BIOL 2P96 2020FW Lab 2

Biol 2P96 - Biology of Fungi

Laboratory 2

Learning Objectives:
i. Recognize and describe the basic anatomy of fungi found within the phyla Glomeromycota and Ascomycota
and polyphyletic Zygomycetes.

Kingdom Fungi

Glomeromyota (Endomycorrhizal fungi)

Most plants have mycorrhial associations that share nutrients transfering between structures called
arbuscules. The organisms in this phyla are obligate plant endophytes meaning they cannot be cultured
outside of the host plant roots. Some species produce spore that are surrounded by hyphae to create a
sporocarp. (Watkinson et. al., 2016)

Obtain a commercially prepared slide of Endotropic mycorrhiza and using a compound microscope identify
each of the following structures: arbuscules within the plant root cells, sporocarps within a plant root cell,
hyphae between the plant cells, intracellular vessicles.

Conjugating Fungi – Zygomycetes polyphyletic

Sub-phyla Mucoromycotina, Entomophthoromycotina, Zoopagomycotina and Kickxellomycotina.

Zygomycetes, like all true fungi, produce cell walls containing chitin. They grow primarily as mycelia, or
filaments of long cells called hyphae. Zygomycotetes produce aseptate or coenocytic hyphae containing
haploid nuclei. Asexual reproduction involves mycelia producing sporangia, that are borne on
sporangiophores. Found within the sporangia are many aplanospores (non motile spores) produced by
mitosis. Note, there is a great deal of variation that occurs in the sporangia of the Zygomycetes. Sexual
reproduction produces tough, thick-walled zygotes called zygospores (a unique character of this unofficial
phylum). (Alexopoulus et al,1996) (Carlile et al, 2007) (Moore et al, 2011) (Sharma, 2005) (Webster & Weber,
2007).

Sub-phylum Kickxellomycotina
Orders Kickxellales, Asellariales, Harpellales and Asellariales

These are the most striking example of commensalism amongst the fungi. Commensalism is a close
association between two organisms in which one is benefited by the relationship and one is neither benefited
nor harmed. However, at least one species, Smittium morbosum, is known to cause the death of mosquito
larvae. This eccentric group of fungi live almost exclusively attached to the hind gut lining of many different
arthropods. Upon dissection of the gut, they may be seen as small unbranched or branched fungal bodies
(thalli) firmly attached, by means of a holdfast, to the gut lining from which they obtain their nutrients. Note,
they have an obligate association with their insect host. That is, the fungi are not capable of growing,
metabolizing, or reproducing in the natural environment other than in association with their living hosts, at least
insofar as we currently understand these organisms.

We will not examine members of these orders in this lab.

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Sub-phylum Mucoromycotina
Orders Mucorales, Endogonales and Mortierellales

They reproduce sexually by the physical fusing of isogametangia, morphologically similar gametangia, to form
zygospores often called zygosporangium. ‘Zygo’ is the Greek for a yoke or joining. The gametangia arise from
hyphae of a single mycelium in homothallic species or from different but sexually compatible mycelia in
heterothallic species. A single zygospore is formed per zygosporangium. Zygospores are thick- walled
resting structures that undergo an obligatory dormant period before germination. (Alexopoulus et al,1996)
(Carlile et al, 2007) (Moore et al, 2011) (Sharma, 2005) (Webster & Weber, 2007).

Zygospore formation: Steps in Sexual Reproduction

a: Pair of progametangia of different mating strains: "+" and "-" grow

towards each other. Migration of nuclei will occur in the tips of both
progametangia where gametangia will form.

b: Septa are laid down at the apex of the progametangia to form

isogametangia. The outside, larger cells are the suspensors that support
the gametangia.

c: Plasmogamy occurs following fusion of the gametangia.

Karyogamy immediately follows to form a multinucleate zygote.

d: The zygote will form a thick, pitted wall around itself

to form the zygospore.

Figure 2.1. Images from Dr. Tom Volks’ Web page at http://tomvolkfungi.net/.

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Order Mucorales

Most of the Mucorales are saprotrophs, and are often found in soil and dung. They play an important role in
the early colonization of substrata. Some are pathogens on soft plant tissues causing food spoilage. A number
of species have been used in the production of oriental foods and many murcoralean fungi are employed in
biotransformation processes. The most widespread mode of asexual reproduction in the Mucorales is the
production of sporangiospores. The form and arrangement of the sporangium of different species vary and
are used in defining genera and species.

