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UNIT ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Nature and Uses of History
A. Definition of History
The term history is derived from the Greek word Istoria, meaning “inquiry” or “an account of
one’s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians,
Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of history.”
In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past. The
past signifies events, which have taken place and the facts of the past, which are kept in
writing. In this sense history is the branch of social science that deals with the unique or
specific past events.Academically, history can be defined as an organized and systematic
study of the past. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation
of information about past events.

B.Nature of History
Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which
topics and problems they wish to study, as do natural scientists. In this regard, the major
concern of history is the study of human society and its interaction with the natural
environment, which is also the subject of study by many other disciplines.
 History is different from other disciplines. What differentiates history from other
disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction between humans and their
environment in the present state, history studies the interaction between the two in the
past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time.
History is fact, truth, reality, not free from question, and it is in-complete.
C.Key Elements of History
1. Periodization; it is putting historical time in framework like ancient, medieval and
modern. All aspects of human life that is, social, cultural, economic, and political in the past
have been changing from time to time; and none of them were practiced in exactly the same
way in the lifetime of our ancestors. Nevertheless, some things stay more or less the same for
long periods, since few things ever change completely. For example, we continue to speak
the languages of our ancestors; follow their beliefs and religious practices; wear the costumes
they were wearing; continue to practice their agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain
the fundamental components or structures of their social organization.
2. Uses of History
Peoples live in the present and plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the
study of the past.
History Helps Better Understand the Present
History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and
analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past. People need to produce some sort of
account of their past because it is difficult to understand problems that face humanity and
society today without tracing their origins in the past. Put differently, knowledge of relevant
historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current
world situations.

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History Provides a Sense of Identity

Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the
world. As memory is to the individual, history is to the society. An individual without
memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and making intelligent decisions. A society
without history would be in similar condition. It is only through sense of history that
communities define their identity, orient themselves, and understand their relationships with
the past and with other societies.
History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines
Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as
literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc.
History Teaches Critical Skills
Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find and
evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and
present clearly in writing.
History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right
and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which
contributes to free ourselves from some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying
the past, students of history acquire broad perspectives that give them the range and
flexibility required in many life situations.
History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination
Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives offers a sense of beauty and
excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.
To conclude, history should be studied because it is essential to the individual and the
society.
3. Sources
Historians are not creative writers like novelists. Therefore, the work of historians must be
supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what
appear to have been dead. It is said that “where there are no sources, there is no history”.
Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of history.
Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary.
I.Primary Sources
Primary source: is one that is extremely close to the events in time and space. It is also
generally the product of either the individual involved in the event or an eye-witness to the
event. In the study of history, a primary source (also called original source or evidence) is an
artifact, a document, a recording, or other source of information that were created at the time
under study. They are original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in
space. Primary Sources are more reliable and authentic than secondary sources.
Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters,
minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video
and audio-visual materials, and artefacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and
buildings.
II. Secondary sources

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Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand published accounts about past events.
They are written long after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of what
happened, why it happened, and how it happened, often based on primary sources. Examples
of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or
movies about historical events. Secondary materials give us what appear to be finished
accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena. Nevertheless, no history work can be
taken as final, as new sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new
historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions. No source is
holy/sacred.However, whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written or
oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before it is used as evidence. Primary
sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because sometimes primary
sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability
of their reconstructions. Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion
through time. Therefore, it should be checked, crosschecked and counterchecked with other
sources such as written documents to determine its veracity or authenticity.

Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources are especially
valuable to study and document the history of non-literate societies.They can be both
primary and secondary. They can also be used to fill missing gaps and corroborate written
words. In many societies, people transmit information from one generation to another, for
example, through folk songs and folk sayings. This type of oral data is called oral tradition.
People can also provide oral testimonies or personal recollections of lived experience. Such
source material is known as oral history.
 Both primary and secondery sources are equally and ecovocally important if they are
verified as true.
1.3 Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
Concepts of History writing
 Historiography is a method writing a history
 Chronicle is writing a history of queens/kings
 Biography is writing a history of individuals
 Hagiography is writing a history of monks/churches/saints/sheiks/
Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how knowledge of
the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. People have had some sense of
the past perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional
attempt to understand and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer
career throughout the world.
History of Historiography
 The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by ancient Greek
historians notably Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (c.455-400
B.C.E.) wrote accurate and critical history.
 The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The
most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han
dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.).

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 Despite such early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an academic

discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in Europe and
subsequently in other parts of the world including the USA.
 The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues
established history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods
and concepts by which historians collect evidence of past events, evaluate that
evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject. Ranke’s greatest
contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is considered as the
“father of modern historiography.”
Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred
years in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. The earliest known
reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is/are the following.
 ThePeriplus of the ErythreanSea; written in the first century A.D by an anonymous
author.
 The Christian Topography;this documentdescribes Aksum’s trade and the then
Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea is composed by Cosmas
Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D.
 Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh
century A.D. The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha.
 A manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the
thirteenth century A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious.
 The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are
hagiographies originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in
Ge’ez, an important function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints. Yet
other related anecdotes are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the
development of the church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning
monarchs.
 A parallel hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim communities of the
country. One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint,
Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the late nineteenth
century.Some of the issues discussed in this document include the saint’s life, the
development of indigenous Islam and contacts between the region’s Muslim
community and the outside world .
 Chronicles
Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles.
Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth
century and continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth century. The
earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-
Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively.
Incorporate both legends and facts-past and contemporary about the monarch’s
genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety and statesmanship.
Are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework.
They are also averse to quantification.

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They explain historical events mainly in religious terms; they offer little by way of
social and economic developments even in the environs of the palace.
 Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful
information on various aspects of the region’s history. Written accounts of Arabic-
speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on various aspects of the
region’s history. Some of them are listed below.
Al-Masudi
He described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of
the east African coast in the tenth century.
Ibn Battuta
He described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of
the east African coast in the fourteenth century
Shihab ad-Din
He wrote a book/document/ entitled “Futuh al Habesha”.
He recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in
the sixteenth century
He described the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim
al-Ghazi, the
It describes major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia until
1535.
Al-Haymi
He left the first-hand account
He came to Ethiopia by leading a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes
(r. 1632-67).
 Accounts of European missionaries and travelers
From the early sixteenth until the late nineteenth centuries, missionaries (Catholics and
Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying. The missionaries’ sources
provide us with valuable information covering a considerable period. Some of the major
topics covered by these sources include religious and political developments within Ethiopia,
and the country’s foreign relations.Some among travellers and sailors were:
Francisco Alvarez
He was a Portuguese priest
He composed a book entitled “The Prester John of the Indies”.
He came with the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520.
James Bruce
He travels to discover the source of the Nile.
Both the missionaries and traveller’s materials can only be used with considerable conditions
and with care for they are socially and politically biased.
 Foreign writers
Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704)
He was a German and the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the seventeenth
century.
He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia).

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He never visited Ethiopia.

He wrote the country’s history largely based on information he collected from an
Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that
time and information.
August Dillman
In the nineteenth century, he published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history.
Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical
research endeavors.
Ethiopian writers as reference catageorized as : traditional writers,modernists and
post modernists
i. Traditional Ethiopian writers before the occupation
Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth
century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious
efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when
writing about monarchs.
The earliest group of these writers include Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis
and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-
Hiwot Baykedagn joined them. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics
from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Taye and
Fisseha-Giorgis wrote books on the history of Ethiopia while Asme produced a similar work
on the Oromo people.
Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus
He wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history
Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn
Had books entitled Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and
Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name.
Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.
He was the most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was,
He published four major works namely
 Ethiopiana Ena Metema (Ethiopia and Metema),
 Wazema (Eve),
 Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary)
 Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia).
In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and
methodological sophistication in their works. Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of
Ethiopia stopped the early trial in modern history writing and publications.

ii.Traditional Ethiopian writers in the Post Liberation Period

Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria
He formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians
who came after him.

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He has published about eight historical works.

He made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors
Yilma Deressa
He wrote a book entitled “A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century”.
The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars between the Christian
kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects
Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel
He wrote Zikre Neger.
It is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation
Gebre-Wold Engidawork.
He wrote a work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure
Dejazmach Kebede Tesema
He wrote his account of the imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962E.c
The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in
this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. This was happened because of the
following factors:
The opening of the Department of History
It was opened in 1963 at the then Haile Selassie I University.
The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade.
The Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively.
Both Ethiopians and foreigners and students have been produced on various topics
The establishment of Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) in 1963became the other
institutional home of professional historiography of Ethiopia.
The Institute housed a number of historians of whom the late Richard Pankhurst, the first
Director and founding member of the Institute.
Pankhurst’s prolific publication record remains unmatched.
He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles
on Ethiopia.
IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the distribution of historical
research
Regarding African historiography
It was developed in a post-colonial phenomenon.
After independence, a deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly emerged
among African populations
This became an urgent need to rewrite the historical record and to recover evidence of
many lost pre-colonial civilizations.
To do this, critical use of oral data and using disciplines like archeology,
anthropology and linguistics became crucial.
European intellectuals’ also tried to study African historiography.
Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)
in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones.

