MODULE 3: HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic systems are used to control and transmit power. A pump driven by a prime mover such as an electric
motor creates a flow of fluid, in which the pressure, direction and rate of flow are controlled by valves. An actuator
is used to convert the energy of fluid back into the mechanical power. The amount of output power developed
depends upon the flow rate, the pressure drop across the actuator and its overall efficiency. Thus, hydraulic
actuators are devices used to convert pressure energy of the fluid into mechanical energy.

Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:

1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic cylinders).

2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor).
3. Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation (semi-rotary actuator).

Hydraulic linear actuators, as their name implies, provide motion in a straight line. The total movement
is a finite amount determined by the construction of the unit. They are usually referred to as cylinders, rams and
jacks. All these items are synonymous in general use, although ram is sometimes intended to mean a single-acting
cylinder and jack often refers to a cylinder used for lifting. The function of hydraulic cylinder is to convert
hydraulic power into linear mechanical force or motion. Hydraulic cylinders extend and retract a piston rod to
provide a push or pull force to drive the external load along a straight-line path. Continuous angular movement is
achieved by rotary actuators, more generally known as a hydraulic motor. Semi-rotary actuators are capable of
limited angular movements that can be several complete revolutions but 360o or less is more usual.

3.2 TYPES OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

Hydraulic cylinders are of the following types:

1. Single-acting cylinders.
2. Double-acting cylinders.
3. Telescopic cylinders.
4. Tandem cylinders.

1. Single-Acting Cylinders
A single-acting cylinder is simplest in design and is shown schematically in Fig.1. It consists of a piston inside a
cylindrical housing called barrel. On one end of the piston there is a rod, which can reciprocate. At the opposite
end, there is a port for the entrance and exit of oil. Single-acting cylinders produce force in one direction by
hydraulic pressure acting on the piston. (Single-acting cylinders can exert a force in the extending direction only.)
The return of the piston is not done hydraulically. In single-acting cylinders, retraction is done either by gravity
or by a spring.

Figure 1 : Single-acting cylinder

According to the type of return, single-acting cylinders are classified as follows:

 Gravity-return single-acting cylinder.

 Spring-return single-acting cylinder
Gravity-Return Single-Acting Cylinder
Figure.2 shows gravity-return-type single-acting cylinders. In the push type [Fig. 2(a)], the cylinder extends to lift
a weight against the force of gravity by applying oil pressure at the blank end. The oil is passed through the blank-
end port or pressure port. The rod-end port or vent port is open to atmosphere so that air can flow freely in and
out of the rod end of the cylinder. To retract the cylinder, the pressure is simply removed from the piston by
connecting the pressure port to the tank. This allows the weight of the load to push the fluid out of the cylinder
back to the tank. In pull-type gravity-return-type single-acting cylinder, the cylinder [Fig. 2(b)] lifts the weight by
retracting. The blank-end port is the pressure port and blind-end port is now the vent port. This cylinder
automatically extends whenever the pressure port is connected to the tank.

Figure 2 : Gravity-return single-acting cylinder: (a) Push type; (b) pull type

Spring-Return Single-Acting Cylinder

A spring-return single-acting cylinder is shown in Fig.3.In push type [Fig.3 (a)], the pressure is sent through the
pressure port situated at the blank end of the cylinder. When the pressure is released, the spring automatically
returns the cylinder to the fully retracted position. The vent port is open to atmosphere so that air can flow freely
in and out of the rod end of the cylinder. Fig.3 (b) shows a spring-return single-acting cylinder. In this design, the
cylinder retracts when the pressure port is connected to the pump flow and extends whenever the pressure port is
connected to the tank. Here the pressure port is situated at the rod end of the cylinder.

Figure 3 : (a) Push- and (b) pull-type single-acting cylinders

2. Double-Acting Cylinder
There are two types of double-acting cylinders:

 Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side.

 Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides

Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Side

Figure 4 shows the operation of a double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side. To extend the cylinder,
the pump flow is sent to the blank-end port as in Fig. 4(a). The fluid from the rod-end port returns to the reservoir.
To retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod-end port and the fluid from the blank-end port returns to
the tank as in Fig.4 (b).
 Figure 4 : Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side

Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on Both Sides

A double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides (Fig.5) is a cylinder with a rod extending from both ends.
This cylinder can be used in an application where work can be done by both ends of the cylinder, thereby making
the cylinder more productive. Double-rod cylinders can withstand higher side loads because they have an extra
bearing, one on each rod, to withstand the loading.

Figure 5 : Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side

3. Telescopic Cylinder
A telescopic cylinder (shown in Fig. 6) is used when a long stroke length and a short retracted length are required.
The telescopic cylinder extends in stages, each stage consisting of a sleeve that fits inside the previous stage. One
application for this type of cylinder is raising a dump truck bed. Telescopic cylinders are available in both single-
acting and double-acting models. They are more expensive than standard cylinders due to their more complex
construction.

They generally consist of a nest of tubes and operate on the displacement principle. The tubes are supported
by bearing rings, the innermost (rear) set of which have grooves or channels to allow fluid flow. The front bearing
assembly on each section includes seals and wiper rings. Stop rings limit the movement of each section, thus
preventing separation. When the cylinder extends, all the sections move together until the outer section is
prevented from further extension by its stop ring. The remaining sections continue out-stroking until the second
outermost section reaches the limit of its stroke; this process continues until all sections are extended, the
innermost one being the last of all.