Representatives: Rhizopus stolonifera (Bread Mould), Phycomyces, Mucor, and Syncephalastrum

Figure 2.2 Life cycle of Rhizopus. Note, the only diploid phase takes place within the zygospore. Nuclei within
the zygospore are believed to undergo meiosis during germination, but this has only been demonstrated
genetically within the model eukaryote Phycomyces blakesleeanus (Eslava, et al., 1975).

Observational Procedure
1. Collect a plate of Phycomyces blakesleeanus culture.
2. Examine it under the dissecting microscope. DO NOT OPEN THE PLATES.
3. Examine the mycelium. The mycelium is differentiated into different types:
a. stolons are elongated and parallel to the substrate
b. rhizoids grow through the medium resemble roots
4. Study a portion of the mycelium under high magnification. Are the hyphae non-septate or septate?
5. Locate sporangiophore hyphae with sporangium. Note: many of the sporangia will be broken, exposing the
columella, and liberated spores (sporangiospores).
6. Obtain a commercially prepared slide of Rhizopus stolonifera sporangia & zygotes and using a compound
microscope identify each of the following structures: hyphae, sporangia, sporangiophores, columella and

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zygospore/zygosporangium. Use the photos showing the steps in reproduction above to compare to the
slide. How many of the steps can you observe?
7. Find gametangia and zygosporangia borne by two suspensors each. Hint one way to tell a sexual
sporangium from an asexual one in this group is that with asexual sporangia only one hypha enters the
sporangium while in sexual there are two hyphae.
8. Locate a zygospore and examine the thick walled structure closely.
9. Locate the asexual sporangia borne on sporangiophores in the other regions of the culture. Compare them
to the zygospore. Make a drawing of your observations.

As mentioned earlier, there is a great deal of variation between the sporangia of the ‘Zygomycota’. Obtain a
Mucor hiemalis culture and examine under the dissecting scope. How does it differ from the Phycomyces
blakesleeanus (-) strain? Are stolons and rhizoids present? Also look at the prepared slides of Mucor sp.
sporanges and zygotes.

Phylum Ascomycota (Sac fungi)

The Ascomycota is the largest and most diverse fungal phylum, with over 64,000 species (Moore et al, 2011).
They are characterized by a specialized unicellular sporangium called the ascus (pl. asci) in which sexually
derived spores, called the ascospores develop. Commonly, each ascus holds eight spores - but there are
species with just one spore per ascus and others with over a hundred spores per ascus. Except for the sub-
phylum Taphrinomycotina and sub-phylum Saccharomycotina, most sac fungi produce their asci in complex,
protective fruiting bodies or ascomata (sing. ascoma). These can be further distinguished developmentally as
ascocarps (Trigiano et al, 2008, pg 146). Three major architectural types of ascoma are found in this phylum:
apothecium, cleistothecium and perithecium. Asexual reproduction is common and takes place by way of
conidiospores that always lack motility.

Nomenclatural Conventions
Nomenclature used within this phylum can initially be confusing as three reproductive categories are
recognized for the Ascomycota and for each a different term is used when referring to each state.
-ascomycetes that only reproduce sexually termed teleomorph
-ascomycetes only observed reproducing asexually (deuteromycetes) termed anamorph
-ascomycetes known to reproduce sexually, but also observed in asexual reproduction termed
holomorph

The anamorph stage is usually given a separate binomial name from the teleomorph. For example, most plant
pathologists use Botrytis cinerea, the name for the conidial (asexual state) of the fungus, in preference to the
rarely encountered Sclerotinia (Botryotinia) fuckeliana, the sexual state.

The Ascomycota may be divided into two artificial groups, based on thallus type: unicellular or mycelia
species. Within the mycelia species, about 40% are lichenized (Hawksworth et al., 1995) while the remaining
60% are saprophytes or are engaged in symbiotic relationships that range from parasitism through
commensalism to mutualism. In lab today, you will be given the opportunity to examine and work with
organisms from each of the above-mentioned groups.

Traditionally, the Ascomycota were classified based on ascocarp form but there has recently been a major
reclassification of the phylum Ascomycota and groups based on ascocarp form is no longer accepted.

Instead a wide range of characters, including details of ascus structure, are now used to classify this phylum.
However, as the ability to distinguish the different ascocarps is an important skill, it is on developing this skill
that we will begin our lab.