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Yet African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans.
African universities have trained their own scholars and sent many others overseas for
training who eventually published numerous works on different aspects of the
region’s history.
CHAPTER TWO
2. PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
2.1 Human Evolution
Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe that had been formed
through gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before present (B. P.)
The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P. Primates branched
of
 placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. and
 then some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan,
gibbon etc)
 while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).Archaeological evidences
suggest that East African Rift Valley is the cradle of humanity.This was proved by
1.Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the
Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars.
Fossil Name Place they found & Year Date/BP/
1. Chororapithecus Anchar (in West Hararghe)/ 2007 10 million
2. Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba Middle Awash /---- 5.8-5.2 million
3. Ardipithicus ramidus Afar / 1994. 4.2 million
4. Australopithecines Belohdelie /Middle Awash/ ---- 3.6 million
5. Selam Dikika,Mille,Afar/2000 3.3 million
6. Lucy/Dinkinesh Hadar/ Afar /1974 3.18 million
7. Anamensis Lake Turkana ----------
8. Garhi Bouri, Middle Awash/1996-1999 2.5 million

2.The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next stage of human
evolution which produced Genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
I.Homo habilis
The term is derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use
of hands)
It is dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been found in the Lower Omo.
“Handyman” written had the ability to make tools
Remains of Homo habilis are found only from East Africa
Ii.Homo erectus
Able to walk upright
Dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) and was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and
Gadeb
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It seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world.
Fossil remain of Homo erectus are discovered from Southeast Asia, China, Germany,
Hungary, Spain and Africa.
It controlled the use of fire.
It started burial practice
iii. Homo sapiens
Knowledgeable human being and dated 400, 000 years B.P.
Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near
Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967)
In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for
modern Homo sapiens.
Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P
Larger brain, a more round skull
Jaws and teeth are relatively small
3. Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age
and Iron Age.
Stone Age
A period human began to produce tools from stone
Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings
Based on their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to 3
Modes.
Mode I (Olduwan)
It was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania
They are mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styles, and were produced by
the direct striking.
Made by Homo habilis
They were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at
Shungura in Afar
Mode II (Acheulean)
It named after the first report at St. Acheul, France
Tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer,
They are mainly characterized by bifacial/two sides/, pointed and convex features
They made by Homo erectus since 1.7.million years B.P
These tools at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963
Mode III (Sangoon)
Stone tools are characterized by flexible and fine form of production by the use of
obsidian/
Obsidianis atype of black or dark glass formed from cooling lava/volcanic stone/
They made by Homo sapiens since 300,000 years B. P.
Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P
Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn. The
period of usage of stone tools is divided into three sub-periods.

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The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic)

Lasted from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P
It a was the period when human being
 sheltered in caves,
 developed language,
 used stone , bone, wood, furs/hair/, and skin materials to prepare food and
clothing
There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and
children and females as gatherers of flora
Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic)
It lasted from 11, 000-10,000 B. P.
New Stone Age (Neolithic Revolution)
It lasted from 10, 000 - 6, 000 B.P)
It included axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains
The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools
Rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter
near Charchar
Human developed sedentary way of life
A shift was occurred to the domestication of plants and animals from foraging
economy.
As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle of most grass types, they
began to grow those, which were most common and yielded seeds that are more
edible
In Ethiopia and the Horn people cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff),
dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc
The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced shifting cultivation
(continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion
Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara
2.3 The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1 Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia and the Horn in generally marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about
90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Linguists classify languages of
Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super families. These are Afro-Asiatic and
Nilo-Saharan.
A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:
i. Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
a) Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea
bordering the Sudan.
b) Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
c) Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore,
Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata,
Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai,
etc.

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d) Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.

ii. Semitic: is divided into two:
a) North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border);
Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland
Eritrea and Tigray).
b) South: is further divided into two Transverse:inner, Amharic, Argoba,
Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay. Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and
Mesmes (endangered).
iii. Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro,
Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda,
Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
 Language classification did not remain static.Factors like population movements,
warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have
resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced languages to be affected.
 In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of extinction while
others thrived over time.
2.3.2 Settlement Patterns
The distribution of peoples across the landscape is the results of long historical processes in
northeast Africa. Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples’ relations, studies
indicate that environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and
reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the region.
 The Cushites are the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and spread over
wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
 The Semitic peoples spread over large area and settled the northern, north central,
northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites.
 Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in
Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along
the Omo River basin.
 In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border
although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter
are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-
Kenyan border.
2.4 Religion and Religious Processes
i.Indigenous Religion
This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are native to the region and
have been followed by the local people since ancient times. A distinctive mark of indigenous
religion is belief in Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena,
which are considered sacred. Some major indigenous religious are listed below.
The Oromo
The Oromo have indigenous religion called Waqeffanna

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They called the Supreme Being Waqa

Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana. There are a number of sprites.
Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained link between the
Ayyana and the believers. Qallu ritual house is called Galma located on hilltop or in the grove of
trees and Aba muda is religious cermoney where experts are anointed.
The Hadiya
Fandanano was religiontraditional religion of Hadiya.
The Supreme Being is known as Wa’awho is believed to exist before everything
(hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by
elincho (sun) and agana(moon). Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s
guard) by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho.
Itto and Alibajo were assumed as founders of the religion.
The Kambata
The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials known as
Magnancho
The Gedeo
They called the Supreme Being, Mageno
They had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.
The Konso
The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
The Gojjam Agaw
They called the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
The Gurage
Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha
(thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess).
The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as Abba at Enar (Henar).
The Yem
They called the Supreme Being Ha’o (Sky God)
So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam
(the most vital deity).
Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos
The Konta’s
The Konta spirit-cult was called Docho.
The Wolayta
The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana.There are also so many spirits.
Spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and
beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha).
People gathered around tree called Dongowa, which varied from clan to clan
The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect
produce from disaster.
Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).
The Keficho
They called Supreme Being as Yero;

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The spirit is known as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-
nayo.
Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-nayo or
Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio.
The Boro-Shinasha
They believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created everything and presides
over the universe.
Among various prayer rituals, the first is Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality
through slaughtering animals by calling the name of God being at the tip of the
mountains.
The second is Shode De’na, praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease happens.
The third is Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to grow without disease and to
prevent children from evil spirits attack; for rehabilitation of wealth;
The Nuer
They called Supreme Being as Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven) but believe in the coming
of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God.
Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign of God.
There are also spirits associated with clan-spears names such as WiW (spirit of war)
associated with thunder.
The Nuer believe that when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or life
goes back to Kuoth and soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a shadow
or a reflection, and departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.
 An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are
fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known
as syncretism.
ii.Judaism
Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God)
established with the ancient Hebrew community. Sources indicate that Judaism has been
followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples before Christianity. The Bete-Israel practiced
Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs
from Rabbinic Judaism). Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace their religion from the
veryancient migration ofsome portion ofthe Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of
Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200B.C.).

Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas
in 6th century A.D. There are also other stories that attribute the presence of the Bete-Isreal in
Ethiopia to intermarriage between Jewish immigrants with native Agaws. On the other hand,
scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue that the Bete-Israelites are remnants
of Old Testament followers of orthodox Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from
abroad. The Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Judiac practice for at least a
millennium
iii.Christianity
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-
360).Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and
Frumentius.When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch

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Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of EOC. Consecration of bishops
from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first
Ethiopian Patriarch.Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society the later part
the fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints.
Table I: The Nine Saints
Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the
Church
AbunaAregawwi(AbbaZaMika’el) Constantinopole Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Constantinopole Debre Gerima Medera(Eastof Adwa)
Abba Pentelwon Constantinopole Debre Pentelwon Asbo (NE of Aksum)
Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (NE of Aksum)
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza(NE of Aksum)
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta
-The saints also translated the Bible and other religious books into Geez.The expansion of
Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270.
-During the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), many churches and monasteries were
constructed. These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in
Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in
Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.

-From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the Jesuit missionaries tried to
convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in
turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also
resulted in the conclusion of treties between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin
order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active. Anglican
Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and
Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat,
C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to
win confidence of local people. They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They
adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions
as equivalent to God. Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith.
These schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers. They also provided medical
facilities.
iii. Islam
When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610 AD, he faced opposition
from the Quraysh rulers. As a result, the Prophet sent some of his early followers to Aksum
including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman. Prophet's future wives Umm
Habiba and Umm Salma also came to Aksum.

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The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the
Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of
righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are suffering." The then Aksumite
king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave
them asylum from 615-28. Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees,
but the king did not comply.
Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful ways including trade. Islam was
well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of the eighth
century. In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a
sultanate. It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the
predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers
and merchants.
The Dahlak route played a minor role in the introduction of Islam into the interior as
Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states of northern
Ethiopia. Thus, the port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an important
gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and
Hararghe. Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth centuries.
From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim
clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders.