For a given input flow rate, the speed of operation increases in steps as each successive section reaches the
end of its stroke. Similarly, for a specific pressure, the load-lifting capacity decreases for each successive section.
 Figure 6 : Telescopic cylinder

4. Tandem Cylinder

Figure 7 : Tandem cylinder

A tandem cylinder, shown in Fig. 1.7, is used in applications where a large amount of force is required from a
small-diameter cylinder. Pressure is applied to both pistons, resulting in increased force because of the larger area.
The drawback is that these cylinders must be longer than a standard cylinder to achieve an equal speed because
flow must go to both pistons.

Through-Rod Cylinders
These are similar in construction to the standard double-acting cylinders, but have a cylinder rod extending
through both cylinder end caps. Although it is possible to have both the piston rods with different diameters at
each end of the cylinder, generally the rods have the same diameters. The main applications of through-rod
cylinders are as follows: the same speed is required in both the directions, both ends of the rod can be utilized to
do work and the non-working end is used to indicate or signal the position of the load. In some applications, the
rod is fixed at both the ends and the cylinder body carrying the load moves on the rod. A major problem in the
manufacture of through-rod cylinders is achieving the correct alignment and concentricity of cylinder bore, piston,
end caps and rods. Any misalignment can result in excessive seal wear and premature cylinder failure.

Displacement Cylinders
A displacement-type hydraulic cylinder shown in Fig. 8 consists of a rod that is displaced from inside a tube by
pumping hydraulic fluid into the tube. The volume of the rod leaving the tube is equal to the volume of fluid
entering the tube, hence the name “displacement cylinder.” The rod of the displacement cylinder is guided by
bearings in the nose or neck of the cylinder body. A collar on the end of the rod prevents it from being ejected and
limits the stroke of the cylinder. Elastomer seals in the neck prevent any leakage of fluid along the outside of the
rod. This design is a single-acting “push” or extension cylinder, which has to be retracted by gravity, a spring or
some external force. The bore of the cylinder body does not require machining other than that for the neck bearing
and the inlet port; the manufacturing cost is, therefore, low when compared with other types or hydraulic cylinders.
The maximum thrust exerted by a displacement cylinder is given by

𝜋𝑑 2
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑅𝑜𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑝 ×
4
where d is the diameter of the rod. The extending speed of the rod is given by:
 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑅𝑜𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑑

Figure 8 : Displacement cylinders

5. Ram Cylinder
The terms ram and piston are often used interchangeably. However, a ram-type cylinder is usually considered
one in which the cross-sectional area of the piston rod is more than one-half the cross-sectional area of the
movable element. In most actuating cylinders of this type, the rod and the movable element have equal areas.
This type of movable element is frequently referred to as a plunger. The ram-type actuator is used primarily to
push rather than to pull. Some applications require simply a flat surface on the external part of the ram for
pushing or lifting the unit tobe operated. Other applications require some mechanical means of attachment,
such as a clevisor eyebolt. The design of ram-type cylinders varies in many other respects to satisfy the
requirements of different applications.

Single-Acting Ram
The single-acting ram applies force in only one direction. The fluid that is directed into the cylinder displaces the
ram and forces it outward, lifting the object placed on it. Since there is no provision for retracting the ram by
fluid power, when fluid pressure is released, either the weight of the object or some mechanical means, such as
a spring, forces the ram back into the cylinder. This forces the fluid back to the reservoir. The single-acting
ram-type actuating cylinder is often used in the hydraulic jack. The elevators used to move aircraft to and from
the flight deck and hangar deck on aircraft carriers also use cylinders of this type. In these elevators, the
cylinders are installed horizontally and operate the elevator through a series of cables and sheaves. Fluid pressure
forces the ram outward and lifts the elevator. When fluid pressure is released from the ram, the weight of the
elevator forces the ram back into the cylinder. This, in turn, forces the fluid back into the reservoir.

Double-Acting Ram
A double-acting ram-type cylinder is illustrated in the figure below. In this cylinder, both strokes of the ram are
produced by pressurized fluid. There are two fluid ports, one at or near each end of the cylinder. Fluid under
pressure is directed to the closed end of the cylinder to extend the ram and apply force. To retract the ram and
reduce the force, fluid is directed to the opposite end of the cylinder. A four-way directional control valve is
normally used to control the double-acting ram. When the valve is positioned to extend the ram, pressurized fluid
enters port A, acts on the bottom surface of the ram, and forces the ram outward. Fluid above the ram lip is free
to flow out of port B, through the control valve, and to the return line in hydraulic systems or to the
atmosphere in pneumatic systems. Normally, the pressure of the fluid is the same for either stroke of the ram.
Recall that force is equal to pressure times area (F= PA). Notice the difference of the areas upon which the pressure
acts in figure. The pressure acts against the large surface area on the
bottom of the ram during the extension stroke, during which time the ram applies force. Since the ram
does not require a large force during the retraction stroke, pressure acting on the small area
on the top surface of the ram lip provides the necessary force to retract the ram.

