Unit 8

Compressibility and
Consolidation

Dr. Jitendra Singh Yadav

Assistant Professor-I
Dept of Civil Engineering
1

NIT Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Haryana

• Introduction,

• components of total settlement,

• Consolidation process,

• onedimensional consolidation test,

• Typical void ratio-pressure relationships for sands and clays,

• Normally consolidated and over consolidated clays,

• Casagrande's graphical method of estimating pre-consolidation pressure,

• Terzaghi's theory of one-dimensional primary consolidation,

• Determination of coefficients of consolidation,

• consolidation settlement,

• Construction period settlement,

• secondary consolidation
 Introduction
The structures, built on soils, transfer the loads to the subsoil through foundations

> causes the reduction in volume of the soil mass

> settlement of the structure
Loaded soil will compress due to:

➢ Deformation of soil grains (elastic); Degree water saturation <1

➢ Squeezing water and air out of voids; Degree water saturation =1

➢ Compression of water (very small)

➢ Squeezing water out of voids

3
Different conditions:
Saturated Soil Volume change is due to escape of water
Partially saturated Soil compression and escape of air from the voids and partly due to the
dissolution of air in the pore water

Soil having honeycomb High porosity – more compressible

structure
Soil predominated with flat More compressible than spherical grains
grains
Soil in undisturbed state More compressible than soil in remolded state

Two Problems in Soil Engineering:

Settlement within the soils: wherein there is no possibility of the stress being sufficiently large to exceed the
shear strength of the soil, but wherein the strains lead to what may be a serious magnitude of displacement of
individual grains.

Stability problems: when shearing stresses exceeding the shear strength of the soil Such as earth pressure,
stability of slopes, and foundations.
4
 Compressibility
Structures are built on soils. They transfer loads to the subsoil through the foundations. The
effect of the loads is felt by the soil normally up to a depth of about four times the width of
the foundation. The soil within this depth gets compressed due to the imposed stresses. The
compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease in the volume of the mass which results in
the settlement of the structure.
The volume decrease of a soil under stress might be due to
• Compression of the solid grains;
• Compression of pore water or pore air;
• Expulsion of pore water or pore air from the voids, thus decreasing the void ratio or
porosity.

Assumptions followed in soil mechanics

✓ Solid grains are incompressible
Water is incompressible
Hence the compression of saturated soil can occur only if pore water is expelled out of voids.
Compressibility of soils
➢ If the volume of a soil changes the effective stress must change .
➢ Since soil grains and water are assumed to be incompressible, the volume of a saturated soil
can only change as water issqueezed from (or drawn into) the pore space.
➢ As water flows from the innermost pores towards its boundaries the flow will be governed
by Darcy’s law but, since the rate of flow must be finite, the soil volume will change with
time.
➢ Consequently, the effective stress must change with time, so will the hydraulic gradient
and the rate of flow.
o Variation of soil volume = f (effective and total stress, pore pressure, seepage and compressibility)
 ▪ The time-dependent process of volume change in soil as water is squeezed from the pores is known as
consolidation.
▪ During consolidation process, transient flow of water from and through the soil material occurs. The seepage
forces experienced by the soil structure will vary with time, and the soil structure itself may deform under the
varying loads it sustains.
▪ The relationship between the volume of the soil and the effective stress, which is a relationship independent of
time, is known as compression.

Comparison Clay vs Sand

Sands Clays
Compressibility Medium → Very low Medium → Very
(< few cm) high (up to 1 m)

Permeability High → Drainage Very low → Nearly

during construction undrained during
construction

 -  behaviour Essentially same basic principles

Compressibility of sands
➢ Consider the case where granular materials are one-
dimensionally compressed.

▪ The deformation take place in a

very short time due to the
relatively high permeability of
granular soils.
▪ The compression of sand occurs
during construction stage itself.
As settlements of granular layers occur relatively fast, they may be
detrimental to a structure which is sensitive to rapid settlements.
Consolidation
The process of gradual compression due to the expulsion of pore water under steady
pressure is referred to as Consolidation
o According to Terzaghi (1943), “a decrease of water content of a saturated soil
without replacement of the water by air is called a process of consolidation.”

o When saturated clayey soils-which have a low coefficient of permeability-are subjected

to a compressive stress due to a foundation loading, the pore water pressure will
immediately increase;

o However, because of the low permeability of the soil, there will be a time lag between the
application of load and the extrusion of the pore water and, thus, the settlement. This
phenomenon, which is called consolidation
 CONSOLIDATION