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Sexual Fruiting Bodies

Naked Asci (Taphrinomycotina) lack ascomata and many are unicellular. Example: Taphrina
Apothecium Typically an apothecium is disc or cup-shaped. The asci form a hymenium (fertile layer) that is
usually, entirely exposed at maturity. The asci are unitunicate (single walled) and may have operculum (lid,
“trap door”) or in place of an operculum have an elastic ring that functions like a pressure valve. Examples:
Morchella and Peziza
Perithecium ascocarps may vary in shape but are typically pear-shaped or globose, with a small pore
(ostiole) through which the ascospores are released. Asci are unitunicate and arranged in a single fertile
layer, the hymenium, within a central cavity (‘centrum’) of the perithecium. Sterile filaments called paraphyses
may also be present among the asci. Species in this group may produce perithecia directly on their substrate
or in a stroma. A stroma is a compact mass of mycelium. Example: Sordaria fimicola
Cleistothecium This ascocarp type is entirely closed usually spherical in shape and have asci that are
scattered, randomly, throughout the interior (i.e. a hymenium is absent or asci may arise in tufts). There is no
obvious means of ascospore release other than through breakdown of the cleistothecium and disintegration of
asci. Examples: Aspergillus and Penicillium
Pseudothecia This type resembles the flask shaped or open, cup-shaped apothecium or perithecium, but the
asci develop in locules (pre-formed space). Example: Tyrannosorus

Figure 2.6 Different forms of ascocarps, not to scale. (a) apothecium (b) perithecium (c) cleistothecium.
(Sharma, 2005).

Additional Characteristics of Asci

Before we go exploring the different ascocarps, we must take a closer look at the ascus itself.

The first group has “unitunicate” asci. These asci have only a single, thin, elastic wall surrounding the
developing ascospores. This group may be further divided into Operculate asci: there is a built-in lid or
operculum at the tip. At maturity this lid pops open and the spores are released. Found only in apothecial
ascomata. Inoperculate asci: there is no operculum or cap at the tip instead, there is a special elastic ring
mechanism built into their tip; this acts as a valve and lets the ascospores shoot out. Examples are found in
perithecial, cleistothecial and apothecial ascomata. Prototunicate asci: usually spherical in shape, these asci
have no active spore shooting mechanism. Ascospores are released when the wall disintegrates. Asci of this
type can be found in apothecial, perithecial and cleisothecial ascomata.

The second group has “bitunicate” asci. A double wall surrounds the developing ascospores. At maturity, the
thin outer wall (exotunica) splits and the thick inner wall (endotunica) absorbs water and expands upward,
carrying the ascospores with it. This “Jack-in-the-box” design allows the ascus to stretch up over the walls of
the ascoma to expel its spores. Asci of this type are found in ascostromatic, lichenised and non-lichenized
species. (Alexopoulus et al,1996) (Carlile et al, 2007) (Moore et al, 2011) (Sharma, 2005) (Webster & Weber,
2007)

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Phylum Ascomycota
Subphylum Taphrinomycotina
Order Taphrinales ‘naked asci’

This order consists primarily of parasitic fungi which attack higher plants and cause deformities of the leaves,
or "galls" (tumorous growths of infected host plant tissue), on the leaves, stems, and fruits. Example: Taphrina
deformans (leaf curl of peaches and almonds).
This fungus frequently causes damage to peach and almond crops, although other members of the flowering
plant family Rosaceae may also be parasitized. The hyphae penetrate between the cells of the hosts’ leaves
and stems and causes abnormal growth. The hyphae produce naked asci (not surrounded ascocarp) on the
surface of the infected tissue. The asci develop from dikaryotic hyphae, which are formed by the sexual fusing
of two compatible hyphal strains deep within the host tissue.

Using your compound microscope examine a prepared slide of Taphrina deformans.

Note the naked asci on the surface, the ascospores inside the asci, and the mycelium within the host tissue.

Apothecium

Phylum Ascomycota
Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Pezizomycetes
Order Pezizales
‘Cup Fungi’
Peziza is a large genus containing around 100 species. Known as the ‘cup-fungi’ they vary greatly in color,
texture and ornamentation. They are commonly found in a very wide range of habitats including soil, manure
heaps, rotting wood, burnt ground and sand dunes.

- Examine the preserved material of Peziza sp. on display.