3.3 HYDRAULIC CYLINDER CUSHIONS

Double-acting cylinders sometimes contain cylinder cushions at the ends of the cylinder to slow the piston down
near the ends of the stroke. This prevents excessive impact when the piston is stopped by the end caps, as illustrated
in Figure 6-16. As shown, deceleration starts when the tapered plunger enters the opening in the cap. This restricts
the exhaust flow from the barrel to the port. During the last small portion of the stroke, the oil must exhaust
through an adjustable opening. The cushion design also incorporates a check valve to allow free flow to the piston
during direction reversal. The maximum pressure developed by cushions at the ends of a cylinder must be
considered since excessive pressure build up would rupture the cylinder

Figure 9 : Operation of cylinder cushions.

Example 3-1 illustrates how to calculate this pressure, which decelerates the piston at the ends of its extension
and retraction strokes.

EXAMPLE 3-1
A pump delivers oil at a rate of 18.2 gpm into the blank end of the 3-in-diameter hydraulic cylinder shown in
figure given below. The piston contains a 1-in-diameter cushion plunger that is 0.75 in long, and therefore the
piston decelerates over a distance of 0.75 in at the end of its extension stroke. The cylinder drives a 1500-lb weight,
which slides on a flat horizontal surface having a coefficient of friction (CF) equal to 0.12. The pressure relief
valve setting equals 750 psi. Therefore, the maximum pressure (p 1) at the blank end of the cylinder equals 750 psi
while the cushion is decelerating the piston. Find the maximum pressure (p 2) developed by the cushion.

Solution

Step 1: Calculate the steady-state piston velocity u prior to deceleration:

𝑄𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 (18.2/449) 0.0406

𝑣= = 2
= = 0.83 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 [(𝜋/4)(3) /144] 0.049

Step 2: Calculate the deceleration ‘a’ of the piston during the 0.75-in displacement S using the constant
acceleration (or deceleration) equation:

𝑣 2 = 2𝑎𝑆

𝑣2 (0.83𝑓𝑡/𝑠)2
𝑎= = = 5.51 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
2𝑠 2(0.75/12𝑓𝑡)

Step 3: Use Newton’s law of motion: The sum of all external forces ΣF acting on a mass m equals the product of
the mass m and its acceleration or deceleration a:

Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

When substituting into Newton’s equation, we shall consider forces that tend to slow down the piston as being
positive forces. Also, the mass m equals the mass of all the moving members (piston, rod, and load). Since the
weight of the piston and rod is small compared to the weight of the load, the weight of the piston and rod will be
ignored. Also note that mass m equals weight W divided by the acceleration of gravity g. The frictional retarding
force f between the weight W and its horizontal support surface equals CF times W. This frictional force is the
external load force acting on the cylinder while it is moving the weight.

Substituting into Newton’s equation yields,

𝑎
𝑝2 (𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝐴𝑐𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 ) + (𝐶𝐹)𝑊 − 𝑝1 (𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 ) = 𝑊
𝑔

Solving for p2 yields a usable equation:

(𝑊/𝑔)𝑎 + 𝑝1 (𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 ) − (𝐶𝐹)𝑊

𝑝2 =
𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝐴𝑐𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟

Substituting known values produces the desired result:

((1500)(5.51)/32.2) + 750(𝜋⁄4)(3)2 − (0.12)1500

𝑝2 =
(𝜋⁄4)(3)2 − (𝜋⁄4)(1)2
On solving,

𝑝2 = 856 𝑝𝑠𝑖

3.4 CYLINDER FORCE, VELOCITY, AND POWER

The output force (F) and piston velocity (u) of double-acting cylinders are not the same for extension and retraction
strokes. This is explained as follows (in conjunction with Figure 10):

Figure 10 : The effective area of double-acting cylinders is greater for the extension stroke than it is for the retraction stroke

During the extension stroke, fluid enters the blank end of the cylinder through the entire circular area of the piston
(Ap). However, during the retraction stroke, fluid enters the rod end through the smaller annular area between the
rod and cylinder bore (Ap - Ar), where Ap equals the piston area and Ar equals the rod area. This difference in
flow-path cross-sectional area accounts for the difference in piston velocities. Since Ap is greater than (Ap - Ar),
the retraction velocity is greater than the extension velocity for the same input flow rate. Similarly, during the
extension stroke, fluid pressure bears on the entire circular area of the piston. However, during the retraction
stroke, fluid pressure bears only on the smaller annular area between the piston rod and cylinder bore. This
difference in area accounts for the difference in output forces. Since Ap is greater than (Ap - Ar), the extension
force is greater than the retraction force for the same operating pressure. Equations given below allow for the
calculation of the output force and velocity for the extension and retraction strokes of 100% efficient double-
acting cylinders

Extension Stroke

𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑝 × 𝐴𝑝

(1)

𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
𝐴𝑝

(2)

Retraction Stroke

𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑝 × (𝐴𝑝 − 𝐴𝑟 )

(3)

𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
(𝐴𝑝 − 𝐴𝑟 )

(4)

The power developed by a hydraulic cylinder equals the product of its force and velocity during a given stroke.
Using this relationship and Eqs.1 and 2 for the extending stroke and Eqs.3 and 4 for the retraction stroke, we arrive
at the same result: Power = p × Qin. Thus, we conclude that the power developed equals the product of pressure
and cylinder input volume flow rate for both the extension and retraction strokes.