➢ The settlement is due to decrease in

volume of soil mass.
➢ The rate of volume change is related to the
rate at which pore water moves out which
in turn depends on the permeability of soil.
➢ Therefore the deformation due to increase
of stress depends on the “Compressibility
of soils or, Consolidation”.
➢ The process opposite to consolidation is
called swelling, which involves an increase
in the water content due to an increase in
the volume of the voids.
Fig.: Mechanism of volume change in saturated fine grained
soil under external loading
10
Consolidation may be due to one or more of the following factors:

1. External static loads from structures.

2. Self-weight of the soil such as recently placed fills.

3. Lowering of the ground water table.

4. Desiccation (i.e. dehydration).

As Civil Engineers we need to provide answers for

1. Total settlement (volume change)

2. Time required for the settlement of compressible layer

11
 COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPACTIONAND CONSOLIDATION

COMPACTION CONSOLIDATION
The process by which solid soil particles are The process by which soil particles are packed more
packed more closely together by mechanical closely together under the application of static
means loading

Achieved through reduction of air voids Achieved through gradual drainage of water from
soil pores
A rapid process Gradual and long term process

An artificial process A natural process

Unsaturated soil condition Saturated soil condition

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 Excess Pore water Pressure (u)
• It is the pressure in excess of the equilibrium pore water pressure. It is represented as
u.
u= hgw

When a saturated clay is loaded externally,

The water is squeezed out of the clay over a long time
GL (due to low permeability of the clay).

saturated clay
This leads to settlements occurring over a long time, which could be several years.

In granular soils…
settlement
Granular soils are freely drained, and thus
the settlement is instantaneous.
time
During consolidation…
Due to a surcharge q applied at the GL,the stresses and pore pressures are increased at A.
q kPa

GL

u ..and, they vary with time.
A
’
saturated clay  remains the same (=q) during consolidation.
u decreases (due to drainage) while ’ increases,
transferring the load from water to the soil.
q kPa 
u
GL
 ’
u
A
’
saturated clay q
 COMPONENT OF SETTLEMENT- IMMEDIATE, PRIMARYAND
SECONDARY SETTLEMENT
The settlement is defined as the compression of a soil layer due to the loading applied at or near its top surface.
The total compression of soil under load is composed of three components (i.e. elastic settlement,
primary consolidation settlement, and secondary compression).

The total settlement (St) consists of three components

1. Immediate settlement (Si)

2. Primary consolidation settlement (Sc)

3. Secondary consolidation settlement (Creep settlement) (Ssc)

Total Settlement (St) = Si + Sc + Ssc

16
There are three types of settlement:
1.Immediate or Elastic Settlement (Se): caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of
moist and saturated soils without change in the moisture content.
2.Primary Consolidation Settlement (Sc): volume change in saturated cohesive soils as a
result of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.
3.Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss): volume change due to the plastic
adjustment of soil fabrics under a constant effective stress (creep).

Coarse-grained soils do not undergo consolidation settlement due to relatively high

hydraulic conductivity compared to clayey soils. Instead, coarse-grained soils undergo
immediate settlement.
Fig. : Time-deformation plot during consolidation for a given load increment
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Immediate settlement (Si)
❑ occurs in the structure more or less simultaneously with the applied loads.
❑ The soil mass assume to be behaved as an elastic soil.

Primary consolidation settlement (Sc)

- controlled solely by the resistance of the flow of water under the induced hydraulic gradients.
In case of saturated soil mass the applied stress is borne by pore water alone in the initial stages:
∴ 𝑨𝒕, 𝒕 = 𝟎, ∆𝝈 = ∆𝒖, ∆𝝈, = 𝟎
With passage of time water starts flowing out from the voids as a result the excess pore water
pressure decreases and simultaneous increase in effective stress will take place.
∴ 𝑨𝒕 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 ∆𝝈 = ∆𝝈′ + ∆𝒖

∴ 𝑨𝒕 𝒕 = ∞ ∆𝝈 = ∆𝝈′,
∆𝒖 = 𝟎 (𝑬𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
19
Secondary consolidation settlement (Creep settlement) (Ssc)
❑ The third part of the settlement is due to secondary consolidation or compression of the clay
layer. This is also called Secondary compression (Creep).

❑ This compression is supposed to start after the primary consolidation ceases that is after the excess
pore water pressure approaches zero.

❑ “It is the change in volume of a fine grained soil due to rearrangement of soil particles (fabric) at
constant effective stress”.

❑ The rate of secondary consolidation is very slow when compared with primary consolidation.

❑ It is often assumed that secondary compression proceeds linearly with the logarithm of time.

