This reaction is termed as
nuclear fission.

The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like uranium is of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning
nucleus.
The disintegration energy in fission events first appears as the kinetic energy of the fragments and neutrons. Eventually it
is transferred to the surrounding matter appearing as heat. The source of energy in nuclear reactors, which produce
electricity, is nuclear fission. The enormous energy released in an atom bomb comes from uncontrolled nuclear fission.

ii) Nuclear Fusion: When two or more lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus with the release of huge
amount of energy . This reaction is termed as nuclear fusion.
For fusion to take place, the two nuclei must come close enough so that attractive short-range nuclear force is able to
affect them. However, since they are both positively charged particles, they experience coulomb repulsion. They,
therefore, must have enough energy to overcome this coulomb barrier. Thus fusion reaction takes place at extremely high
pressure & high temperature.
When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the system so that particles have enough kinetic energy to
overcome the coulomb repulsive behaviour, it is called thermonuclear fusion. Thermonuclear fusion is the source of
energy output in the interior of stars.
Reaction in the Sun:
The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process in which the hydrogen is burned into helium. Thus, the fuel in the
sun is the hydrogen in its core. The proton-proton (p, p) cycle by which this occurs is represented by the following sets of
reactions:

The age of the sun is about 5×109years and it is estimated that there is enough hydrogen in the sun to keep it going for
another 5 billion years. After that, the hydrogen burning will stop and the sun will begin to cool and will start to collapse
under gravity, which will raise the core temperature. The outer envelope of the sun will expand, turning it into the so
called red giant.

Note: i) Q value = (mass difference b/w parent & daughter nuclei) x c 2

ii) In controlled fusion reactors, the aim is to generate steady power by heating the nuclear fuel to a
temperature in the range of 10 8 K. At these temperatures, the fuel is a mixture of positive ions and electrons
(plasma). The challenge is to confine this plasma, since no container can stand such a high temperature.
Several countries around the world including India are developing techniques in this connection. If successful,
fusion reactors will hopefully supply almost unlimited power to humanity.