Mitosis

• Cell division that results in 2 daughter cells

HHH. ANAPHASE
with the same number and same kind of
chromosomes
• Also known as karyokinesis
• Characteristics:
o 2 cells produced
o Diploid daughter cells o
Diploid parent cells o Involved
in asexual
reproduction - because it results
in identical daughter cells
• Chromosomes are split into two by
o Results in body cells o One
the movement of the spindle fibers
cycle
• They travel to the opposite ends
• Larger size to give room
Stages of Mitosis
• Cytokinesis is starting
I.PROPHASE (pro = early)

IV. TELOPHASE (telo = late)

• Nucleolus disappears
• Nuclear Membrane disappears
• Centrioles appear
• Chromatin condenses to
become Chromosomes

II. METAPHASE (meta = middle)

• Two nuclei are formed
• Forms the cleavage furrow/cell plate
• Opposite of the processes that
happened in Prophase:
• Nucleolus reappears
• Chromosomes
decondenses
• Nuclear Membrane
reappears
Centriole disappear

• Spindle becomes fully

developed
Chromosomes line up in the middle
Spindle fibers from the
centrioles attach to the
kinetochore of the
chromosomes
Centromere - holds the
chromatids together
Kinetochore - point of
attachment of the spindle fiber
CYTOKINESIS • Crossing over - genetic
• Division of cytoplasm recombination between non-sister
chromatids, exchange of regions
of the chromatids
MEIOSIS • Chiasmata - sites of crossing over
• Meiosis involves two successive cell
Interphase > Meiosis I (P1, M1, A1, T1,
divisions with no replication of
Cytokinesis) > Meiosis (P2, M2, A2, T2,
genetic material between them
Cytokinesis)
• Results in a reduction of
chromosome number from
Meiosis diploid (2n) to haploid (n)
• Leads to production of gametes or
germ cells or sex cells (egg cells and
sperm cells) MEIOSIS I - Reductive Phase
• Charcteristics:
o Produces 4 daughter cells
o Haploid daughter cells (n = 23 Prophase I
chromosomes)
o Diploid parent cells
o Somatic parent cells
o Cell divides twice
o Daughter cells are different

Sexual reproduction includes the fusion of

gametes (n) to produce a zygote (2n)

Blastula > Gastrula > Neurula > Fetus

• What happens in Prophase in Mitosis
also happens in Prophase in Meiosis I
Features of Meiosis
• Homologous chromosomes
• Also happens:
(homologues) - one maternal and
1. Leptotene - Chromatin
one paternal chromosome that are to Chromosome
similar in traits & characteristics
2. Zygotene - Synapsis
• Synapsis - Homologues become 3. Pachytene - Crossing over
closely associated with each other 4. Diplotene - Tetrads
• Synaptonemal complex - proteins 5. Diakinesis - Disappearance of
between homologues that hold NM
them
• Tetrad - homologous pairs that carry Metaphase I
genes controlling same inherited traits
o Humans have 23 pairs of
homologous chromosomes
o 22 pairs of autosomes
o 1 pair of sex chromosomes