UNIT THREE
3. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE
END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1 Emergence of States: State Formation
State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory,
sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce laws. State was the
outcome of regular cultural process. One remarkable change in the period was the evolution
of states with diverse socio-cultural and economic settings.
Important factors for the emergence of states were
 beginning of sedentary agriculture
 trade contributed to the evolution of states,
 religions shaped the socio-cultural setup of the states in different parts of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state formation took
place. From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms
and even empires with a well-demarcated social structur.e Geographical proximity to
and control of the international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian
Ocean along with their ports as well as rich interior favored some of them to become
stronger than their neighbors and eventually dominated them.

3.2 Ancient States

3.2.1 North and Northeast
i.Punt

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Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The evidence on Punt comes
from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings.Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition
to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy). The best illustrated expedition
was undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.She
sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The
expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu. The expedition was able to
return collecting frank incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory,
rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes,
people etc.
It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that Puntites were also known as
Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land). Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals’
fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In return, axes,
daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were
imported from Egypt to Punt.Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of
Punt.

ii.Da’amat
The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum. The rulers used
politico- religious title known as Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah
(principal god), Astarr (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin
(moon god) were worshipped in the domain of the Da’amat state and other northern
Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers. There were similar practices in South Arabia at the
time.
 There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:
i.Yeha: It is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It
probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium where South Arabian merchants
and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming
from the interior. It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500
B.C.
ii.Hawulti Melazo; it is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed
in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of
cattle have been excavated.
iii.Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is
found and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.There were also other
cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat,
Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.
vi. The Aksumite State
The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was
limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. In its
heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge
of Ethiopian like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts
like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.

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The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the natural products such
as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon),
gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like
apes.Import the manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt, India, the
Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic
sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from the regions of Roman Empire and
Syria.
Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua
Franca of Greco-Roman world. The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown
king, which eventually was published in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian
Topography, describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas. It also mentions the
internal long-distance trade between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably
in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian
region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Aksum was one of the
four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time. It
was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh centuries. Aksumite ships
were the main means of transporting goods.Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources
of timber for ship building and the technology for it existed in Adulis. Aksum had a large
fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but also for its wars across the Red Sea.
Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba. Kaleb
was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built a church at Zur Amba in Gayint.
It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical
songs and hymns.
Some of its achievements of Aksum include
surviving indigenous script and calendar
EOC songs and chants paintings
Diversified ceramic and stone tools, ivory curving,
Urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn
churches…).
It also developed complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural
system including irrigation etc.
Downfall of Aksum
The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and
external challenges.
-Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly plague
infestation started to weaken it.
-With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the international lifeline
of the state was cut.
The whole network of Aksumite international trade came under the control of the rising and
expanding Arab Muslims, isolating the Aksum state from its old commercial and diplomatic
partners. Consequently, the Aksumite state declined economically.

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This naturally led to the decline of its political and military power not only on the Red Sea
coast but also in its interior provinces, where
-Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local rebellions.The recurring rebellions of the Beja,
the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite
state.
vii. Zagwe Dynasty
 After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar rural
highland in the territory of the Agaw.
 Merra-Teklehaimanot was the found this dynasty.The Dynasty was believed to have
ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.It centered in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta,
exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 Its territory extended from most of the highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite
kingdom in the north down to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana region
and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west.
 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.
 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region.
 The most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton,
linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted coins were
imported.
 The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of
some religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez. That said, Zagwe rulers are best known
for the construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches.
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: this and the monolithic churches that have become UNESCO world heritage
are unique in costructions. Semi-hewan are with detailed interior decoration and partial
decoration outside. They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock. Their roofs or
walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota,
Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and exterior parts. They are
completely separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis,
Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete
Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
Downfall of Zagwe dynasty
The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to
-internal problems of royal succession
-oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum. The latter
considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba. The
legend was in turn based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was
translated from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez. Based on the legend, the power
claimants contend that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was
“usurped” by the Zagwes. Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last
Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his forces with the assistance of the ecclesiastical
hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle. Yetbarek was killed in

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Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic”
Dynasty.
-loss of economy due to natural and man mad factors and lack of military strength
3.2.2 East, Central, Southern, and Western States
Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the
present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. It was founded in the
eighth century and had early connections with Damot.
Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands the south of
Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa. Motalami
was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.Oldest of all in its emergence.
Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.. In the nineth century,
Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into Enarya, accompanied by
Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots).
Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic
speaking population related to Harari and the Gurage. Despite efforts by Christian
evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own indigenous religion.
 The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.
3.2.3 Muslim Sultanates
Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up the
Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century. It was a
hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and extensive
grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi- Shebelle
extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. We have valuable information
on Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari. Dawaro had a currency called
hakuna for transaction.
Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and
Rift valley Lakes. Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces. Trade was
mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc. It had strong army composed of
cavalry and infantry.
Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-south-
westerly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. It was established by Umar Walasma, who
claimed descent from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia between 1271 and
1285. He intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and Dil-Gamis,
weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa. The sultanate was fertile and well-watered. Its
inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal
husbandry.. Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
Others: autonomous states mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya and
Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla,
Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were

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established and flourished.Hadiya muslim sultanate was one amongst oldest and territorials in
Ethiopia.
3.3 External Contacts
Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. These relations may
be the region’s earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World. It
had very close relations with all commercially active South Arabian Kingdoms starting
sometimes before 1,000 B.C.
The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of relation between the
region and Egypt. Aksum established close relationship with the East Roman or Byzantine
Empire with which it shared common commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their
rival Persians. Yet, in the seven centuries, this relation became complicated and began to
deteriorate. The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near and Middle East,
North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of Aksumite land routes and shipping
lines.Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the consecration and sending of a
bishop as an instrument to further their own foreign policy objectives and to squeeze
concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by threatening to divert the Nile.
The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the reciprocal persecution of religious
minorities. Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the contacts between Christian
Ethiopia and European states.However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places
in the Middle East had begun at the end of the first millennium AD.

In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims used the land route to Egypt. From
Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy places; they transmitted information about
the EOC and its exceptional liturgical practices. They also explained about the territorial
extent of the Christian Kingdom.From the information, the Europeans began to consider
Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of
Africa. Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary strong Christian power in their
struggle against the Muslim powers in the Holy land. Around the middle of the 12th century,
a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to
circulate in Europe. The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war fought
over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the Middle East was in
favor of the latter. In 1165, a letter addressed to European kings, thought to be sent by the
Prester John appeared in Europe mentioning about the enormous power of the Prester John.
The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known to Europe for over a
century. However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land
of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the Red Sea and the Indian sub-
continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom. Then, they began to search for the location
of the Kingdom and to make an alliance with it.
3.4 Economic Formations
i. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture. Land has
always been one of the most precious possessions of human society throughout history. The

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rules according to which members of the society hold share and use land constitute what is
known as the land tenure system.
The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of Ethiopia and the
Horn is the communal land tenure system. Peasants in the north had rist rights in their
respective areas.
Rist; is a kind of communal birth right to land by members of the families and clans whose
ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long periods. It is inherited from generation to
generation in accordance to customary law. Most of the subjects of the state had rist rights.
The rist owners were known as bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land
belonged to the state theoretically.
Gult; is a right to levy tribute on Rist owners’ produce over the areas and populations they
administered on behalf of the central government. The tribute collected by Bale-Gult, partly
allotted for them and the rest were sent to the emperor.
Riste-Gult; It is when aGult right became hereditary as prominent well- placed officials used
to transfer their position to their offspring.
ii.Handicraft
Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period. The social, economic
and political conditions of ancient states had allowed the emergence of artisans in various
fields with diverse forms and applications including metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry,
masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry and others.
Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords, javelins, bows, arrows, traps, slings,
slathers, shields, knives, axes, sickles, hoes, ploughshares, spades, machetes, hatchets, iron
tripods, ornaments etc. Carpenters engaged in carving wood implements like doors, windows,
stools, chairs, tables, beds, headrests, mortars, bowls, beams, yoke, stilt, coffins etc while
potters produced ceramic utensils like saucepan, ovens, jar, pot, kettle, cooking tripod, plates,
granary etc.
Tanners produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover, saddles, harness, ropes, footwear,
prayer mats, sacks, honey and butter container, drinking cup and clothes until replaced by
weavers’ cotton dresses. Implements and house furniture did not show any
significant improvement and sophistication. Except the carpenters and masons in some
cases, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
The general public attitude towards artisans was not at all encouraging.
iii.Trade
Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international trade. The major socio-economic and political
centers of earliest states seem to have also been major trade centers with wide ranging
contacts in various directions within the region itself and with merchants coming to the area
across the international water bodies. A network of roads connected the centers with the coast
and various dependencies in the interior. Local and international merchants frequented these
roads. The region was crisscrossed by various trade routes connecting various market places
in all directions. The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that one of their major
concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them safe from robbers.
3.5 Socio-cultural Achievements