20
• Consolidation settlement is the vertical displacement of the surface corresponding to the
volume change in saturated cohesive soils as a result of expulsion of the water that occupies the
void spaces.
• Consolidation settlement will result, for example, if a structure is built over a layer of saturated
clay or if the water table is lowered permanently in a stratum overlying a clay layer.
• Consolidation is the time-dependent settlement of fine grained soils resulting from the expulsion
of water from the soil pores. The rate of escape of water depends on the permeability of the

soil.
• Permeability of clay is low
• Drainage occurs slowly – therefore, the settlement is delayed.
• Clayey soils undergo consolidation settlement not only under the action of “external” loads
(surcharge loads) but also under its own weight or weight of soils that exist above the clay
(geostatic loads).
• Clayey soils also undergo settlement when dewatered (e.g., ground water pumping) – because
the effective stress on the clay increases.
• The amount of settlement is proportional to the one-dimensional strain caused by variation in
the effective stress. The rate of settlement is a function of the soil type, the geometry of
the profile (in 1- D consolidation, the length of the drainage path) and a mathematical
solution between a time factor and the percent consolidation which has occurred.
Consolidation settlement
The clay layer is shown as a phase diagram.

𝑠 = ∆ℎ
𝑉𝑣o = eo𝑉𝑠 Voids
𝑉𝑣i = ei𝑉𝑠 Voids

𝑉𝑡o 𝑉𝑡i
𝑉𝑠 Solids 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 Solids 𝑉𝑠 =
1 + eo 1 + ei
Before After
If the total and void volumes are divided by a unit cross-sectional area, the respective heights are
determined.
𝑉𝑡i 1 + ei ℎ 1 + ei ℎ − ∆ℎ 1 + ei
= → i= → =
𝑉𝑡o 1 + eo ℎ 1 + eo ℎ 1 + eo
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The strain that occurs in the clay is equal to the change in height divided by the original height, or

∆ℎ ∆e ∆ℎ N ote, h is the full

s=
ℎ
=
1 + eo
e i = eo − 1 + eo height of clay layer.
ℎ
 THE PROCESS OF CONSOLIDATION
(SPRING ANALOGY TO EXPLAIN MECHANISM OF CONSOLIDATION)
Terzaghi and Frohlich (1936) explained the process of consolidation of a clay-soil-water system with the help
of a mechanical model as shown in Fig. 4. The spring within the container and supported by piston represent
the mineral skeleton in the actual soil mass and the water below the piston is the pore water under saturated
conditions in the soil mass.
During consolidation , ∆𝜎 remains the same, ∆𝑢 decreases (due to drainage)
while ∆𝜎′ increases, transferring the load from water to the soil

Step 1: When value is closed (No drainage condition)

When a load of Δp (load increment) is placed on the piston, this
stress is fully transferred to the water (as water is assumed to be

incompressible) and the water pressure increases. In this case,

∆𝒑 = 𝒖
Such a condition represents a highly impermeable clay-water system in which there
is a very high resistance for the flow of water. effective stress is equal to zero 14
Spring-cylinder model
If we place a load P on the piston and keep the valve closed. The entire load will be taken by the water in the
cylinder because water is incompressible.

The spring will not go through any deformation.

The excess hydrostatic pressure at this time can be given as
∆u = P/A and the effective stress is equal to zero 𝑃 Valve closed

𝑃
∆𝑢 =
𝐴
(∆𝜎′ = 0).

∆𝜎 = ∆𝑢
Step 2: When value is opened (drainage is allowed)
When the value is opened, the water will immediately escape through the holes. With the escape of water through
the holes a part of the load carried by the water is transferred to the springs. This process of transference of load
from water to spring goes on until the flow stops.

∆𝒑 = 𝒖 + 𝒑̅

26
At the mid-depth, the decrease in
excess PWP is small compared to
the change at the top and
bottom
Step 3: When value is opened and no further outflow of water
A few small holes represents a clay soil with poor drainage characteristics. When the spring-water system attains
equilibrium condition under the imposed load, the settlement of the piston is analogous to the compression of
the clay-water system under external pressure.

∆𝒑 = 𝒑̅

The time required to attain this

condition depends upon the number
and size of the holes made in the
piston.

28
It is useful for us to recall that the three essential prerequisites for consolidation to take place are,

1) loading,

2) stiffness of spring (i.e. properties of saturated soil), and

3) drainage facility or, void/pore.

29
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION
In many instances the settlement of a structure is due to the presence of one or more layers of soft clay located
between layers of sand or stiffer clay as shown in Fig.
The theory that was developed by Terzaghi (1925) on the basis of this assumption is called the one-dimensional
consolidation theory. In the laboratory this condition is simulated most closely by the confined compression or
consolidation test.