The horsepower developed by a hydraulic cylinder for either the extension or retraction stroke can be found using:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑝 × 𝐹 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 × 𝑝

Note that the equating of the input hydraulic power and the output mechanical power in the above equation
assumes a 100% efficient hydraulic cylinder.

3.4 ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION OF CYLINDER LOADS

Cylinders are subjected to acceleration and deceleration during their operation. Cylinders are decelerated to
provide cushioning and cylinders are accelerated to reduce the cycle time of the operation.

Acceleration
To calculate the acceleration of cylinder loads, the equations of motion must be understood. Let u be the initial
velocity, v the velocity after a time t,s the distance moved during the time t and a the acceleration during the time
t .The standard equations of motion are as follows:

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝑠= (𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
2
The force F to accelerate a weight W horizontally with an acceleration a is given by

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑊
𝐹 = 𝑎
𝑔

, where g is the acceleration due to gravity and is 9.81 m/s2.

The force P required to overcome friction is given by

𝑃 = µ𝑊

, where µ is the coefficient of friction.

Note: Dynamic cylinder thrust

In dynamic applications, the load inertia, seal friction, load friction, etc., must be allowed for calculating
the dynamic thrust. As a first approximation, the dynamic thrust can be taken as 0.9 times the static thrust. Cylinder
seal friction varies with seal and cylinder design. The pressure required to overcome seal friction is not readily
available from the majority of cylinder manufacturers. The seal friction breakout pressure can be taken as 5 bar
for calculation purposes. It reduces when the piston starts to move. The pressure required to overcome seal friction
reduces as the cylinder bore size increases and varies according to the seal design.

3.5 CYLINDER MOUNTINGS

Various types of cylinder mountings are in existence, as illustrated in Figure 11. This permits versatility in the
anchoring of cylinders. The rod ends are usually threaded so that they can be attached directly to the load, a clevis,
a yoke, or some other mating device. Through the use of various mechanical linkages, the applications of hydraulic
cylinders are limited only by the ingenuity of the fluid power designer. As illustrated in Figure 12, these linkages
can transform a linear motion into either an oscillating or rotary motion. In addition, linkages can also be employed
to increase or decrease the effective leverage and stroke of a cylinder.
 Figure 11 : Various cylinder mountings

Figure 12 : Typical mechanical linkages that can be combined with hydraulic cylinders

Much effort has been made by manufacturers of hydraulic cylinders to reduce or eliminate the side loading of
cylinders created as a result of misalignment. It is almost impossible to achieve perfect alignment even though the
alignment of a hydraulic cylinder has a direct bearing on its life. A universal alignment mounting accessory
designed to reduce misalignment problems is illustrated in Figure 13. By using one of these accessory components
and a mating clevis at each end of the cylinder (see Figure 13), the following benefits are obtained:

1. Freer range of mounting positions

2. Reduced cylinder binding and side loading
3. Allowance for universal swivel
4. Reduced bearing and tube wear
5. Elimination of piston blow-by caused by misalignment

Figure 13 : Universal alignment mounting accessory for fluid cylinders

3.6 CYLINDER LOADS DUE TO MOVING OF WEIGHTS

The force a cylinder must produce equals the load the cylinder is required to overcome. In many cases the load is
due to the weight of an object the cylinder is attempting to move. In the case of a vertical cylinder, the load simply
equals the weight of the object because gravity acts in a downward, vertical direction. Sometimes a cylinder is
used to slide an object along a horizontal surface. In this case, the cylinder load is theoretically zero. This is
because there is no component of the object’s weight acting along the axis of the cylinder (a horizontal direction).
However, as the object slides across the horizontal surface, the cylinder must overcome the frictional force created
between the object and the horizontal surface. This frictional force, which equals the load acting on the cylinder,
opposes the direction of motion of the moving object. If the cylinder is mounted in neither a vertical nor horizontal
direction, the cylinder load equals the component of the object’s weight acting along the axis of the cylinder, plus
a frictional force if the object is sliding along an inclined surface. Thus for an inclined cylinder, the load the
cylinder must overcome is less than the weight of the object to be moved if the object is not sliding on an inclined
surface. The cylinder loads described up to now are based on moving an object at a constant velocity. However,
an object to be moved at a given velocity is initially at rest. Thus the object has to be accelerated from zero velocity
up to a steady state (constant) velocity as determined by the pump flow rate entering the cylinder. This acceleration
represents an additional force (called an inertial force) that must be added to the weight component and any
frictional force involved.

3.7 CYLINDER LOADINGS THROUGH MECHANICAL LINKAGES

In many applications, the load force that a hydraulic cylinder must overcome does not act along the axis of the
hydraulic cylinder. Thus, the load force and the hydraulic cylinder force are in general not equal. The following
is an analysis on how to determine the hydraulic cylinder force required to drive non-axial loads using the first-
class, second-class, and third-class lever systems of Figure 12. Note from Figure 12 that in first-class, second-
class, and third-class lever systems, the cylinder rod and load rod are pin connected by a lever that can rotate about
a fixed hinge pin. A similar analysis can be made of any of the other types of linkage arrangements shown in
Figure 12.