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i.Architecture
As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish. One of the unique architectural
technologies was the engraving of stele around the third century AD. There were totally fifty
eight steles in and around Aksum The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights
(the first in the world). The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was
successfully the third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents The Zagwe churches
some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements.They were registered by UNESCO as
part of world cultural heritage in 1978.
ii. Writing System
The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in
Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC.One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions
is absence of vowels as most of the words are written in consonants.
iii. Calendar
 Oromo calendar; it is been based on astronomical observations of moon in
conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa
(guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star). There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354
days in 12 months of a year.
 The Sidama calendar; rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year,
12 of which are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days.
The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence
each month has 7 weeks.
 Ethiopic solar calendar; has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4
years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years
between Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in
determining date of Annunciation. The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become
the official calendar of the country.
 The Muslim (Islamic) calendar; it is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a
year of 354 or 355 days. It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed
and his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim
community (ummah). Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the
year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").
Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their
own dating system.
iv. Numerals
Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD. Geʽez
uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks
individual characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and underlined in proper this
and show separate bars above and below each character.
UNIT FOUR
4. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO
THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES
4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty

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The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last king of
Aksum and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate” rulers
of the Zagwe dynasty. As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put
in quotation mark.
Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because the claim of descent
from King Solomon of Israel is legendary. The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest
(“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Kibre
Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the
Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from
YikunoAmlak to Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba Gishen
Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a political instability caused by
constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession occurred. A letter
written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the Sultan of Egypt and the Patriarch of Alexandria in
1290 reflected the existence of those struggles. The power struggle intensified during the
reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of
Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen.
According to the rule, all male members of the royal family were confined at the Amba.
Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison. When the monarch died,
court dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison to escort the designated successor
and put him on the throne. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen (political philosophy
of restoring power) was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom
From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no
permanent capital. Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara
(today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq. However, it gradually shifted southward to the
districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions dominated by the great height of
the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
Yikuno-Amlak embarked on consolidating his authority throughout the empire. In this
regard, he quickly subdued Ifat, the Muslim center adjacent to Shewa. Yet, until the coming
of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was
mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.
Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who
 embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid territorial expansion.
 exspanded trade routes.
 subdued rebellions in an attempt to end centrifugal tendencies, which threatened the
unity of the Christian Kingdom.
 expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot
in 1316/7; Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and
the Red Sea Coast.
 gave Enderta (in today’s northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.

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 faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, which might have cooperated with
the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s.
In the south, Gurage speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and
Gamo were brought under the influence of the Christian state except Keffa by Amade Tsion.
Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigray. After controlling the
whole region, Amade Tsion appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later
on changed to Bahire-Negash.

I. Evangelization
Christianity had a long history of expansion. Churches and their believers had been in
existence long before expansion of the Christian Kingdom in various parts of the Horn of
Africa. For instance, in Shewa there were early Christians who maintained contacts with their
distant relatives in Northern part of Ethiopia. Those early Christians played an important role
in the spread of Christianity in several areas. The territorial expansion carried out by
Amde−Tsion during the medieval period set an addition momentum for the spread of
Christianity.
Abune Tekle-Haymanot played a key role in reviving Christianity in Shewa and in southern
Ethiopia including medieval Damot. He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity. He
baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity. The clergy, under the direction of the
bishop in Ethiopia, Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as Kil'at,
Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.
II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the midthirteenth
century. The period witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements of
which the major one was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder.
Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day Eritrea)
and he taught until about 1337. Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath.
When he was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera'e, he fled
the country to Egypt. He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism, called so after their
founder and spiritual leader abba Estifanos. The movement rose to prominence in the
fifteenth century and continued until the sixteenth century, when it was formally reconciled
with the main body of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The head of the movement, Abba
Estifanos, was born in Agame at the end of the fourteenth century. He established a rigid
monastic organization, which emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and
autonomy from secular authorities.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the
Orthodox Church. These reforms are:
 First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy towards the creation of a
suitable church-state union.

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 In this regard, he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in
the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders from the
Ethiopian prelates.
 Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
 Besides, he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get
Father Confessors.
 The king encouraged the establishment of a library in every church. This was
followed by revival of religious literature.
 He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, Metsafe Sillasie,
Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc
4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates
4.3.1. The Rise of Adal
Factors for the emergence of Adal,walasma muslime sultanate in 1367 Harar.
 After, its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns against its neighbouring
sultanates thereby extending its hegemony over these areas.
 It also resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.
 Adal easy target to the Christian Kingdom due to its location moved further to the
southeastern lowlands Harar
The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called Dakar, a place
located on the southeast of Harar. The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new
center, and began another phase of military campaigns against the frontiers of the Christian
Kingdom. The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after the defeat of
Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change
its capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.
4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region through Muslim
merchants and preachers. Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the Muslim
Sultanates while at the same time it formed the base of the economy of those states. The most
known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca
were used as ports for their hinterland. In the meantime, for the trade in the northeast,
Massawa served as an outlet.
With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along the route from
Zeila to the interior. Travelers' accounts and chronicles referred to these towns and ruins of
mosques and residences mark the existence of market centers, which followed and served the
trade coasts. The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga and the highlands of Harar and
Charchar attest to the market towns that served the Zeila route. These include Weez-Gebeya
in western Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route, Suq-Wayzaro in old
Damot, Suq-Amaja and the very famous market center Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route.
Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian merchants serving the kings and
sultans as agents.

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Other big market towns include the ones that linked medieval Amhara with Awsa, called
Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in
southern Tigray.
 The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”), and Asmara
were the two important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.
Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila due to their
geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its
revival and consolidation.
4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period. The ambition to control this
trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry between the
“Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat. The first recorded conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328 when the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to
take military action against the Christian Kingdom. The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped
merchants belonging to the Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing,
and imprisoning the king's agent, Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo. These actions forced
Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and
eventually replaced him by his brother Sabradin.
Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his retreat. As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and
Dawaro were incorporated. Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of
movement for all caravans through Zeila. Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim
Sultanates like Sharkha, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened. In 1376,
Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against Neway-Maryam (r.
1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in 1386. Similarly, the
successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402) gained initial success until king Dawit
I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated him. Sa’d ad-Din II became
refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Since then the area was
called "the land of Sad ad-Din." Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to
Christian Kings, the Muslim sultanates declined in power. Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took
refuge in Yemen came back to succeed their father. Yet, Adal continued to challenge the
Christian state and were successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to
intense struggle for predominance.
During the mid-fifteenth century, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some access to the Red Sea. In
1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba. As a result, the son
and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of
submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal of the Christian Kings. Despite
initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the battle in 1474. The successors of
Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers of Muslim Sultanates. At the
same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the problem peacefully. As a
result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to smoothen relations with the
Christian Kingdom.
However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried out
some effective military campaigns into the highlands. In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting

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against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the
leadership. Among the Muslim Sultanates, internal conflict, corruption and disorder was
intensified and a new leadership was urgently called for. Such leadership came from Imam
Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origins of Imam Ahmed, or “the lefthanded,” are unclear.
He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout Muslim kin
in one of the fertile place on the route to Zeila.
After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power, the battles were not just fought for control of the long-
distance trade route going through Zeila. But mainly because there was environmental
pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and the Christian
Kingdom. For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted to expand to
high plateaus for better and enough pasturelands and attempted to do so but only to be held
back by the Christian army. With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar of
eastern Ethiopia, between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, raiding and counter-raiding
at water holes or animal rustling/stealing/ intensified
It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership that he mobilized the
pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common
cause. He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the
Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing material. He was able to gain acceptance as
Imam and consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom
Imam Ahmed was strong enough for military confrontation in 1520, he refused to pay tribute
and this was followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527. The Imam’s
army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama,
Hadiya and Kambata and putting the Christian Kingdom at risk. In 1528, realizing the rising
threat, Lebne Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domain and encamped about fifty
kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. In addition to logistical problems, the leadership
of the army of Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force.
On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's highly motivated but small-sized army faced no such
logistical challenges. The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership characterized by
better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.
As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the most
decisive engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo. After
the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian
Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash. By
1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast including the
Ethiopian interior On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back forced the
reigning king, Lebne Dengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive.
 His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to face the wars this
time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers. In the
meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne Dengel in 1535, about four
hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in
1541.
 The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama.
However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's