- Now examine a prepared slide of a Peziza sp. Note the cup shaped appearance of the apothecium.
Interestingly, the sterile paraphyses of Peziza sp. are positively phototropic. Therefore, the asci that
develop from the base are straight, while those on the sidewalls undergo curvature. What
advantage does this bestow on this amazing fungus?
- Make a drawing of the apothecium. Locate and label the paraphyses, asci, ascospores and the
hymenium. The spores within the asci are meiospores or mitospores?

Morels (Morchella sp.)

Found here are some of the most highly prized edible fungi. This apothecium has a stalk or stipe, the fertile,
portion is called the “pileus” each pit represents an individual apothecium.
NOTE: While the morel, Morchella esculenta is one of the finest edible fungi, its similar looking cousin, which
fruits at the same time, the false morel, Gyromitra esculenta, is poisonous. Examine the prepared slide and
preserved material on display.

Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Leotiomycetes
Order Rhytismatales

Tar Spot of Maple

The tar-spot pathogen, Rhytisma punctatum, is an ascomycete that you have probably observed in your
neighborhood. Collect a leaf sample from the top bench and examine it using your dissecting microscope.
Within the leaf lesion, find and observe numerous flat and circular tar-like stroma that contain apothecium
ascocarps.

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Perithecium

Phylum Ascomycota
Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Sordariomycetes
Subclass Sordariomycetidae
Order Sordariales

Sordaria
1. Obtain a Sordaria culture. Using your dissecting microscope observe the culture for general morphology,
appearance and colour.
2. Look at the slide of the ascocarp under the microscope on the side bench. Take a note of the shape of the
ascocarp and see if you can count the number of ascospores in the ascus.

Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Sordariomycetes
Subclass Hypocreomycetidae
Order Hypocreales

Ergot
Claviceps purpurea is the cause of ergot of rye and other grasses. Examine the display material on the side
bench. Sclerotia, containing the perithecia, form within the ovary of the plant (grain). Look at the prepared
slides of sclerotium, conidia and stroma.

Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Dothideomycetes
Subclass Pleosporomycetidae
Order Pleosporales

Black Knot
Apiosporina morbosa is the cause of black knot of Prunus sp. Examine the sample on the side bench.

Bitunicate pseudothecia

Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Dothideomycetes
Subclass incertae sedis
Order Botrysphaeriales

Black Rot
Guignardia bidwellii is the cause of Black Rot in grapes. When the fruit are infected, they dry out like raisins
and are called black rot mummies. Examine the sample on the side bench.

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Cleistothecium
Phylum Ascomycota
Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Eurotiomycetes
Subclass Eurotiomycetidae
Order Eurotiales

Eurotium
Obtain a Eurotium cheralieri culture. Using your dissecting microscope observe the culture for general
morphology, appearance and colour.

Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Leotiomycetes
Order Erysiphales

Powdery Mildews
Powdery mildew fungi are obligate, biotrophic parasites that attack many different plant species. Powdery
mildews are polycyclic diseases that can impair photosynthesis, stunt growth and increase the rate of
senescence (death) of host tissue. The disease if left untreated may result in severe economic losses on crops
such as apples, grapes, cucurbits, and cereals.

The cleistothecia represent resting, hibernating stage of the pathogen. The ascospores remain dormant all
winter and in the late spring, activity recommences. The expanding asci burst open releasing the ascospores
when the air is right. A variety of appendages may develop on the surface of the ascocarps and can be used to
identify the fungus. (Watkinson et. al., 2016)

The taxonomy of powdery mildew fungi recently underwent extensive revision based on DNA sequence data.
Powdery mildew genera are now grouped into five tribes. Two of the five tribes are indicated below.

Tribe Host New holomorphic Anamorphic genus

genus
Erysipheae Legumes Erysiphe -- Erysiphe Oidium
Trees & shrubs Erysiphe -- Oidium
Microsphaera
Trees & shrubs Erysiphe -- Uncinula Oidium
Blumeriae Grasses Blumeria Oidium
1. Examine the fresh or dried leaves using a dissecting microscope for small black spherical structures,
chasmothecia.
2. Using a toothpick and glycerol remove a cleistothecium and place in a drop of water on a
microscope slide and cover with a cover slip.
3. Using a compound microscope observe the structures. Dispose of slides in the 10% bleach beaker in the
fume hood.

Look at the prepared slides of Erysiphe graminis conidia and cleistothecia.

Asexual conidia are produced on the leaf surface during the growing season. They develop either singly or in
chains on conidiospores. As temperatures cool, at the end of the growing season, powdery mildew fungi
produce ascocarps containing asci and ascospores.