• Homologous chromosomes line up

at the center
• Each homologous chromosome
will have spindle fibers, not each
sister chromatid
Anaphase I INTERPHASE
• Similar w/ Anaphase of Mitosis • The longest phase; 90% of the time
• Homologues separate elapses during each cycle
• Cell growth & production of
Telophase I copies of chromosomes is
• Similar to Telophase of Mitosis happening
• Difference is that chromosomes do not
go back to being chromatin because A. G1 (First growth phase)
there will be no interphase again • Cell grows rapidly
2n diploid parent cells > Meiosis I will produce • Occupies a major
2 non-identical haploid daughter cells > portion of the cell’s life
Meiosis II - the 2 haploid daughter cells will B. S (Synthesis phase)
each produce 2 haploid daughter cells > • DNA replication
Results in 4 haploid non-identical haploid • Each chromosome
sex cells consists of two chromatids
attached at the
Why are the daughter cells different in centrosome
Meiosis? • Cell can now be divided
1. Crossing over happens when chromosome
2. Synapsis increases
C. G2 (Second growth phase)
Why are the daughter cells haploids • Preparations are made for
in Meiosis? the nucleus to divide
1. Metaphase I • Microtubules are assembled
2. Anaphase I
M (Mitotic) Phase
Meiosis II • Cell division proper
• Similar process as Mitosis • Process during cell division in
• Except that they came from haploids, which the nucleus of a cell is
and haploids will be produced divided into two nuclei
• Makes an identical copy of
CELL CYCLE another cell
• M stands for Mitosis or Meiosis
Stem Cell A. Mitosis or Karyokinesis
• General cell • Nucleus divides first
• Cells from which all other cells with • Karyo = nucleus
specialized functions are generated B. Cytokinesis
• Cytoplasm divides next
Cell Cycle • Cyto = cell or cytoplasm
• Describes the life of a eukaryotic ***G0 Phase
cell o Only in eukaryotic cells • Cells that divide slowly or not
because they have a at all may exit the G1 Phase
nucleus o Prokarkotes have no and enter a resting state
organelles • Cell is not actively preparing to
• A repeating sequence of cellular divide, it’s just doing its job
• Maybe a permanent state or may
Phases: restart division if they get the right
• Interphase signals
o G1 Phase
o G0 Phase ***
o S Phase
o G2 Phase
• M phase
o Mitosis
o Cytokinesis
PEA PLANT AS MENDEL’S MODEL ORGANISM
• Mendel’s study on garden peas or Pisum CHARACTERISTICS
sativum brought him the greatest success in III. any heritable feature of an organism, which
the field of genetics. is under the control of a particular gene.
JJJ. Different genes control flower color, hair
Pisum sativum (Garden Pea) color, and skin color, which are
p Type of legume examples of characteristics.
q Its flowers are either
Violet (dominant) LOCUS (plural: Loci)
White (recessive) • The definite position that a gene occupies in
r Being a legume, its fruits are elongated or a chromosome
pod-shaped, with seeds
s attached to only one side of the fruit or pod ALLELES
wall. • A gene for a particular characteristic
usually has different alternative forms
Mendel chose Pisum sativum for various
reasons:
p It exhibits more vigorous growth
(approximately 70 to 80 days harvest
period) compared to other plants.
q These plants are easy to cross-fertilize.
The flowers of peas contain both male and
female organs, particularly, the stamens and
pistil. Obtaining pollen grains from the
anthers from one plant and delivering them
to the stigma of another plant will allow
fertilization. If this is done between plants
with different traits, then hybridization is CHROMOSOMES
performed. The offspring of the mating, • The two chromosomes are used to
consequently, are referred to as hybrids. represent genes and alleles above.
r pea plants are also capable of self- • Chromosomes occur in pairs called
fertilization through self-pollination. A homologous chromosomes. Each pair
modified petal of the pea flower is capable originates from each of our parents.
of covering the reproductive structures. This Thus, two genes control the expression
allows peas to naturally self-pollinate. of a particular characteristic.

The mechanism of self-pollination GENOTYPES

JJ. Particularly important for Mendel because Homozygous
all of his crosses begin with true-breeding • Identical alleles
plants or strains. If plants breed true for a • Ex.
particular trait, then many generations of AA (Homozygous dominant)
mating will never produce new traits. aa (Homozygous recessive)
• Ex. If a pea plant breeds true for
violet flowers, repeated mating Heterozygous / hybrid
among these true-breeding violet- • Alleles are different from each other
flowered plants will never produce • Ex.
offspring with other flower colors. Parent 1 - Tall (T), Parent 2 - dwarf
(t) = Tt
REVIEW ON GENETICS • Remember! Every heterozygous outcome is
TERMINOLOGIES considered dominant because the dominant
allele overrules the recessive one.
GENE
• refer to the basic unit of heredity. PHENOTYPE
• Mendel termed these genes as “unit p Referring to Fig. 1.1.6, if the actual
factors” that control the expression of phenotype of the plant is a round seed,
biological characteristics. then the allele for round seed is said to be
 the dominant allele. The other allele in • Ex. a cross between tall and
which the expression is masked (i.e., dwarf pea plants
wrinkled allele) is called the recessive
allele. PRINCIPLE OF DOMINANCE
p Basically, it’s just the description.