First-Class Lever System

Figure 6-12 shows a first-class lever system, which is characterized by the lever fixed hinge pin being located
between the cylinder and load rod pins. Note that the length of the lever portion from the cylinder rod pin to the
fixed hinge is L1, whereas the length of the lever portion from the load rod pin to the fixed hinge is L2. To determine
the cylinder force Fcyl required to drive a load force Fload, we equate moments about the fixed hinge, which is the
pivot point of the lever. The cylinder force attempts to rotate the lever counter clockwise about the pivot, and this
creates a counter clockwise moment. Similarly, the load force creates a clockwise moment about the pivot. At
equilibrium, these two moments are equal in magnitude:

𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐹𝑐𝑦𝑙 (𝐿1 cos 𝜃) = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿2 cos 𝜃)

 𝐿2
𝐹𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 𝐹
𝐿1 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
(5)

Figure 14 : Use of a first-class lever system to drive a load

It should be noted that the cylinder is clevis-mounted (see Figure 11 for the clevis-mount design) to allow the rod-
pinned end to travel along the circular path of the lever as it rotates about its fixed-hinge pin. If the center line of
the hydraulic cylinder becomes offset by an angle φ from the vertical, as shown in Figure 14, the relationship
becomes:

𝐹𝑐𝑦𝑙 (𝐿1 cos 𝜃 cos ∅) = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿2 cos 𝜃)

𝐿2
𝐹𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 𝐹
𝐿1 cos ∅ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
(6)

Examination of Eq.5 shows that when L1 (distance from cylinder rod to hinge pin) is greater than L2, the cylinder
force is less than the load force. Of course, this results in a load stroke that is less than the cylinder stroke, as
required by the conservation of energy law. When φ is 10° or less, the value of cos φ is very nearly unity (cos 0°
= 1 and cos 10° = 0.985) and thus Eq.5 can be used instead of Eq.6.

The length of the moment arm for either the cylinder force or the load force is the perpendicular distance
from the hinge pin to the line of action of the force. Thus, for the development of Eq.5, the moment arms are L1
cos θ and L2 cos θ rather than simply L1 and L2. Similarly, for the development of Eq.6, the moment arm for the
cylinder force is L1 cos θ × cos φ, rather than simply L1 cos θ, which is based on the assumption that φ = 0°.

Second-Class Lever System

Figure 15 : Use of a second class lever system to drive a load

Figure 15 shows a second-class lever system, which is characterized by the load rod pin being located between
the fixed-hinge pin and cylinder rod pin of the lever. The analysis is accomplished by equating moments about
the fixed-hinge pin, as follows:

𝐹𝑐𝑦𝑙 cos ∅ (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿2 cos 𝜃)

𝐿2
𝐹𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 𝐹
(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) cos ∅ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
(7)

Comparing Eq. (6) to Eq. (7) shows that a smaller cylinder force is required to drive a given load force for a given
lever length if a second-class lever is used instead of a first-class lever. Thus, using a second-class lever rather
than a first-class lever reduces the required cylinder piston area for a given application. Of course, using a second-
class lever also results in a smaller load stroke for a given cylinder stroke.

Third-Class Lever System

Figure 16 : Use of a third-class lever system to drive a load

As shown in Figure 16, for a third-class lever system the cylinder rod pin lies between the load rod pin and
fixed-hinge pin of the lever. Equating moments about the fixed-hinge pin yields:

𝐹𝑐𝑦𝑙 cos ∅ 𝐿2 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) cos 𝜃

𝐿1 + 𝐿2
𝐹𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 𝐹
𝐿2 cos ∅ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
(8)

Examination of Eq. (8) reveals that for a third-class lever, the cylinder force is greater than the load force. The
reason for using a third-class lever system would be to produce a load stroke that is greater than the cylinder
stroke, at the expense of requiring a larger cylinder diameter.

3.8 ROTARY ACTUATORS

Introduction
Hydraulic motors are rotary actuators. However, the name rotary actuator is reserved for a particular type of unit
that is limited in rotation to less than 360.A hydraulic motor is a device which converts fluid power into rotary
power or converts fluid pressure into torque. Torque is a function of pressure or, in other words, the motor input
pressure level is determined by the resisting torque at the output shaft. A hydraulic pump is a device which
converts mechanical force and motion into fluid power. A hydraulic motor is not a hydraulic pump when run
backward. A design that is completely acceptable as a motor may operate very poorly as a pump in a certain
applications. Differences between a hydraulic motor and a hydraulic pump are given in Table 1.1
 Table 1 : Comparison of hydraulic motor and hydraulic pump

Hydraulic Motor Hydraulic Pump

It is a device for delivering torque at a given pressure. It is a device for delivering flow at a given pressure.
The main emphasis is on mechanical efficiency and The main emphasis is on volumetric efficiency and
torque that can be transmitted. flow.
Motors usually operate over a wide range of speed, Pumps usually operate at high RPM.
from a low RPM to high RPM
Most motors are designed for bidirectional In most situations, pumps usually operate in one
applications such as braking loads, rotary tables. direction.
Motors may be idle for long time (as in index table). Pumps usually operate continuously.
Motors are subjected to high side loads (from gears, Majority of pumps are not subjected to side loads.
chains, belt-driven pulleys). Usually pumps are pad mounted on power pack top
and shaft is connected to the prime mover directly.

Hydraulic motors have become popular in industries. Hydraulic motors can be applied directly to the work. They
provide excellent control for acceleration, operating speed, deceleration, smooth reversals and positioning. They
also provide flexibility in design and eliminate much of bulk and weight of mechanical and electrical power
transmission. The applications of hydraulic motors in their various combinations with pumping units are termed
hydrostatic transmission.