Fig. : Clay layer

sandwiched between
sand layers

30
At the instant of application of the excess load Δp, the load is carried entirely
by water in the voids of the soil. As time goes on the excess pore water
pressure decreases, and the effective vertical pressure in the layer
correspondingly increases. At any point within the consolidating layer, the
value u of the excess pore water pressure at a given time may be determined
from

𝒖 = 𝒖𝒊 − ∆𝒑𝒛 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒊)
Where,
𝑢 = excess pore water pressure at depth z at any time
𝑢𝑖 = initial total pore water pressure at time t = 0
∆𝑝𝑧 = effective pressure transferred to the soil grains at depth z and time t
At the end of primary consolidation, the excess pore water pressure u
Fig. Clay layer sandwiched
becomes equal to zero. This happens when u = 0 at all depths.
between sand layers
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 CONSOLIDATION TEST
The apparatus developed by Terzaghi for the determination of compressibility characteristics including
the time- rate of compression is called the Oedometer. It was later improved by A. Casagrande and G.
Gilboy and referred to as the Consolidometer. The characteristics of a soil during
one-dimensional consolidation
There are two types of consolidometer:
or swelling can be determined
a) Fixed ring type; b) Floating ring type. by means of the oedometer test

Fig. : Schematic of consolidometer

2/16/2019 32
 Fixed Ring Type Floating Ring Type

The top porous plate along is permitted to Both the top and bottom porous plates are
move downwards for compressing the free to move to compress the soil sample.
specimen.
Direct measurement of the permeability of Not possible
the sample at any stage of the test is possible

The effect of side friction on the soil sample is The effect of side friction on the soil sample is
larger relatively smaller

The procedure is recommended by the ISI for the consolidation test [IS: 2720 (Part XV)—1986]

Laboratory consolidation test Laboratory consolidation test

Assumption: A laboratory consolidation test is performed on an undisturbed sample of a
• Load distribution-uniform cohesive soil to determine its compressibility characteristics. The soil
• Stress distribution(in different
sample is assumed to be representing a soil layer in the ground.
height)-the same
• No lateral deformation A conventional consolidation test is conducted over a number of load
increments. The number of load increments should cover the stress range
• The area of the sample section-
from the initial stress state of the soil to the final stress state the soil layer
unchangeable
is expected to experience due to the proposed construction. 33
• Solid soil-uncompressible
➢ In the oedometer test, stress is applied to the soil
specimen along the vertical axis, while strain in the
horizontal directions is prevented.
➢ A cylindrical sample (of thickness t
and diameter D t /D  1 / 3) is
confined in a metallic ring and
loaded with a vertical axial
pressure.
➢ Due to the rigidity of metallic ring the radial strain of the
sample r = 0. Since the axial strain a  0, thus a is exactly
equal to the volumetric strain v (a = v) .
▪ The confining ring imposes a condition of zero lateral strain on the
specimen, the ratio of lateral to vertical effective stress being K0’
o In a fixed ring oedometer the friction gradually decreases to zero towards the
bottom.

o A floating ring oedometer has the plane of zero friction (i.e. the neutral plane) at
the middle of the sample because the sample iscompressed from both sides.

Oedometer with Fixed ring Oedometer with Floating ring

Apparatus and Material Required:
1. Consolidation ring: rigid, non-corrosive, inner diameter 60mm, the height of ring shall not be less than 20 mm with diameter
to height ratio of about 3.0 and further the specimen height shall not be less than 10 times the maximum particle size.

2. Porous stone
3. Filter paper
4. Teflon or silicon oil
5. Consolidation ring
6. Dial gauge: accuracy of 0.01 percent of the specimen height
7. Loading device: capable of maintaining specified loads for long periods of time while the specimen is deforming with a
variation of less than ± 1 percent of the applied load. Located on firmed base, free from vibrations and other mechanical
disturbances.

8. Jack and frame: for extruding the soil from sampling jacks.
9. Equipment for measuring initial height of test specimen to an accuracy of 0.1mm: vernier calipers.
10. Weighting balance sensitive to 0.01 gm: for weighing the specimen and moisture content.
11. Timing device readable to one second.

36
Procedure:

1. Weight the empty consolidation ring (W1).

2. Measure the dimension of the consolidation ring i.e. inside diameter and height and calculate volume of ring.
3. Calculate the weight of soil sample according to OMC and Dry density and take soil passing through IS sieving
425 micron.
4. Reduce the wall friction inside consolidation ring; oiling is done by Teflon or silicon oil. Keep the consolidation
ring in metal plate; fill the sample in consolidation by pressing with circular disc by hand. Compact the sample in
static compaction device and measure initial height (Ho) and weight of soil sample with ring (W2).

5. Assemble the consolidometer: Place the bottom porous stone, bottom filter paper, specimen, top filter paper and
the top porous stone, one by one.
6. Position the loading block centrally on the top porous stone. Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame.
Centre it such that the load applied is axial in the lever-loading system.
7. Set the dial gauge in the position. Allow sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil.
8. Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir having the water level at about the same level as the soil
specimen. Allow the water flow into the specimen till it is fully saturated.