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southern Tigray. In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese were killed and their
leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s ability to repulse any future
attack by the force of the Christian Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his
army camp. On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation
under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59). Due to limited resources, the
monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army. Imam
Ahmed’s army could not use its previous advantage of easy mobility because they did not
know where the attacks came from. On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was
encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the
battle of Woyna-Dega.
 Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were
loyal to him. As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the northern and
central plateau.
 Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he was tolerant
toward them to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth
relations with the Muslim world.
 Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the pre-1520s territories and tributary
regions.
 The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to different areas and
camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas.
By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, the
control over the Muslim dominated areas was not an easy task. In the period, the growing
challenge to the Christian state came from;
The retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
The Ottoman Turks,
Jesuit interlude, and
Oromo advance into the center.
Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn alWaazir Mujahid (Builder of Jegolof Hara to
defend) was ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge. In 1559, the forces of
Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.
Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and the
Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities a global dimension. Middle Eastern powers including the dominant Ottoman
Empire who were the intermediaries of the international trade were adversely affected by the
discovery of a new sea route to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498. They tried to counter the
Portuguese encroachment into the East, while Portugal for its part began to look toward the
Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia as an ally.
Consequences of the Muslim-Christian conflict
 Huge human and material cost.
 Both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom were weakened
 Paving the way for an easy infiltration and success of the Oromo population
movement.
 On the positive side, it should be restated that the war had arguably resulted in
cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia.
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 Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages among peoples of

the various cultural

UNIT FIVE
5. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY
SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
5.1Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost
territories. In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de
Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore separate, natures of
Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysitetheology of Ethiopian
Orthodox Church.
EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature inseparable
from the divine. The leading members of the mission who played key role in efforts to
evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and
Alfonso Mendez.
 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59),
hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit.
 The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to
have been sympathetic to Catholicism. Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the
Jesuits to effect the desired result. Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-
1603; 1604-7), who met a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
 Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders, who refused to pay tribute,
integrated the Oromo with the forces of the central government to consolidate his
power and stabilize the country.
 Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through the
diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez. In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and
announced it to be state religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several
anti-Catholic voices mounted following the changes in liturgy and religious practice.
Even worse, with the monarch’s consent,
 another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered reconsecration of Orthodox priests
and deacons and rebaptism of the mass.
 Besides, he called for the suspension of Old Testament customs such as male
circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
 Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, worship for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant
(Tabot).
 Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass/use Latin as language of worship/
and Gregorian calendar to be adopted.
 The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics/priest or clergy/ and the nobility
 Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67)
were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits.
After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge of
falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.

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Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation. Fasiledas restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion,
expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ brother and the most
passionate supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos. Fearing another religious conflict,
Emperor Fasiledas introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated the country from all
Europeans for about a century and a half.
Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close(door) diplomatic relations with the
Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that no
European crossed into the Christian Kingdom. Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe
remained effective until the beginning of the nineteenth century with the exception of secret
visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in
1700 and 1769, respectively.
5.2 Population Movements
The movements of people from one place to another have played important roles in shaping
the history of Ethiopia and the Horn in the 16th c. Population movements occurred in the Horn
due to various reasons, in varied scales and followed different directions. The main factors
that population movement during the medieval period of Ethiopia
In search of resources and better living environment
Military conflicts,
Drought
Demographic pressure

The extensive effects population movements of the medieval period

The integration of peoples across ethnic and religious lines.
Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and intermingling of peoples.
Intermarriage of peoples, change of habitat, original culture and evolution of
new identities.
5.2.1 Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
fifteenth and the early sixteenth centuries was partly responsible for the population movement
of the Argoba, Afar and Somali. In addition, pressure on the environment laid the ground for
the population movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and
hence were affected by the consequences of the military conflict.

The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by the
Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed
al Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom. The area
inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and was the
major center of conflict. Because the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba
territory. As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts thereof led to the

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destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the people. The enduring effect of the conflict can
be observed from the fragmented settlement patterns of the people.

The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until
they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through
the Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the
Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. Besides being
actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into different
directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts. In the sixteenth century, their pastoral economy
helped them to survive the destructive effects of the wars.
The Somali: their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade routes during medieval
period. Prior to the 16th c wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates,
there was environmental pressure on the Somali. The population movement of the Somali
was a strong force behind the military strength of the Imam. However, the population
movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to their home base following
the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
5.2.2 The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Natural factors include demographic pressure and
subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population.
In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were already organized under
Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed
through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya.
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars:
 Accordingly, the first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) , Mudena (1530-8) , Kilole
(1538-46) , Bifole (1546-54) , Michille (1554-62) , Harmufa (1562-70), Qacina and
Wayyata; (r.1559-63) , In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97),Robale gadaa (1570-78)
. Birmaji (1578-86) ,Mul’ata (1586-94) , Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and
Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while
others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.

In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established
Gadaa centers.
Accordingly,
 Oda Nabee of Tulama,
 Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
 Bultum of Itu-Humabenna,
 Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa centers.
Some of Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda
Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.

- Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda (the father of
anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty.
-Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending their delegates to
Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due

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to the political influence of the Ethiopian state. In due course, Gadaa devised effective
resource allocation formula including land. Land holding system to regulate resource and
their interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye system. The system
established rights of precedence (seniority) in possession of land.
Consequences of Oromo population movement and expanission
One consequence of the Oromo population movement was that it put an end to the wars
between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the southward expansion of the Christian
state. At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the sixteenth century brought
far-reaching integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious background. The Oromo
integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this system, the child
enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child. Likewise, Moggasa was a system
of adopting non-Oromos commonly known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of
incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights
and obligations that such membership entailed. Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa
on behalf of the clan. The adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits.
The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems and the integration of the Oromo to
the Christian and Muslim states.
It relatively covered extensive geographical areas in the region. It involved diverse ethnic
groups, cultures, and religions from south to north and from east to west.Ethinic and religious
or social interactions became common.

5.3 Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

The Gadaa System
The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century cannot be better understood
without considering the Gadaa system. The Gadaa system was an institution through which
the Oromo socially organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended their
territories, maintained law and order, and managed their economies. Studies do not clearly
indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged. However, it is clear that for long the
society organized their politics, economy, social, cultural, and religious affairs through the
Gadaa institution.

Time computation and recording history was based on the eight-year segment of time. In the
system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented
one generation and nine generations represented an era. Gadaa was interrupted and
revitalized during various eras because of various internal and external factors. For
instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after interruption for nearly two
generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe
(assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.

The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power
sharing to prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included representation of

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all lineages, clans and confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of socialization,

education, maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion. In addition, Gadaa
constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage).
The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten age-
grades and five classes operated in parallel. The system provided a socio-political framework
that institutionalized relationship between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among
members of a grade. Sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class
or set) 40 years after their fathers and were initiated into the next higher grade every eight
years. Accordinly the age-grades and their roles were:-
1, Dabale (0-8) years socialization
2, Game (9-16)
3, Folle (17-24) military training, agriculture etc
4, Qondala (25-32) military service
5, Raba-Dori (33-40) candidates for political power
6, Luba (41-48) leaders of Gadaa government
7, Yuba (49 to 80) senior advisors, educators and ritual.
The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the government was known as
Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period” who was assisted by several elected
representatives from among the generation set.
 These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
 Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
 Abba-Dula (war leader),
 Abba Sera (father of law),
 Abba Alanga (judge),
 Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in power
transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class. Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe
institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. The Gadaa system
functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa class to the next every eight years.

5.4 Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and cultural interactions
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods, trade
continued to be the major channel of social integration. Also, it had long been the source of
friendship, interaction, interdependence, and conflict among the states of the region. The long
distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties. These interactions and
interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for
modern Ethiopia.

The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were the major factors
for the people's interactions across regions. Such interactions occurred during peace and
conflict times. The cases in point were the trade contacts and conflicts to control trade routes,
religious expansion, and territorial expansion and population movements. One of the major

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consequences of the interactions in the medieval period particularly in the population

movement of the sixteenth century was the integration of peoples across ethnic and religious
diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn. Population movement of the period relatively covered
extensive geographical areas in the region. It involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and
religions from south to north and from east to west. It is apparent that territorial and religious
expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the south.
Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements of the Argoba, the Afar
and the Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.

5.5 Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions.
Peoples and States in the East
Somali
The Somali people have inhabited vast territory in the Horn. For long, the Somali practiced
pastoral economy and moved between places for centuries possibly in search of sufficient
pasture. Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca town located in the
southern Somali coast near Shabele River was a capital that brought large number of Somalis
together during the 13th c.
Historically, a council known as shir governed the society. The decision making process was
highly democratic in which all-adult male were allowed equal access and participation. These
councils at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a governing structure that acted as an
enforcement of law and justice. The council governed wide-ranging affairs including resource
allocation, marriage, trade and crime.
Afar: - predominantly have lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although
some have also inhabited southern part of Eritrea. The Afar had an indigenous governance
system known as Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy. The Afar people
were first mentioned by Ibn Said. During the thirteenth century, they occupied the lowland
territory near Bab el-Mandeb.
The land inhabited by the Afars was home for many historical cities such as Maduna and
Abasa. Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the 16 thC, the Afar
established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad. Awsa
Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the middle Awash.
Argoba:-Early reference to the people of Argoba is scars. There are two versions on the
origin of the people of Argoba. The first version holds that they descended from the followers
of the Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat. The second
version claims that the origin of the Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants.
That said, the Argoba were one of the ancient peoples in the region that accepted Islam very
early from religious leaders who came from Arabia.
The Emirate of Harar: - Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia
and the Horn. In the sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal
replacing Dakar until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo.
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center from where he launched his campaigns into
the Christian kingdom in 1527. Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a
walled city where the sultanate of the Harari developed.