A hydrostatic transmission converts mechanical power into fluid power and then reconverts fluid power into shaft
power. The advantages of hydrostatic transmissions include power transmission to remote areas, infinitely
variable speed control, self-overload protection, reverse rotation capability, dynamic braking and a high power-
to-weight ratio. Applications include material-handling equipment, farm tractors, railway locomotives, buses,
lawn mowers and machine tools. New fields of applications are being discovered constantly for hydrostatic
transmissions. Farm implements, road machinery, material-handling equipment, Numerical Control (NC)
machines high-performance aircrafts, military uses and special machinery are only a few of new fields expanding
through the use of fluid power transmission. Many automobiles, railway locomotives and buses use a hydrostatic
transmission.

Application
Hydraulic motors have become popular in industries. Hydraulic motors can be applied directly to the work. They
provide excellent control for acceleration, operating speed, deceleration, smooth reversals and positioning. They
also provide flexibility in design and eliminate much of bulk and weight of mechanical and electrical power
transmission. The applications of hydraulic motors in their various combinations with pumping units are termed
hydrostatic transmission.

A hydrostatic transmission converts mechanical power into fluid power and then reconverts fluid power
into shaft power. The advantages of hydrostatic transmissions include power transmission to remote areas,
infinitely variable speed control, self-overload protection, reverse rotation capability, dynamic braking and a high
power-to-weight ratio. Applications include material-handling equipment, farm tractors, railway locomotives,
buses, lawn mowers and machine tools.

New fields of applications are being discovered constantly for hydrostatic transmissions. Farm
implements, road machinery, material-handling equipment, Numerical Control(NC) machines high-performance
aircrafts, military uses and special machinery are only a few of new fields expanding through the use of fluid
power transmission. Many automobiles, railway locomotives and buses use a hydrostatic transmission.
Table 2 : Comparison of electric and hydraulic motors

Electric Motor Hydraulic Motor

Electric motors cannot be stopped instantly. Their Hydraulic motors can be stalled for any length of time.
direction of rotation cannot be reversed instantly. This Their direction of rotation can be instantly reversed
is because of air gap between the rotor and stator and and their rotational speed can be infinitely varied
the weak magnetic field. without affecting their torque. They can be braked
instantly and have immense torque capacities.
 Electric motors are heavy and bulky. Hydraulic motors are very compact compared to
electric motors. For the same power, they occupy
about 25% of the space required by electric motors
and weigh about 10% of electric motors.
Moment of inertia-to-torque ratio is nearly 100. Moment of inertia-to-torque ratio is nearly 1.

Classification of Hydraulic Motors

There are two types of hydraulic motors: (a) High-speed low-torque motors and (b) low–speed high-torque motors.
In high-speed low-torque motors, the shaft is driven directly from either the barrel or the cam plate, whereas in
low-speed high-torque motors, the shaft is driven through a differential gear arrangement that reduces the speed
and increases the torque. Depending upon the mechanism employed to provide shaft rotation, hydraulic motors
can be classified as follows:

1. Gear motors.
2. Vane motors.
3. Piston motors:
 Axial piston-type motors.
 Radial piston-type motors.

Gear motors are the least efficient, most dirt-tolerant and have the lowest pressure rating of 3. Piston motors are
the most efficient, least dirt-tolerant and have high pressure ratings. Vane and piston motors can be fixed or
variable displacement, but gear motors are available with only fixed displacement.

GEAR MOTOR
A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting against the area of one tooth. There are two teeth
trying to move the rotor in the proper direction, while one net tooth at the center mesh tries to move it in the
opposite direction. In the design of a gear motor, one of the gears is keyed to an output shaft, while the other is
simply an idler gear. Pressurized oil is sent to the inlet port of the motor. Pressure is then applied to the gear teeth,
causing the gears and output shaft to rotate. The pressure builds until enough torque is generated to rotate the
output shaft against the load. The side load on the motor bearing is quite high, because all the hydraulic pressure
is on one side. This limits the bearing life of the motor. Schematic diagram of gear motor is shown in Fig.1.1.
Most of the gear motors are bidirectional. Reversing the direction of flow can reverse the direction of rotation. As
in the case of gear pumps, volumetric displacement is fixed. Due to the high pressure at the inlet and low pressure
at the outlet, a large side load on the shaft and bearings is produced. Gear motors are normally limited to 150 bar
operating pressures and 2500 RPM operating speed. They are available with a maximum flow capacity of 600
LPM. The gear motors are simple in construction and have good dirt tolerance, but their efficiencies are lower
than those of vane or piston pumps and they leak more than the piston units. Generally, they are not used as servo
motors. Hydraulic motors can also be of internal gear design. These types can operate at higher pressures and
speeds and also have greater displacements than external gear motors.

Figure 17 : Torque development by a gear motor

VANE MOTOR
Vane motors develop torque by the hydraulic pressure acting on the exposed surfaces of the vanes, which slide in
and out of the rotor connected to the drive shaft (see Figure 18, view A). As the rotor revolves, the vanes follow
the surface of the cam ring because springs (not shown in Figure 18) are used to force the vanes radically outward.
No centrifugal force exists until the rotor starts to revolve. Therefore, the vanes must have some means other than
centrifugal force to hold them against the cam ring.