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Asexual structures

The asexual spores or conidia of this phylum are remarkably diverse in form, structure and modes of
dispersal, but their development of conidiogenesis occurs in a limited number of ways: blastic or thallic.

- Blastic conidiogenesis: the conidium develops by the ballooning out of the wall of a cell, usually
from the tip of a hypha.
- Thallic conidiogenesis: occurs by conversion of a pre-existing hyphal element in which the cells
become cut off by septa.

Conidiospores (conidia) develop exogenously, at the tips or sides of hyphae. Conidiospores are borne on
conidiophores and vary greatly in form and arrangement. These conidium-bearing (conidiogenous) cells may
occur within characteristic structures resembling those that frequently bear asci (coelomycetes). However,
conidia, that are borne on the hyphae, without any kind of compound fruiting structure, are the most commonly
encountered conidia (hyphomycete). If the conidia are small, they are called microconidia; large multicellular
conidia are called macroconidia (Fig 2.9).

Figure 2.8 Macroconidium and microconidium (Kerns & Blevins, 1997.)

Types of Conidophore and Conidia

Blastoconidia – Conidia of this type are produced by budding from cells of pre-existing conidia, as in the mold
Cladosporium, or in yeasts such as Candida.
Phialoconidia – Conidia elicited from a tube or vase-shaped conidiogenous structure termed a phialide.
Annelloconidia – develop from inside a vase-shaped conidiogenous structure termed an
annellide. As each conidium is released, a ring of parent outer cell wall material remains behind,
giving a distinct saw-toothed appearance to the sides of the annellide. The supporting structure is termed an
annellophore, and it may be simple or it may be elaborately branched.
Poroconidia – as seen in Bipolaris, are formed by the daughter pushing through a minute pore in the parent
cell. The parent may be in a long stalk (conidiophore), or it may be a specialized conidiogenous cell.
Arthroconidia – This type of conidia forms by separation from pre-existing hyphal cells. Cells separate within
the parent hyphal strand before dispersing. Example: Oospora.
Chlamydoconidia – thick-walled survival conidia formed during unpleasant environmental
conditions, they will germinate and produce conidia when a better climate occurs. They may be
observed at the hyphal tip (terminal), on sides (sessile), or within the hyphal strand (intercalary).

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Fig 2.9 The five morphological groups of Conidiophores (Kerns & Blevins, 1997).

Phylum Ascomycota
Subphylum Pezizomycotina
Class Eurotiomycetes
Subclass Eurotiomycetidae
Order Eurotiales

Penicillum
1. Examine the prepared slide of the asexual stage (conidia) of Penicillum sp. Note the
conidiophores arising from the host tissue, and the conidia. Can you identify the type of conidia present?
Note that the sexual stage of Penicillum sp. is a cleistothecium.
2. Examine the prepared slide of Penicillum with cleistothecium; complete a drawing.
3. Observe Penicillum growing on a culture dish.

Aspergillus
Examine a prepared slide of Aspergillus. Note the arrangement of the conidia.

Phylum Ascomycota
Class Leotiomycetes
Order Helotiales

Botrytis cinerea
Botrytis is the cause of ‘noble rot’ in grapes, but is mostly known as ‘grey mould’. (Moore et. al., 2020) Examine
the live sample of Botrytis sp. from the side bench. Note the arrangement of the conidia.

Phylum Ascomycota
Class Sordariomycetes
Order Hypocreales
Trichoderma sp.
Trichoderma species are necrotrophic mycoparasites, meaning they invade and kill other fungi. T. pleuroticola
is the cause of ‘green mould’ disease in Oyster mushrooms. (Moore et. al., 2020) Examine the live sample of
Trichoderma sp. from the side bench. Note the arrangement of the conidia.
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Metarhizium robertsii is a general insect pathogen. Examine the sample of an infected wax moth (side bench).
You can infect your own wax moth with Metarhizium sp. Watch a PowerPoint presentation.

Literature Cited:

Alexopoulus, C.J., C.W. Mims, and M.Blackwell. (1996). Introductory Mycology (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons,
New York.

Carlile, M.J., S.C. Watkinson, and G. W. Gooday. (2007). The Fungi (6th ed.). Elsevier Academic Press,
London.

Fugelsang, Kenneth C:Edwards, Charles G. (2010) WINE MICROBIOLOGY practical applications and
procedures (Second edition ed.). Springer, New York.