37
9. Take the initial reading of the dial gauge.
10. Apply an initial setting load to give a pressure of 0.05 kg/cm2 to the assembly so that there is no swelling and allow the
setting load to stand till there is no change in the dial gauge reading or for 24 hours. Take the final gauge reading under

the initial setting load.

11. Normal sequence of pressure to be applied is 0.25, 0.50, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0 and 16.0 kg /cm2 and take the dial gauge reading
after application of each load at a time sequence of 0.25, 1.0, 2.25, 4.0, 6.25, 12.25, 16, 20, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121,
144, 169, 196, 225, 289, 324, 361, 400, and finally 1440 minutes.
12. After the last load increment had been applied and the reading taken, decrease the load to ¼ of the last load and allow it
stand for 24 hours. Take the dial gauge reading after 24 hours. Further reduce the load to ¼ of the previous load and repeat
the above procedure, likewise further reduce the load to ¼ of the previous and repeat the procedure. Finally reduce the
load to the initial setting load and keep out for 24 hours and take the final dial gauge reading.
13. Dismantle the assembly. Take out the ring with the specimen. Wipe out the excess surface water using bloating paper and
remove the filter paper both side the specimen.

14. Take weight of the ring with specimen (W3).

15. Dry the specimen in oven for 24 hours and determine the dry weight of the specimen.
16. Determine the specific gravity of soil from the dried specimen (W4).

38
5/1/2023 Prepared By: Dr. Jitendra Singh Yadav 40
Observations:
Swelling measurements at seating pressure:

41
 CONSOLIDATION TEST
Date: L.C. of dial gauge:
Soil: Initial dry density:
Wt. of Ring: Specific gravity of solids:
Wt. of Ring+soil: Initial water content:
Wt. of Soil: Initial Dial gauge reading:
Final wt. of soil+Ring: Dial gauge reading@ 6.25 kPa:
Final dry wt. of soil+Ring: Dial gauge reading after saturation:
Dial reading for Initial ht. of sample
Initial ht. of sample:
Applied pressure (kPa)
Date/ Time
6.25 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 800
0 sec.
15 sec.
30 sec.
1 min.
2 min.
4 min.
8 min.
15 min.
30 min.
1 hr.
2 hr.
4 hr.
8 hr.
16 hr.
24 hr.
Unloading: 0 6.25 12.5 25 50 100 200 400
Date/Time:
0
10 sec
1 min.
1 hr.
8 hr. J 26
24 hr.
 Stage 2: Primary Consolidatio
The general shape of the plot of deformation of
the specimen against time for a given load Excess pore water pressure
is gradually transferred into
increment is shown below. From the plot, we can
effective stress by the
observe three distinct stages: expulsion of pore water

Stage 1: initial Compression

Deformation

Mostly caused by preloading

Stage 3: Secondary
Consolidation
Time ( log scale ) Occur after complete
dissipation of the excess pore
water pressure, this is caused
by the plastic adjustment of
soil fabric
The main purpose of consolidation tests is to obtain soil data which
is used in predicting the rate and amount of settlement of structures 43

founded on clay.
Presentation and Analysis of Compression Test Data
Several ways are to present the data as follows:

Fig. 7: Typical time-compression curve for a stress Fig. 8: Time-compression curve for successive
increment on clay increments of stress
45
• The effective stress σ’ and the corresponding void ratios e at the end of consolidation are
plotted on semi- logarithmic graph:
• In the initial phase, relatively great change in pressure only results in less
change in void ratio e.
• The reason is part of the pressure got to compensate the expansion when
the soil specimen was sampled.
• In the following phase e changes at a great rate
⚫Determine the height of solids (Hs) of the specimen in the mold
⚫Determine the change in height (∆H)
⚫Determine the final specimen height, Ht(f)
⚫Determine the height of voids (Hv)
⚫Determine the final void ratio

Hs =
Ws
H v = H t( f ) − Hs e= Hv
 2  Hs
 D  Gs  w
4 
❑ Compression is due to decrease in void spaces of the soil.

To determine the void ratio at various load increments.

There are two methods:

1. Height of solids methods (applicable to both saturated and unsaturated soils)

2. Change in void ratio method (applicable only to saturated soils)

48
Height of solids methods (applicable to both saturated and unsaturated soils)
Accurate determinations of void ratio are essential and may be computed from the following data:
i. The cross-sectional area of the sample A, which is the same as that of the ring
ii. The specific gravity, Gs, of the solids.
iii. The dry weight, Ws, of the soil sample.
iv. The sample thickness, h, at any stage of the test.
Let Vs = volume of the solids in the sample
Where,

𝑾𝒔
𝑽𝒔 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)
𝑮𝒔𝜸𝒘
Where,
𝛾𝑤= unit weight of water
We can also write

𝑽𝒔 Fig. : Change of void ratio

𝑽𝒔 = 𝒉𝒔𝑨 𝒐𝒓, 𝒉𝒔 =
𝑨

49
Where,

ℎ𝑠 = thickness of solid matter

If e is the void ratio of the sample, then

𝑽𝒗 𝑨 ∗ 𝒉 − 𝑨 ∗ 𝒉𝒔 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔
𝒆= = = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝑽𝒔 𝑨 ∗ 𝒉𝒔 𝒉𝒔

In above Eq, (iii) hs is a constant and only h is a variable which reduces with increment load.