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In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation with the
Oromo established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half. It was
strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in
supervising Mosque land, Waqf and offering other assistance to the Amir. The emirate grew
in importance to be a steady center of Islamic culture and power. Its economic power grew as
it controlled trade routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera. Its authority was
established over the surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-marriage, and
expansion of Islamic teachings. Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that they sent
an expeditionary force in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a decade.
Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa: - the Kingdom of Shewan was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi
Kristos (r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and
Yifat. The second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18). Abuye/
Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo
before he was killed by the Karrayu Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to
control the Afar and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority
over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to
Ankober. Asfa-Wosen (r.17751808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete,
Morat and Shewa Meda. The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie
(r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. During his reign, many travelers visited
Shewa and he even signed “treaty of friendship and commerce” with the British in 1841.
Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft.
Gurage:-The Gurage live in southern Ethiopia. The main Gurage clans and their sub-
divisions are the following; Inor group (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna, Gyeto and Mesemes),
Chaha group (Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer and Gura) and the Kistane group (Nurana and
many other clans). Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan. The staple
crop in Gurage land is enset.
The Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over the centuries. There was,
however, no centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups.
Kambata:-By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the
contemporary state of Kambata which means, “this is the place” (where we live-as the
Kambata believe in). The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original homeland
around Mount Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory. The other three namely the
Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from Sidama highlands.

Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and controlled the area between Omo
and Bilate Rivers, which he incorporated into the Christian Ethiopian Empire. In 1532, the
region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army, which furthered the interaction of peoples. The
people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking the same language called
Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family together with Qabena,
Halaba, Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.The Kambata had a traditional
administrative institution called the Hambericho Council. The council had seven members
each representing the seven clans in the region.

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Hadiya:-The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the 13 th c. It was mentioned in the
Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the
federation of Zeila. The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.
Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was
largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There was a considerable
Muslim population. By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion,
subjugated Hadiya after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim “prophet”
Bel’am aligned with the then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to confront the Christian force.From
the 13-16th centuries, Hadiya’s political importance was considerable with sizable population
and vast territory. In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor Zara-
Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo. To stabilize the
situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage. Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from Hadiya,
who became an important historical figure, married Emperor ZaraYaqob.
The relations between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom was interrupted following the wars
between the latter and Adal and the Oromo population movement until Hadiya's
incorporation into the Imperial state in the late 19 th c. After these two major historical events
especially the latter, Hadiya’s population became more diverse. However, descendants of the
old Hadiya can be traced from four different linguistic clusters: the Oromo, the Sidama, the
Kabena and Alaba, and the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko, Lemu, Soro,
Shashogo and Badowacho. The Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic
family and their languages are intelligible to members of these ethnic groups.
Peoples and States in the South
Sidama: Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia
occupying lowlands. Agriculture, although practiced traditionally, remained the basis of
Sidama’s economy. Enset and coffee are Sidama’s important food and cash crops
respectively. The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king).
The Mote exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of
elders called Songo. There was no written constitution, rules were known by heart through
generations and practiced accordingly.
The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma. He was selected for his
ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution. The Woma
could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace. The Woma
handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits.
Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades
each lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa.
Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like gerarsha
under the leadership of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa.
Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social constitution of
the Sidama people governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate
truth) to judge the right and wrong.
Gedeo: Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people. The
dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother of
Gujo (father of Guji Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended from the

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seven sons of Daraso. The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being the shole batte
(senior house) where the first four clans belonged including more than 25 sub-clans and the
second called sase batte (junior house) where the last three belonged having 10 sub-clans.
Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for particular duty such as ritual, traditional
medicine or leadership.
The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance system that worked with age
classes and ranking. The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70year
cycle. Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta sharing one
Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a new holder with the next
age set at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging from the top,
Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed.
Konso: - the name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia
and the Horn who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their land. The literal meaning of
the term is a “heavily forested hill/ area.” A century ago the highlands of Konso, which was
covered by dense forest, had been the traditional home of Konso people while the low-lying
environment along Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting grounds. Konso attracted
the attention of local and international researchers interested in human evolution, as it is one
of the earliest human settlement sites in the world.
Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso. Farmers
combined crop production with cattle breeding. At the same time, they adopted soil
conservation techniques notably the construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert
rugged and hilly areas into permanent cultivation.

The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans namely Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata,
Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta. The Tselta had fixed cycle of
years starting from birth, although they varied across villages-

Peoples and States in Southwestern Part

Wolayta: the name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia and
their powerful kingdom, which first emerged as a state back in the thirteenth century.
According to local traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit, the area
was inhabited by different communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja. At the
apex of the social and political hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of
advisors. From the thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, two successive dynasties ruled
Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre. Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami,
the Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until the end of the fifteenth century.
The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate climate, with green vegetation
cover for the most part of the year. All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it
to his dependents.
Kaffa: according to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in 14 th c. The ruling Minjo
dynasty and the medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion
might have forced the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result
brought Christianity and the royal title tato to Kafa.

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Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade.
Major trade items, such as musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were
exported via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho. The Mikrecho served
to moderate the power of the king but they played important roles in succession as well.
The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier. The
Gojeb also served as natural protection against external invasion and it might have
contributed to their relative independence until 1897.
Yem: the Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe. Yem’s economy
combined agriculture, trade and crafts. Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or
Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity
of Bor Ama Mountain. Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the Amno (king) of
Yem acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity. A state council of 12 members named
Astessor with its chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state. Erasho were
the provincial governors and they were responsible for digging ditches called bero and
erecting nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the center of the kingdom around Brisi
Bita so that the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings.
Gamo: historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe
Mountain and beyond. Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two: the geze
(highland) and the bazo (lowland). The highlands were densely populated while people who
escaped coercion by the state at the political center largely settled the lowlands which also
served as hunting fields. A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-
use in the Gamo highlands.
The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize
and sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands.
The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates back to the fifteenth century in the
praise songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30).
The dere were politically autonomous villages (units) but shared three essential features.
These were: 1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler) who also offered sacrifices and
symbolized the unity of the people. 2) Every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and; (3)
every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where communal matters were
discussed and disputes solved.
The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely based on genealogical seniority
according to primogeniture. The Gamo people were distributed in agnatic clans each having a
system of individual genealogical hierarchy. The baira (senior) of the clan had a privilege
over lineage members. The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at all levels
of the community. The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo. The concept of kawo refers
to the first rank status, with variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth and
primogeniture.
Dawuro:Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and plateau at the central, and lowland
and plain at Gojeb and Omo river basins. The land is divided into three climatic zones. These
are geziya (highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) and gad’a (lowland). Such climatic conditions
enriched Dawuro with a variety of tree species and natural vegetation/forest. The livelihood

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of Dawuro people is based on mixed agricultural activities. The language of Dawuro people
is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family.

Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla,
and Amara which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos. By about 1700, the
Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great number of petty chieftainships on the
territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and south and the Kafa high
mountains in the west.

Ari: the Omo River basin had been home to different groups of people since early times.
These included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom,
Bodi, Male, etc. Major economic activities in the region were sedentary agriculture,
pastoralism and handcrafts.
The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the Omotic language
family. The people were sedentary agriculturalist.
Peoples and States in the West Berta and Gumuz
The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional State. The earliest record of
Berta settlement in this region dates from the 16 th c. The Berta people speak the Berta
language as their mother tongue. It is a tonal language classified as a branch of the Nilo-
Saharan linguistic group. The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language, which belongs to the Nilo-
Saharan family. It is subdivided in several dialects. Islamic influence had been strong on the
Berta and other Nilotes because of their trade and social contacts with the northern Sudan.
Anywa:historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila,
Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the present-
day Gambella region. The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan
language family. The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village
lived under a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution
of farm and grazing fields, settled disputes etc with the community.
Nuer: Since 19th c, they had been largely settled in the plains of Gambella along the Sobat
and Baro Rivers and parts of the Sudan. The mainstay of Nuer’s economy was cattle breeding
supplemented by crop production. The Nuer had developed a rather complex spiritual culture
around their cattle, which were used as bride wealth as well. The Nuer had an age-set system
combining social and political functions. Nuer boys had to pass through a severe test and a
series of rites connected with it before they were initiated into adulthood.
Majang: the Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that covered the
escarpment of the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains. Linguistic evidence relates
the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau in South Sudan. Gradually, they moved
northwards and settled in forested areas of western Ethiopia. Economically, the Majang
practiced shifting cultivation and animal husbandry.
The Kunama: - The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient inhabitants
of western Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and western
Tigray. The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the kingdom of Baza, which is a
self-designation of the Kunama.