Figure 18 : Operation of a vane motor.

Some designs use springs, whereas other types use pressure-loaded vanes. The sliding action of the vanes forms
sealed chambers, which carry the fluid from the inlet to the outlet. Vane motors are universally of the balanced
design illustrated in view B of Figure 18. In this design, pressure build up at either port is directed to two
interconnected cavities located 180° apart. The side loads that are created are therefore cancelled out. Since vane
motors are hydraulically balanced, they are fixed displacement units. Figure 19 shows a design where pivoted
rocker arms are attached to the rotor and serve as springs to force the vanes outward against the elliptical cam
ring. This type of motor is available to operate at pressures up to 2500 psi and at speeds up to 4000 rpm. The
maximum flow delivery is 250 gpm. Figure 20 is a photograph showing a cutaway view of one of these motors
that is rated at 5000 psi and has a 250 cubic inch volumetric displacement.

Figure 19 : Vane motors with spring-loaded vanes.

 Figure 20 : Hydraulic vane motor

PISTON MOTOR
Piston motors are classified into the following types:

1. According to the piston of the cylinder block and the drive shaft, piston motors are classified as follows:
 Axial piston motors.
 Radial piston motors.
2. According to the basis of displacement, piston motors are classified as follows:
 Fixed-displacement piston motors.
 Variable-displacement piston motors.

Axial Piston Motor

Swash Plate Design
Piston motors can be either fixed or variable displacement units. They generate torque by pressure acting on the
ends of pistons reciprocating inside a cylinder block. Figure 21 illustrates the in-line design in which the motor
driveshaft and cylinder block are centered on the same axis. Pressure acting on the ends of the pistons generates
a force against an angled swash plate. This causes the cylinder block to rotate with a torque that is proportional to
the area of the pistons. The torque is also a function of the swash plate angle. The in-line piston motor is designed
either as a fixed or variable displacement unit (see Figure 22). As illustrated in Figure 23, the swash plate angle
determines the volumetric displacement. In variable displacement units, the swash plate is mounted in a swinging
yoke. The angle of the swash plate can be altered by various means, such as a lever handwheel, or servo control.
If the swash plate angle is increased, the torque capacity is increased, but the driveshaft speed is decreased.
Mechanical stops are usually incorporated so that the torque and speed capacities stay within prescribed limits.

Figure 21 : In-line piston motor operation.

 Figure 22 : Two configurations of in-line piston motors

Figure 23 : Motor displacement varies with swash plate angle.

Bent Axis Design

A bent-axis piston motor is illustrated in Figure 24. This type of motor also develops torque due to pressure acting
on reciprocating pistons. This design, however has the cylinder block and driveshaft mounted at an angle to each
other so that the force is exerted on the driveshaft flange. Speed and torque depend on the angle between the
cylinder block and driveshaft. The larger the angle, the greater the displacement and torque but the smaller the
speed. This angle varies from a minimum of 7 ° to a maximum of 30°. Figure 25 shows a fixed displacement bent-
axis motor, whereas Figure 26 illustrates the variable displacement design in which the displacement is varied by
a handwheel. Piston motors are the most efficient of the three basic types and are capable of operating at the
highest speeds and pressures. Operating speeds of 12,000 rpm and pressures of 5000 psi can be obtained with
piston motors. Large piston motors are capable of delivering flows up to 450 gpm.

Figure 24 : Bent-axis piston motor

 Figure 25 : Fixed displacement bent-axis piston motor

Figure 26 : Variable displacement bent-axis piston motor with hand wheel control.

Radial Piston Motor

The radial-piston motor operates in reverse of the radial-piston pump. In the radial-piston pump, as the cylinder
block rotates, the pistons press against the rotor and are forced in and out of the cylinders, thereby receiving fluid
and pushing it out into the system. In the radial motor, fluid is forced into the cylinders and drives the pistons
outward. The pistons pushing against the rotor cause the cylinder block to rotate. The operation of a
radial-piston motor is shown in figure 27. This motor is shown with three pistons for simplicity. Normally it
contains seven or nine pistons. When liquid is forced into the cylinder bore containing piston 1, the piston moves
outward since the liquid cannot be compressed. This causes the cylinder to rotate in clockwise direction. As
the force acting on piston 1 causes the cylinder block to rotate, piston2 starts to rotate and approach
the position of piston 3. (Note that the distance between the cylinder block and the reaction ring of the rotor
gets progressively shorter on the top and right half of the rotor.)As piston 2 rotates, it is forced inward and, in turn,
forces the fluid out of the cylinder. Since there is little or no pressure on this side of the pintle valve, the
piston is easily moved in by its contact with the reaction ring of the rotor. The fluid is easily forced out of
the cylinder and back to the reservoir or to the inlet side of the pump. As the piston moves past the midpoint, or
past the shortest distance between the cylinder block and the rotor, it enters the pressure side of the pintle valve
and fluid is forced into the cylinder. Piston 3 then becomes the pushing piston and in turn rotates the cylinder
block. This action continues as long as fluid under pressure enters the cylinders. The direction of rotation of the
motor (fig.27) is changed by reversing the flow of fluid to it. Admitting fluid under pressure on the topside of the
pintle valve forces piston 3 out of the cylinder block. This causes the cylinder to rotate in the counter clockwise
direction.