∴ 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒐 ± ∑ ∆𝒉 = 𝒉𝟏 + ∆𝒉 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝒊𝒗)

ℎ𝑜 = Initial height of the specimen

∆ℎ = change in the specimen thickness under any pressure increment

ℎ1 = Height of specimen at the beginning of any load increment

50
Example: to calculate the void ratio by height of solids method.
ℎ𝑜 = 24 𝑚𝑚, 𝐴 = 50 𝑐𝑚2, 𝑉 = 120 𝑐𝑚3
𝑊𝑠 = 180.4 𝑔𝑚, 𝐺𝑠 = 2.68, 𝑤𝑓 = 18.73%, 𝛾𝑤 = 1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

𝑾𝒅 𝟏𝟖𝟎. 𝟒 ∗ 𝟏𝟎
𝒉𝒔 = = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝑮. 𝑨. 𝜸𝒘 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 ∗ 𝟓𝟎 ∗ 𝟏
Applied Final Dial Dial Change Specimen height h Height of voids = h Voids ratio
Pressure, Reading (*10-2 Δh (mm) = h0 + Δh (mm) – hs (mm) 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔
kN/m2 mm) 𝒆=
𝒉𝒔
0 58 24.00 10.55 0.784
10 66 -0.08 23.92 10.47 0.778
20 76 -0.10 23.82 10.37 0.771
50 138 -0.62 23.20 9.75 0.725
100 233 -0.95 22.25 8.80 0.654
200 341 -1.08 21.17 7.72 0.574
400 447 -1.06 20.11 6.66 0.495
600 548 -1.01 19.10 5.65 0.420
800 550 -0.02 19.08 5.63 0.419
1000 578 -0.28 18.80 5.35 0.398
0 438 1.40 20.20 6.75 0.502
51
Change in void ratio method (applicable only to saturated soils)
Assume the specimen to be fully saturated, the equilibrium void ratio at the end of any load increment may be
determined by the change of void ratio method as follows:

In one-dimensional compression the change in height Δh per unit of original height h equals the change in
volume ΔV per unit of original volume V.
∆𝒉 ∆𝑽
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒗)
𝒉 𝑽
“V” may expressed in term of void ratio (e).
We may write (Fig. 9)

𝑉𝑣= 𝑒𝑉𝑠, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝑒 ,
𝑉 ′ = 𝑒′𝑉
𝑣 𝑠

𝑉 ′ = 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒 ′ )

∆𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉 ′ 𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝑒 − 𝑉𝑠(1 + 𝑒 ′ ) 𝑒 − 𝑒 ′ ∆𝑒
= = = = … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑣𝑖)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1+𝑒 1+𝑒

52
 Therefore,

∆𝒉 ∆𝒆
= … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝒗𝒊)
𝒉 𝟏+𝒆
Or,

𝟏+𝒆
∆𝒆 = ∆𝒉 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝒗𝒊𝒊)
𝒉
Wherein,
∆𝑒 = change in void ratio under a load,
h = initial height of sample,

e = initial void ratio of sample,

e’= void ratio after compression under a load,
Δh = compression of sample under the load which may be obtained from
dial gauge readings.

53
Example: to calculate the void ratio by change in void ratio method.
ℎ𝑜 = 24 𝑚𝑚, 𝐴 = 50 𝑐𝑚2, 𝑉 = 120 𝑐𝑚3
𝑊𝑠 = 180.4 𝑔𝑚, 𝐺 = 2.68, 𝑤𝑓 = 18.73%, 𝛾𝑤 = 1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑒𝑓 = 𝑤𝑓 ∗ 𝐺 = 0.1873 ∗ 2.68 = 0.502, 𝐻𝑓 = 20.2 𝑚𝑚