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The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-anene mandated with the
administration of the society. The office of the sanga-anene was held by male members of the
society. The office was transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the next born on
matrilineal line. The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed agriculture.
Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia
South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage were autonomous and semi-
autonomous political entities during this period. Economically, they depended largely on
agriculture. Local merchants were actively involved in local trade and to some extent in the
long distance trade.
Among these, the Gurage land was an important market centre and political entity. Important
trade centers such as Soddo and Aymallel were located in the Gurage land. The Gurage had
their own political organization and their leaders held the titles of Abegaz or Azmatch who
combined political and military authority.
The Gibe States
th
Towards the beginning of the 19 c, several monarchical states (motumma) emerged among
the Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gadaa system. Many factors accounted for the
transformation of the Gadaa system. In the process, the war leaders of the Gadaa system
(Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals usurped the power of the Gadaa government. The
abba-dula accumulated wealth from the control and taxation on long distance trade and
utilized the opportunity to establish hereditary leadership. This development especially took
place among the Oromo around Gibe, where the following five monarchical states emerged.
i. Limmu-Enarya: Limmu-Enarya was the earliest of the Gibe states. It was founded through
the incorporation of Enarya. Initially, Abbaa Dulas of Limmu like Tesso fought and defeated
the rulers of Enarya like Badancho, Gu’amcho and Banaro at different times. Finally,
Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-Enarya. The Kingdom reached the
height of its power during Ibsa’s reign, when he incorporated areas including Hagalo, Badi-
Folla etc.
ii. Guma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan; began state
formation and succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe
(1840-1854).
iii. Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his son Abba
Manoo (1829-1840) who occupied Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars.
iv. Jimma: Towards the late 18th c, Makahore emerged as an influential female figure among
the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma. The local Abba Dula sought to take political power
from her. Among the Abba Dulas, Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler
against the Gadaa rule. He was succeeded by Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the
domain. The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55)
who formed Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated state to his successors like Abba Rebu
(1855-59), Abba Boqa (1859-1861) and Abba Gomol(r.1861-75).The most famous among
the Jimma monarchs was Tullu /Abba Jifar II (ca. r.1875-1934). Apart from agriculture and
trade, the kingdom's economy depended on iron mining and smelting at Dakkano and Kito,
respectively.

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v. Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed. The process of state formation in
Gera was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38), a successful war leader who
made himself king. Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji after a short interlude by
Abba Basso. Gera enjoyed its prosperity under Abba Magal who had been converted to
Islam. As with other Gibe states, Gera attracted Muslim missionaries to preach Islam.
The Leqa States
Like in the Gibe region, several monarchical kingdoms evolved among the Mecha Oromo of
Wallagga. Among these were the Leqa states, the Sibu and the Jawwi south of the Abbay
River. While Moti Abishe established strong kingdom of Horro, a number of Abba Dulas
declared themselves moti (king) by controlling profitable trade routes and large territories in
the region west of the Gibe region. Among these, the Leqa states were the prominent ones.
I. Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840, and reached its height under his
successors Moroda and Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher). The latter were able to
establish strong monarchical state rich in trade and agriculture. The Leqa-Naqamte rulers
instituted a new administrative structure and judicial hierarchy that replaced the Gadaa
system known as sirna abba-qoro (qoro system). In its nature, the administration system
was essentially kingship and was quite similar to feudal administration in its reliance on land.
II. Leqa-Qellam: was located in south western Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu and
became powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidami and controlling the areas
around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.
III. Ilu: the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor) set up the well
consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor in the early nineteenth century. It was one of the
prosperous states in the region.
Contrary to the Gadaa values that had not requisitioned any kind of taxation, under
monarchical systems farmers were forced to paycrop tax measured by traditional instruments
called buchano (about 15 kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop.
Nilotic Sheikdoms
In the early 19th C, important Islamic centres emerged in the lower course of the Abbay. A
number of Shiekdoms were established. Among them, the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi,
Bela Shangul and Khomosha were established to the south of Abbay River. The Sheikhdom
of Guba emerged to the north of the same river in the western edge of Gojjam. The four
sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim leaders of Sudanese origin who considered
themselves as ‘Watawit’. The term Watawit refers to Arbaized Berta people who had entered
and settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious teachers in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries.
The main economic bases of the sheikdoms were agriculture, gold mining and frontier trade.
Among these sheikhdoms, Asosa got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan. While
Bela/BeniShangul became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale, Khomosha reached its
zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud. Similarly, Guba was established to the
north of the Abbay River along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
5.6 The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
The Gondarine Period
Political Developments

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Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas
(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706). Emperor Yohannes I and
his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem. His successor, Iyasu I,
reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder, taxes,
and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son,
TekleHaymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning
of reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father
and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708. Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by
Yostos, who was also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned
and replaced by Bakafa in 1721.
Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers and his wife Etege
Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728. The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased
involvement of the Oromo in politics and the army as will be discussed shortly.
From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the
reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in 1767, Etege
Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo. To counter the
growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras
Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and militarily powerful. Mika'el Sehul
succeeded in stabilizing the situation and refused to return to Tigray although demanded by
Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man Yohannes
II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son TaklaHaymanot II
(1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
Achievements of the Gondarine Period
Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and
crafts for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in political
affairs but also in cultural developments.
Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty years,
Ethiopian kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath,
library, towers, fortifications and there are squared, round and unknown shape of churches. In
the cities compound the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there are different
palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and
Regent Queen Mentewab.
Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments,
weapons and other accessories especially, the churches built by Queen Mentwab were known
by beautiful paintings, cross and an art works.
Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts.
Trade and Urbanization: - Gondar was a commercial center that connected long distance
trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border.
Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange. The appearance of daily market was known.
With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities like Indians,
Greeks and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population. In addition to

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its political and commercial importance, it served as religious center of Christians, Muslims
and Bete-Israel
The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position of political power was in the
hands of different regional lords. The period lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul
"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855. The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint
lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and
Shewa. When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during the
Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debretabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was
considered as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle
against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 absence of effective central government
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords; regionalism
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
 rivarly and compeition among regional lords to assume the position of king
maker; establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
 Religionalism, Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes; controversy within the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached
its peak during the Zemene Mesafint.
 Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a
Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the
world as a perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus
Tewahedo (United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
 Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted
the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of
his incarnation/born/, when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed
him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
 Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ
was first born in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St.
Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and
Shawa.
 Economic degradation due to peasants miserable life,war,huge tax and slavery
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy.”

5.7 Major Developments in 19th century in Ethiopia and Horn

Making of modern Ethiopia, territorial expansission to south, south east,south west and
centeral by Emperior Menelik,Kifu Qan(1888-92) and external threats to Ethioapia were
major historical events of the period.
External Relations
Agreements and Treaties

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One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end of the 'close door policy’ that was
introduced by Emperor Fasiladas (1632-1667). Thus, beginning from the early 1800s,
regional rulers made independent foreign contacts and signed treaties.One of the earliest
private travelers was Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras WoldeSelassie of Tigray on 28
August 1805. He came for scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission was to establish
friendship between Great Britain and Ethiopia.Several British travelers including Christian
Kugler also arrived in the 1830s. Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell (a scholar)
arrived in 1846; Captain W.C. Harris, leading an official British mission visited Shewa. John
Bell and Walter Plowden in the 1840s, the Italian Geographic Society in 1869 and the like
arrived for trade relation and scientific purposes.The result of these contacts was the
agreement between Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and British Captain W. Harris in 1841 as
well as with the French Rochet d’Hericourt, in 1843. In addition, Walter Plowden also signed
treaty with Ras Ali in 1849.

The major concerns of Emperor Yohannes IV were the restoration of the lost territories, the
delimitation of boundaries and the defense of the sovereignty of the state against the threat
and interference by foreign powers. When he confronted external challenge like Egypt, he
tried to solve through negotiation than war. War was his last choice as he fought with Egypt
in 1875/76 and Mahdists Sudan in 1889.One of the major diplomatic relations Yohannes
concluded was Hewett /Adwa Treaty. It was a treaty signed between the Emperor and the
British Rear Admiral William Hewett on behalf of Egypt on 3 June 1884 at Adwa.In terms of
diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats, Emperor Menilek II was more successful
through maintaining the balance among powerful forces of the period. While he was king of
Shewa, he established commercial relation with Italy that later helped him to acquire military
equipment.

Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the Wuchale Treaty. It
was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo
between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of
Italy. The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in Amharic and Italian languages.
The Italian version of Article III indicates the “effective occupation” of Italy to legitimize its
further expansion towards the Mereb River. However, Article XVII has major difference in
the two language versions. In this article, Italy announced that all foreign powers had to deal
with Ethiopia only through Italy. European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim
except Russia.

This finally led to the Battle of Adwa, where the latter became victorious. After the victory of
Adwa, different foreign countries opened their legations at Addis Ababa to establish relations
on official basis.International politics of the twentieth century also shaped Ethiopia’s foreign
relations. For instance, during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu showed a tendency to
side with the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire)
believing that the defeat of the Allied powers (France and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to
push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia. He also befriended the Somali nationalist leader,

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Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan, against Italy and Britain. Sayyid Mohammed Abdille
Hassan (1864-1920) led the Somali against the European occupation. He tried to attract
support from the mass through his Pan-Somali movement. In the history of the Somali, he is
recognized as a forerunner of modern Somali nationalism.