3 LAWS OF INHERITANCE
p Law of Dominance
q Law of Segregation
r Law of Independent Assortment

7 CHARACTERISTICS MENDEL USED TO

ESTABLISH HIS LAWS OF INHERITANCE
• Height
Tall
Dwarf
• Flower color
Purple
White
• Flower position
Axial
Terminal
• Seed color
Yellow • This states that when an individual is
Green heterozygous, the dominant allele tends
• Seed shape to mask the expression of the
Round recessive allele.
Wrinkled • This explains that the recessive phenotype is
• Pod color always true-breeding, whereas an individual
Green with the dominant phenotype may either be
Yellow homozygous or heterozygous.
• Pod shape
Smooth
Constricted

LAW OF SEGREGATION
• the two alleles of an individual
segregate (or separate) from each other
during gamete formation.
• This process occurs at random. This PUNNETT SQUARE: P and F Generation in
1

means that only one copy of the gene is a monohybrid cross

present in each gamete or sex cell.
• Consequently, the genetic makeup of the
offspring will be determined by the
alleles present in the gametes that
participate or fuse during fertilization.

Mendel’s monohybrid cross

• In this cross, only one characteristic is
involved. However, the parents should have
different or contrasting
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
• states that the alleles of two (or more)
different genes get sorted into gametes
independently of one another. In other
words, the allele a gamete receives for one
gene does not influence the allele
received for another gene.
• Ex. The result of the dihybrid cross means
that seed color and seed shape are
inherited independently. The inheritance of
one gene does not influence that of the
other. Refer to Table 1.1.5.:

#02. USING LAWS OF INHERITANCE TO

PREDICT GENOTYPES AND PHENOTYPES
USING A TESTCROSS TO DETERMINE
GENOTYPES
3 An organism's genetic makeup is called its
genotype, and it reflects all of the alleles,
or forms of the gene, that are carried by the
organism. Consequently, a test cross can
help determine whether a dominant
phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous
for a specific allele.

TEST CROSS
3. A simple technique wherein the individual
with the dominant phenotype is
crossed with or mated with a recessive
individual.
4. The results of the cross will help you
LAWS OF INHERITANCE AND
determine parental genotype, particularly
GAMETOGENESIS
the one with the dominant trait.
• Both the law of segregation and the law of
independent assortment provide the basic
mechanisms of the inheritance of traits.
• Remember! both of these laws operate
during the anaphase I of gametogenesis
• During segregation, the members of an
allele pair separate as the members of
homologous chromosomes separate.
Ultimately, each of these two alleles is
distributed randomly to each gamete.
During independent assortment, at least
two pairs of alleles must be involved. In the
figure below, if genes R and Y are said to
be independently assorting, they must be 3. In Fig. 1.2.1, if the individual has the
found on different chromosomes. This recessive phenotype, its genotype will
also implies that the segregation of allele always be homozygous or true-breeding.
pair R and r is independent of the By contrast, an individual with the
segregation of the allele pair Y and y. dominant trait may either be
homozygous or heterozygous.
4. In both crosses, the second allele of
the dominant individual is left blank.
Regardless, the phenotype is still
 dominant because only one allele 6 DIFFERENT MONOHYBRID
is needed to express round COMBINATIONS CASE 1: AA × AA
seeds. After mating with the • GR: 100% or all AA
recessive (i.e., wrinkled-seeded • PR: 100% or all dominant
peas) individual, there are two
possible results: CASE 2: AA × Aa
• CASE 1: only one phenotype p GR: 1/2 AA: 1/2 Aa
appears in F , which is the dominant trait, the
1 q PR: 100% or all dominant
genotype must be homozygous. This result is
due to the fact that the first parent will only CASE 3: Aa × Aa
contribute the dominant allele to all offspring. • GR: 1/4 AA: 2/4 Aa: 1/4 aa
b. CASE 2: Two phenotypes • PR: 3/4 dominant: 1/4 recessive
appear in the offspring—both
dominant and recessive CASE 4: AA × aa
individuals are present. The • GR: 100% or all Aa
presence of a recessive • PR: 100% or all dominant
offspring in the progeny is an
indication that both parents CASE 5: Aa × aa
must have contributed • GR: 1/2 AA: 1/2 aa
recessive alleles. • PR: 1/2 dominant: 1/2 recessive

CASE 6: aa × aa
p GR: 100% or all aa
q PR: 100% or all recessive

METHODS TO DETERMINE GENOTYPES

AND PHENOTYPES OF BOTH PARENTS
AND OFFSPRING IN CROSSES
• Punnett square
• Forked-line method
• Probability method

PUNNETT SQUARE
• Named after the British geneticist
Reginald C. Punnett
• Punnett square is a simple technique
that is used to determine all possible
offspring of a cross. A male and a
female parent must be designated in
this method.
• Some Punnett squares do not
necessarily have to assume the shape
of a square. There are cases when the
parents of a cross will not produce the
same number of allelic combinations.