1 + 0.502
∆𝑒 = ∗ ∆ℎ = 0.0744 ∗ ∆ℎ
20.2
Table: Calculation of void ratio by change in void ratio method
Applied Final Dial Dial Change Δh Specimen height h = h0 + Change in voids, Voids ratio
Pressure, Reading (*10-2 (mm) Δh (mm) ∆𝑒 = 0.0744 ∗ ∆ℎ 𝒆
kN/m2 mm)
0 58 24.00 0.00 0.786
10 66 -0.08 23.92 0.006 0.780
20 76 -0.10 23.82 0.007 0.773
50 138 -0.62 23.20 0.046 0.726
100 233 -0.95 22.25 0.071 0.656
200 341 -1.08 21.17 0.080 0.575
400 447 -1.06 20.11 0.079 0.497
600 548 -1.01 19.10 0.075 0.421
800 550 -0.02 19.08 0.001 0.420
1000 578 -0.28 18.80 0.021 0.399
0 438 1.40 20.20 -0.104 0.503
54
➢ Since the settlement of the soil is only due to change
in void ration, the vertical strain v can be
expressed in terms of the void ratio of the soil sample at
different stages of the test.

• The void ratio at the end of each increment period can be calculated from the dial gauge
readings and either the water content or the dry weight of the specimen at the end of the
test.
1)

2)
Typical pressure-void ratio curves for clay sample:

Fig. 10: Pressure-void ratio curves

57
COMPRESSIBILITY CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES: Consolidation Parameters

Fig.Plot of Void ratio (e) vs Logarithmic effective stress (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝈, )𝒗

58
Compression Index/Coefficient of compression (Cc):
The slope of the loading curve is called compression index (Cc) and it’s dimensionless (Fig.). The
value of Cc is negative because of the decreasing void ratio for increasing pressure.

𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐 ∆𝒆
𝑪𝒄 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝝈′ − 𝝈 ′ ) = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝒗𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝟏𝟎
𝟐 𝟏
𝝈𝟐′
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝝈 ′
𝟏
• Rearrangement of soil
particles– permanent or
irrecoverable
• Elastic strains in particles –
recoverable Compression of
bounded water layers
- recoverable

Fig.: Plot of e vs 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝈, 𝒗

Swelling Index/Expansion Index (Cs):
It is the average slope of the unloading/reloading curves in void ratio (e) and logarithmic effective stress (log 𝜎 ,𝑣)
plot given by

𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐 ∆𝒆
𝑪𝒔 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝝈′ ) − log (𝝈′ ) = … … … … … … … … . . (𝒊𝒙)
𝟏𝟎
𝟐
𝟏𝟎
𝟏
𝝈𝟐′
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝝈 ′
𝟏

Recompression Index (Cr)

The slope of the recompression curve obtained during reloading
(Fig.) when plotted as e-log 𝜎 , is𝑣equal to the recompression
index (Cr). Thus

∆𝒆
𝑪𝒓 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒙)
𝝈𝟐′
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ′
𝝈𝟏
The recompression index is appreciably smaller than the
Fig. Plot of e vs 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝈, 𝒗
co2m/1p6/r2e0s1s9ion index Cc. 38
Coefficient of Compressibility (𝐚 ) 𝐯

The slope of curve at any point as shown in Fig. is defined as the coefficient of compressibility (av)
∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑖)
∆𝜎 ′
The negative sign indicates that as the pressure increases, the void ratio decreases.

𝑎𝑣 < 0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 −1

Low compressibility
0.1 ≤ 𝑎𝑣 ≤ 0.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 −1
Middle compressibility
𝑎𝑣 > 0.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 −1
High compressibility

Fig. Plot of e vs 𝝈, 𝒗
61
Modulus of Volume Change or, Coefficient of volume change or, Coefficient of
volume compressibility (mv)
• is defined as the change in volume of a soil per unit initial volume
(i.e. volumetric strain) due to a unit increase in effective stress.

∆𝑽/ ∆𝒆 𝟏
𝑽
𝒎𝒗 = =− ∗
∆𝝈 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐 ∆𝝈′

𝒂𝒗
= … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝒙𝒊𝒊)
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐

∆e = the change in void ratio and represents the change in volume of

the saturated soil occurring through expulsion of pore water, and

1 + 𝑒𝑜= initial volume, both for unit volume of solids

∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = coefficient of compressibility = − ′
∆𝜎 ,
Fig. Plot of e vs 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝈𝒗

62
EFFECT OF STRESS HISTORY
Based on the stress history (preconsolidation pressure) soils are classified as

Normally Over Consolidated Under Consolidated Soils

Consolidated Soils Soils
Soil deposit that has Soil deposit that has Soil deposit that has not
never subjected to a been subjected to consolidated under the
vertical effective vertical effective present overburden
stress greater than the stress greater than pressure (effective stress) is
present vertical the present vertical called Under Consolidated
stress. effective stress Soil
The straight portion Fig. prior to the For example in areas of
of the virgin straight line portion recent landfill. These soils
compression curve corresponds to such are susceptible to larger
shown in Fig. a situation. An deformation and cause
corresponds to such a overconsolidated soil distress in buildings built
situation. is also said to be a on these deposits.
‘pre-compressed’
soil. Fig. Virgin compression, rebound and
recompression curves for a clay

63
Preconsolidation pressure
It isthe previous maximum effective stress to which the soil has been subjected in the past.