One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the early twentieth was her admission to
the League of Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand European tour, which
shaped his ideas of modernization. Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations, however, did
not save her from Italian invasion in 1935/36.
Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism
The Battle of Dabarki (1848)
 Dabarki was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in 1848.
 Although the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle, the military imbalance
particularly, the modern artillery and discipline of Egyptian troops gave him a lesson
to modernize his military force, acquire modern technologies.
 This later initiated him to widen his vision and mission when he became emperor.
The Battle of Maqdela (1868)
Tewodros II had early relation with Britain through two British citizens, Walter Plowden and John
Bell. His main aim was to obtain help against foreign threats. In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen
Victoria requesting assistance through Consul Cameron.Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt
without bringing any response. Suspecting him of plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain
Cameron and other Europeans. On learning of the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria
sent a letter through Hormuzd Rassam, which did not satisfy Tewodros.After some communications,
the British parliament decided to take military action.

 Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa.
 This force reached Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of Tigray (later
Emperor Yohannes).
 On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his general Gebriye were
defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge.
 On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela.
 This was followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of manuscripts, religious
and secular artifacts including his crown by the British troops.
The Battles of Gundet and Gura
In the nineteenth century, Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa with the
ambition of controlling the source of the Nile. Following their occupation of the Sudan in 1821, they
moved to occupy Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance,

 In 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions.
 Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of the
Harar Emirate between 1875 and 1885.
 Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s scheme for invasion of
Ethiopia, led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with cannons and rocket tubes

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through Tajura. But, Munzinger and his troops were all killed by the Afars at the
Battle of Odduma.
 Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed troops
through Massawa.
 Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and encountered
the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where the Egyptian troops
were severely defeated.
 Notwithstanding their setback, Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent their
army to invade Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the
Battle of Gura (7–9 March, 1876).
 It is important to understand that some Europeans and Americans were in the service
of Egyptians.
 For instance, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s plan, Werner Munzinger, was a
Swiss born adventurer and former French Consul in Northeast Africa.
 Colonel Arendrup himself was a Danish Citizen, and General Charles Stone was
fellow American.
The Battle of Dogali
During the late nineteenth century, Europeans had interest to control the Red Sea area. With
the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic and
commercial importance. One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of Africa was
Italy. The relations Italy had with the Horn began when an Italian private shipping company
(Rubatino) bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869. In 1882, the port of Assab
was transferred to the Italian government. In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from
Egypt to Italy. By using these bases as springboard, Italy began to penetrate into northern
Ethiopia.

Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb Milash
region.However, they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida,
Emperor Yohannes’s famous general and right hand man. Following this battle, Italy signed a
Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October 1887 in a bid to isolate Emperor Yohannes

The Battle of Metemma

The Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian forces that lasted from
1885 to 1889. The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in
September 1885. Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious. In January 1887, Yohannes
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ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists
led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot’s troops at Sar- Wuha in Dembia.
However, when Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to check the Italian advance
to Mereb Milash, he heard of the Mahdists advance up to Gondar. The Mahdists caused a lot
of destruction on churches and monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity.
At this important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-Haimanot conspired against the
emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists.

As a result, Emperor Yohannes faced what can be called a triangular tension, namely the
Italians in the north, the Mahdists in the west and northwest, and his two vassals in the
center.Later, in another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-
Wallagga) by Menilek's commander Ras Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888.Hence, on
March 9, 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists.

The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath

The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle between Ethiopia and
Italian forces. This was because Italians were determined to colonize Ethiopia whereas
Ethiopians were ready not to give in. To meet their intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb
River, arrived at Adigrat, and proceeded to Emba-Alage. Following Emperor Menilek's
proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every part of the country
gathered at Wara-Illu (in today’s South Wollo).People marched to the front irrespective of
gender, regional, and ethnic differences to fight against the Italian aggression.

 The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Emba-Alage and
forced them to retreat to Mekele.
 In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces defeated
Italians at Mekele.
 At Mekelle, the Italians were brought under seige denying them of access to a water
well which they used.
 The strategy was commonly called the “Siege of Mekele” and was considered to be
designed by Empress Taytu.
 After some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and joined their
compatriots at Adwa.
 A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu and war
generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and Negus
Tekle-Haymanot and others encountered the Italians at Adwa.
 The result of this battle was a decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge blow to the
Italians

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 At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded and 3,000 were
captured wherea on the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been
killed.
 Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis
Ababa that was signed on October 26, 1896.
 A number of powers of the time (including Italy, France, Britain, Russia, the United
States, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others) also recognized the independence of
Ethiopia and opened their legations in Addis Ababa.
 Despite different interpretations on the results of the battle of Adwa, the heroic
national campaign, cooperation, and common successes of peoples of Ethiopia had a
positive implication for success and national integration.
 The victory assured independence and national pride.
 It has thus become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and the black race in
general.Furthermore, the victory of Ethiopians at Adwa has had an enduring legacy in
the relations between freedom fighters and colonizing powers.
 The victory of black people over white colonizers initiated entire Africans fighting
against colonialism.
 The well-known PanAfricanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his followers in his “Back to
Africa” movement with the success of Ethiopians.
 He used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers” and Ethiopianism became a
symbol of anti-colonial movements
Italian Occupation (1935/36-41) and the Patriotic Resistance
A. Background
Italy, wait the right time to fulfill their interests in any possible way. Italy eventually got its
ideological strength in 1922, when Fascists led by Benito Mussolini held power. The Fascists
were determined to restore the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy’s
shameful scar at Adwa.

To achieve their goal of occupation of Ethiopia, Italians followed two policies as it was the
case before the Battle of Adwa; ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’. The policy of
subversion aimed at affecting the unity of the empire via sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray,
Mussolini who made all necessary preparations to launch an invasion against Ethiopia was
only searching for a pretext, and then fortunately he found it in the Walwal incident. The
Walwal Incident (5 December 1934) was the result of the post-Awa boundary agreement
limitations: lack of demarcation on the ground and lack of effective administrative control in
the frontier regions.
The 1935 Invasion and After
After they completed their preparations, the Italians waged their aggression via two major
fronts: the northern and the southern Front. The war was started in the northern Front when
the Italians crossed the Mereb River on 3 October 1935 and controlled Adigrat, Adwa and
Mekelle. In January 1936, Ethiopian counter offensive marched north through three fronts.
Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front, Ras Kasa Hailu (also commander of the

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entire northern front), Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front, and Ras Mulugeta
Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front.

On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive against the Italians
intending to isolate Mekelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack of coordination
among the above-mentioned commanders. On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the
Italians at the first Battle in Temben. This was followed by an attack on the Ethiopian force,
which was stationed in what seemed to be an impregnable natural fortress of Amba-Aradom,
to the south of Mekelle. The Italians scored yet another decisive victory in which the
commander of the Ethiopian army, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life. Besides modern
weapons, the Italian force had superiority in the air. Moreover, the forces of Ras Kasa and
Ras Seyum were outnumbered by the Italian troops. This resulted in another defeat at the
Second Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936).

On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the
advancing force of the Italians. A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in
the northern Front culminated in Maychew on 31 March 1936. Many Ethiopian soldiers lost
their lives from gunpowder and air bombardment during the battle.The Ethiopian army in the
Southern Front was better equipped and well led. Ras Desta Damtew (in the south) and
Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian troops in this
Front.

The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the fighting in the Southern Front was larger
than the North, which slowed their advance to the center; Badoglio entered Addis Ababa
before Graziani even crossed Harar. On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three
days later the Italians entered Addis Ababa. Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the
Italian entry, Addis Ababa was beset by burning of buildings, looting and random shooting.
Benito Mussolini announced to the people of Italy and the world about their control of
Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia is Italian!”

The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and
Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East Africa (IEA) or
Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI).The newly formed Italian East Africa had six administrative
regional divisions that replaced former international boundaries. These were: Eritrea
(including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara; Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo
and Northern Shewa) with its capital at Gondar; Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and
Southwestern provinces) with its capital at Jimma; Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar;
Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu; Addis Ababa (later changed to
Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian East Africa.During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia,
the following Italians served as governors of Italian East Africa successively: Marshal
Badoglio (till the end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani (till February 1937), and finally
Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of Aosta). Generally, a top-heavy bureaucracy and
corruption characterized the Italian administration of IEA.

49 History of Ethiopia and the Horn Course Code: His.1012

Mekelle University, institute of paleo-enviroment and heritage conservation Department Heritage
conservation and Management

The legacy of the Italian rule

Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis Ababa, Jimma,
Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and electricity
Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including
eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words)
The consolidation of cash economy
Road construction and development of motor transport
The sense of division, deliberately fostering ethnic and religious tensions etc.
The Patriotic Resistance Movement
The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience. Rather, the
Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a number of ways. Among others, the patriots gave them
hard times largely in rural areas. The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war
itself. Among the highlights of this phase was the resistance waged by three commanders of
the Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam
Gari, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Fikre-Mariam
Yinnnadu.
The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941. On 19
February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled
a bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him
seriously and killing some others.
On 12 July 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally. The British launched a three
pronged attack on the Italians.
 In the north, General William Platt led the forces that attacked the Italians in Eritrea.
 In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the Emperor
from the Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian troops called the
Gedeon force.
 General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya. The advances were rapid largely
due to the demoralization that the patriots had caused among the Italians.
 Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941, exactly five years
after Italian entry to the capital.

50 History of Ethiopia and the Horn Course Code: His.1012