Figure 27 : Radial piston pump operation

LIMITED HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
A limited rotation hydraulic motor (also called oscillation motor or rotary actuator) provides rotary output motion
over a finite angle. This device produces high instantaneous torque in either direction and requires only a small
space and simple mountings. Rotary actuators consist of a chamber or chambers containing the working fluid and
a movable surface against which the fluid acts. The movable surface is connected to an output shaft to produce
the output motion. A direct acting vane-type actuator is shown schematically along with its graphic symbol in
Figure 7-2. Fluid under pressure is directed to one side of the moving vane, causing it to rotate. This type provides
about 280° of rotation. Vane unit capacity ranges from 3 to 1 million in · lb. Rotary actuators are available with
working pressures up to 5000 psi. They are typically mounted by foot, flange, and end mounts. Cushioning devices
are available in most designs. Figure 7-3 shows an actual rotary actuator similar to the design depicted
schematically in Figure 7-2. Since it contains two vanes, the maximum angle of rotation is reduced to about 100°.
However, the torque-carrying capacity is twice that obtained by a single-vane design. This particular unit can
operate with either air or oil at pressures up to 1000 psi.

Figure 28 : Limited rotation hydraulic motor

Figure 29 : Actual design of rotary actuator

3.9 HYDRAULIC MOTOR THEORETICAL TORQUE, POWER, AND

FLOW RATE
Due to frictional losses, a hydraulic motor delivers less torque than it should theoretically. The theoretical torque
(which is the torque that a frictionless hydraulic motor would deliver) can be determined by:
𝑉𝐷 × 𝑝
𝑇𝑇 =
2𝜋

Thus, the theoretical torque is proportional not only to the pressure but also to the volumetric displacement. The
theoretical horsepower (which is the horsepower a frictionless hydraulic motor would develop) can also be
mathematically expressed as:
𝑉𝐷 × 𝑝 × 𝑁
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑇 × 𝑁 =
2𝜋
Also, due to leakage, a hydraulic motor consumes more flow rate than it should theoretically. The theoretical flow
rate is the flow rate a hydraulic motor would consume if there were no leakage. As is the case for pumps, the
following equation gives the relationship among speed, volumetric displacement, and theoretical flow rate:

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑉𝐷 × 𝑁

3.10 HYDRAULIC MOTOR PERFORMANCE

Introduction
The performance of any hydraulic motor depends on the precision of its manufacture as well as the maintenance
of close tolerances under design operating conditions. As in the case for pumps, internal leakage (slippage)
between the inlet and outlet reduces the volumetric efficiency of a hydraulic motor. Similarly, friction between
mating parts and due to fluid turbulence reduces the mechanical efficiency of a hydraulic motor. Gear motors
typically have an overall efficiency of 70 to 75% as compared to 75 to 85% for vane motors and 85 to 95% for
piston motors. Some systems require that a hydraulic motor start under load. Such systems should include a stall-
torque factor when making design calculations. For example, only about 80% of the maximum torque can be
expected if the motor is required to start either under load or operate at speeds below 500 rpm.

Motor torque is divided into three separate groups:

1. Starting torque: The starting torque is the turning force the motor exerts from a dead stop.
2. Running torque: Running torque is exerted when the motor is running and changes whenever there is a change
in fluid pressure.
3. Stalling torque: Stalling torque is the torque necessary to stop the motor. In most hydraulic motors, the stalling
and starting torques are equal. Usually, starting torque is 75–80% of the maximum design torque

Motor Efficiencies
Hydraulic motor performance is evaluated on the same three efficiencies (volumetric, mechanical, and overall)
used for hydraulic pumps. They are defined for motors as follows:

1. Volumetric efficiency (ηu). The volumetric efficiency of a hydraulic motor is the inverse of that for a pump.
This is because a pump does not produce as much flow as it should theoretically, whereas a motor uses more
flow than it should theoretically due to leakage. Thus, we have:
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑄𝑇
𝜂𝑣 = =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐴
2. Mechanical efficiency (ηm). The mechanical efficiency of a hydraulic motor is the inverse of that for a pump.
This is because due to friction, a pump requires a greater torque than it should theoretically whereas a motor
produces less torque than it should theoretically. Thus, we have
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑇
𝜂𝑚 = =
𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝐴

3. Overall efficiency (ηo). As in the case for pumps, the overall efficiency of a hydraulic motor equals the product
of the volumetric and mechanical efficiencies.
𝜂𝑜 = 𝜂𝑣 . 𝜂𝑚
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜂𝑜 =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝐴 × 𝑁
𝜂𝑜 =
𝑝 × 𝑄𝐴

Note that the actual power delivered to a motor by the fluid is called hydraulic power and the actual power
delivered to a load by a motor via a rotating shaft is called brake power. Figure 30 represents typical performance
curves obtained for a 6-in3 variable displacement motor operating at full displacement. The upper graph gives
curves of overall and volumetric efficiencies as a function of motor speed (rpm) for pressure levels of 3000 and
5000 psi. The lower graph gives curves of motor input flow (gpm) and motor output torque (in · lb) as a function
of motor speed (rpm) for the same two pressure levels.
Figure 30 : Performance curves for 6-in3 variable displacement motor