Normally consolidated: A soil is called NC if the present effective overburden pressure is the maximum to which
the soil has ever been subjected, i.e. present
 past maximum
Over consolidated: A soil is called OC if the present effective overburden pressure is less than the maximum to
which the soil was ever been subjected in the past , i.e. present < past maximum
➢ In the natural condition in the field, a soil may be either normally consolidated or overconsolidated.

A soil in the field may become over consolidated through several mechanisms:
Preconsolidation pressure
➢ Whenever possible the preconsolidation pressure for an overconsolidated clay should
not be exceeded in construction.

➢ Compression will not usually be great if the effective vertical stress remains below c
only if c is exceeded compression will be large.
➢ In the field, the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) can be defined as:

𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚
𝑶𝑪𝑹 =
𝑬𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍

For normally consolidated soils, OCR = 1;

Note: Soils having higher OCR are less compressible

Preconsolidation pressure

OCR = 1 Normally Consolidated Soil

OCR > 1 Over Consolidated Soil

OCR < 1 Under Consolidated Soil

For e.g., Recently deposited soils either geologically or by man

(The soil has not yet come to the overburden load; PWP would be excess of hydrostatic)
DETERMINATION OF PRECONSOLIDATION PRESSURE
❑ Preconsolidation pressure is the maximum effective vertical overburden stress that a
particular soil sample has sustained in the past.
❑ Alternative names for the preconsolidation pressure are preconsolidation stress, pre-
compression stress, pre-compaction stress, and preload stress.
❑ This quantity is important in geotechnical engineering, particularly for finding the expected
settlement of foundations and embankments.
❑ The preconsolidation pressure can help in determining the largest overburden pressure that
can be exerted on a soil without irrecoverable volume change.
❑ A. Casagrande (1936) proposed a geometrical technique to evaluate past maximum effective
stress or, preconsolidation pressure from the e versus log σ plot obtained by loading a sample
in the laboratory.

67
Fig. The consolidation curve for a saturated clay showing the procedure for finding the preconsolidation pressure
68
Using a consolidation curve (Fig.) (Casagrande 1936)
1. Choose by eye the point of maximum curvature on the consolidation curve.
2. Draw a horizontal line from this point.
3. Draw a line tangent to the curve at the point found in part 1.
4. Bisect the angle made from the horizontal line in part 2 and the tangent line in part 3.
5. Extend the "straight portion" of the virgin compression curve (high effective stress, low void ratio: almost
vertical on the right of the graph) up to the bisector line in part 4.
The point where the lines in part 4 and part 5 intersect is the preconsolidation pressure.

Estimation of the "most probable" preconsolidation pressure

Using a consolidation curve, intersect the horizontal portion of the recompression curve and a line tangent to the
compression curve. This point is within the range of probable preconsolidation pressures. It can be used in
calculations that require less accuracy or if a rough estimate is all that is required.

69
Causes of preconsolidation in soils
It may be due to one or more…
• The overburden which had been later removed by erosion.
• Loads of buildings and other structures which had been demolished.
• Melting of glaciers which covered the soil deposit in the past.
• Capillary pressure which acted on the soil in the past but was later destroyed due to rise in water table.
• Desiccation of the clay deposit.
• Sustained downward seepage forces
• Tectonic forces caused by the movement of earth’s crust.

70
Example problem
The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay sample are as
follows:
e1 = 1.1, 1 = 95 kPa e2 = 0.9, 2 = 475
kPa

a) Calculate the coefficient of volume compressibility, mv

b)What will be the void ratio for a pressure of 600 kPa ? (Note: c < 95
kPa)

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Solution
Example problem

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Solution

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Problem 1
• An average effective overburden pressure on 10m thick
homogeneous clay layer is 150 kPa. Consolidation test on an
undisturbed soil sample taken from the clay layer showed that the
void ratio decreased from 0.6 to 0.5 by increasing the stress
intensity from 100 kPa to 300 kPa (G= 2.65). Find the Initial void
ratio of the clay layer.
Problem 2
• The result of consolidation test on an undisturbed soil sample at a
depth of 10m below the G.S. are as follow:
Saturated unit weight= 16 kN/m3
Pre-consolidation pressure= 90 kPa
• The water table was encountered at G.S. Find the over-
consolidation ratio.
Problem 3
• The following data are given for the Lab test:
• σ0Ꞌ = 175 kPa, e0= 1.1
• σ0Ꞌ +Δ σ0Ꞌ = 300 kPa, e = 0.9
• If thickness of the clay specimen is 25mm. Find the coefficient of volume
compressibility.
Thanks !!!