Moore, D., G.D. Robson, and A.P.J. Trinci (2011) 21st Century Guidebook to Fungi. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.

Moore, D., G.D. Robson, and A.P.J. Trinci (2020) 21st Century Guidebook to Fungi, 2nd edition, online.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Sharma P.D. (2005). Fungi and Allied Organisms. Oxford: Alpha Science International.

Watkinson, S.C., L. Boddy and N. P. Money (2016) The Fungi (3rd ed.). Elsevier Academic Press, London.

Webster J. and R.W.S. Weber. (2007) Introduction to Fungi. (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

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Organism Chart – Lab 2A Fill in Kingdom, Phylum, Class and Order then only the areas that are indicative of,
important to or with the characteristics that can be used to distinguish from the other organisms. Not all boxes
need to be filled. (Completing these tables will aid you in studying for the exams)

Organism Endomycorrh Phycomyces Rhizopus Mucor Penicillium Aspergillus

iza
Kingdom Fungi
Phylum or Zygomycete
sub-phylum
Class
Sub-class
Order Mucorales

Distinguishing Carotene
characteristics synthesis
Heterothallic
zygospore
formation
Host/ Type of Saprophyte
environment Soil & parasite of
plant & fungi

Vegetative hyphae
state
Vegetative haploid
ploidy
Reproductive Karyogamy to
state form zygospore;
meiosis during
germination
Fruiting Sexual =
structure zygosporangia
Asexual =
sporangia
Type of gametangia
plasmogamy
Reproductive Zygospore = 2n
ploidy
Type of sexual Zygospore
spore
Site of gametangia
karyogamy
Site of meiosis sporangium

Cell wall chitin

composition
Suggested Arbuscle Sporangium Sporangium Asexual Asexual
drawings Intracellular Zygospore conidia conidia
vesicle
sporocarps

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Organism Chart – Lab 2B

Organism Taphrina Peziza Morchella Rhytisma Botrytis Metarhiziu
deformans punctatum cinerea m robertsii
Kingdom
Phylum or
sub-phylum
Class
Sub-class
Order

Distinguishing
characteristics

Host/ Type of
environment
Vegetative
state
Vegetative
ploidy
Reproductive
state
Fruiting
structure
Type of
plasmogamy
Reproductive
ploidy
Type of
sexual spore
Site of
karyogamy
Site of
meiosis
Cell wall
composition
Suggested Naked asci apothecium Complete ascocarp condia conidia
drawings fungi

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Organism Chart – Lab 2C

Organism Sordaria Claviceps Apiosporina Guignardia Eurotium Erysiphe
purperea morbosa bidwellii cheralieri
Kingdom
Phylum or
sub-phylum
Class
Sub-class
Order

Distinguishing
characteristics

Host/ Type of
environment
Vegetative
state
Vegetative
ploidy
Reproductive
state
Fruiting
structure
Type of
plasmogamy
Reproductive
ploidy
Type of sexual
spore
Site of
karyogamy
Site of meiosis

Cell wall
composition
Suggested perithecium Sclerotia perithecium Bitunicate cleistotheci chasmothec
drawings perithecium pseudotheciu a ium
m

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Lab 2 Assignment Quiz can be found on Sakai under Tests & Quizzes.
Answer the questions on this page and by filling in the Organisms charts will help to answer the questions on
the quiz. Submit your quiz in Tests & Quizzes on Sakai before 11:55pm on Sun Jan 31st.

1. Endotrophic mycorrhiza produce structures within and outside the plant cell. Indicate the names of the
structures described below.

Tree-like branched structure inside the plant root cells is an ______________.

Large dark thicker walled spherical structure located within the plant root cell is a ______________.
The long slender structures growing between the plant root cells is called ___________.

2. What are the structures and in what order do they form during sexual reproduction in Rhizopus sp.?

3. What is the difference between conidia and sporangia?

4. How are plasmogamy and karyogamy different?

5. Define/explain each state:

teleomorph state: ______________________________

anamorph state: _______________________________

holomorph state: ______________________________

6. Identify the type of ascocarp produced by each of the following:

Morchella __________________

Claviceps purpurea _________________

Sordaria __________________ How many ascospores per ascus? ______

Penicillium __________________

7. Describe the infection process of Metarhizium in the wax Moth larvae.

8. Identify the structures of Cuticular Invasion of Metarhizium infection in the Wax Moth larvae.
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