THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION

1. Definition
- Grammar points are taught by translating sentences between the target language and the
native language.

2. Background
● Established around the 19th century (Classical Method)
● First used in teaching classical languages (Latin, Greek)

3. Principles and Techniques

- Principle 1: Classes are taught in mother tongue, with little active use of the target
language.

- Techniques:
+ Translation of a literary passage
+ Antonyms/Synonyms
+ Memorization

Principle 2: Literary language is superior to spoken language.

- Techniques:
+ Reading comprehension questions
+ Fill-in-the-blanks exercise
+ Use words in sentences
+ Composition

- Principle 3: Grammar is taught deductively.

- Techniques:
+ Students study and apply grammar rules deductively
+ Fill-in-the-blanks exercise

- Principle 4: Finding similarities between the target

language and the native language is encouraged.

- Techniques:
+ Cognates

Pros:
● Enhance students’ ability to read literature written in the target language
● Provide students with good mental exercise
● Enhance students’ speaking and writing skills in their native language

Cons:
● Overlook spoken language
● Treat language at the level of sentence only
● Limited student-student interaction
DIRECT METHOD

1. Definition
The direct method (DM) is a method in which:
● All the content is to be conveyed directly in the target language.
● No translation occurs.

2. Background
Established around the 19th century
Also known as natural method, anti-grammatical method, reform method, etc.

3. Principles and techniques

● Principle 1: Meaning is associated with the target language directly, without
translation.
- Techniques:
Reading aloud and dictation
Use of visual aids and context-related examples
● Principle 2: Communication skills are emphasized over grammar.
- Techniques:
+ Question and answer exercise
● Principle 3: All the grammar rules are taught inductively.
- Techniques:
+ Self-correction
+ Substitution drilling
+ Substitution drilling
Example:
T: This book is red.
St: (Repeat) This book is red.
T: This book is blue.
St: (Repeat)
T: This pen is blue
● Principle 4: Knowledge is assessed through demonstration, not explanation.
- Techniques:
+ Project conducting
+ Paragraph writing

Pros:
- Simulate (mô phỏng) the natural process of learning L1: Listening → Speaking → Reading →
Writing
- Promote student thinking in L2

Cons:
- Teacher has difficulties conveying abstract concepts.
- Student lacks translation skills.
THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

1. Introduction
● focuses on drilling students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns, listening
and speaking

● focuses on the understanding of structures. These structure patterns are repeated

until the responses given by the student are automatic.

2. Background
- Three historical circumstances:
+ Leonard Bloomfield's memorization technique: memorization and repetition
+ World War II's Army Specialized Training Programme (ASTP): employed a native
speaker to teach aural skills
+ B.F. Skinner's behaviorism theory.

3. Techniques
Repetition drill: Ss listen carefully -> Ss mimic the teacher’s model as precisely as
possible.

Build-up drill: T breaks down the sentence into smaller parts -> easy for Ss to follow
 A chain drill: Ss to say the lines individually + use the expressions in communication
with others

A single-slot+multiple slot substitution drill: Ss repeat a sentence from the

dialogue -> replace a word/phrase in the sentence with the cue

Transformation drill: Ss change one type of sentence into another

A question and answer: Ss are to answer the questions following the pattern T has
modeled

Pros:
● Enable students to remember the materials for a long time.
● Ss are encouraged to practice using L2 in class, improve pronunciation, oral abilities.
● Boost involvement - big classes where learners' participation may be maximized.

Cons:
● Vocabulary is reduced in favor of structure.
● Does not promote grammar skills
● Repetition can lead to boredom and loss of interest in learning, particularly in mixed-
class settings.
● The importance of skilled teaching.

THE SILENT WAY

1. Introduction
● A method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno

● The teacher should be silent as much as possible

● The students are encouraged to produce as much language as possible

● Emphasize the importance of learner autonomy and discovery-base learning.

2. Techniques
Sound-color chart:
● Each color represents a sound in the target language.
● Help students with pronunciation
Rods
● Be used to teach colors, numbers ... for beginners
● Can be used for more complicated structures

Word chart
● Contain functional vocabulary of English
● Students read aloud the sentences
Fidel chart
● Present all the possible spellings of each sound of the language
 ● Help students with spelling

→ They can be used to introduce and practice vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

Peer correction:
● Students help each other
● Be in a cooperative manner.
Teacher’s silence
● Teacher gives just as much help as is necessary
● Only supply a correct answer as a resort
Self-correction gestures
● Each finger represents a word in a sentence.
● Locate the trouble spot for the student.

→ They can be used to elicit learner responses and indicate errors or corrections.

Structured feedback
● Students make observations about the day’s lesson
● The teacher accepts the students’ comments in a non-defensive manner

→ This can also be employed to facilitate communication and feedback

Pros: Students can:

• become active participants.
• retain knowledge better
• think critically and find solutions themselves

Cons:
• Time-consuming for teachers.
• Students may lack motivation and discipline.
• Teachers lose control of the class
 DESUGGESTOPEDIA

1. Background
● It was developed by Georgi Lozanov (a Bulgarian psychiatrist and educator)
in the 1970s
● “Learning is a matter of attitude and not aptitude”
2. Definition
Desuggestopedia is a teaching method to help students eliminate the negative
feelings they may have toward studying and thus to help them overcome the barriers
to learning.

3. Techniques

Principle 1: Learning is facilitated in a cheerful environment

Techniques:
- Classroom Set-up
- Peripheral learning

Principle 2: Eliminate psychological barriers learners bring with them to the learning
situation

Techniques:
- Positive Suggestion(Direct suggestion & Indirect suggestion)
- Choose a New Identity
- Role-play

Teacher presents the reading during the two ‘concerts’

Principle 3: The first phase - the receptive phase
Techniques:
- First concert - make learning engaging and enjoyable
- Second concert - distinguish between the conscious and subconscious minds

Principle 4: The second major phase - the active phase

Techniques:
- Primary activation
- Creative adaptation - learn the new material and use it spontaneously

Pros:
● Boost students’ self-confidence
● Learn from two aspects: the conscious and the subconscious mind
Cons:
● It is expensive
● Environment limitation
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

1. Background: Charles A. Curran studied that adults feel threatened in a new

learning situation
2. Definition
Whole-person learning:
● Class agenda by students
● Understanding students’ feelings
3. Principles
Principle 1: Learners set the agenda, expressing their needs and wants in
their native language
Techniques:
- Students generate the material
- Teachers translate into chunks
- Teachers record students’ conversation
→ Transcription

Principle 2: The teacher acts as a “language counselor”, facilitating

communication

Techniques:
- Teachers listens about students’ feeling and respond in a non threatening
way
- Reflective Listening technique
- “Human Computer” technique
- Small group tasks

Principle 3: Emphasis is on building confidence and communication rather

than grammatical perfection
Techniques: Accuracy is second. Fluency is prioritized
Pros:
● Reduce anxiety and fear of mistakes
● Increase student engagement and ownership
● Develop real-world communication skills
Cons:
● Requires a supportive and trusting environment
● May not be suitable for large groups of beginners

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

1. Definition:

● TPR method acquires coordination of language and physical movements

● teachers: give commands -> directors
 ● students: respond with whole-body action -> imitators (can be directors in the later
stage)

TPR method has 2 main purposes:

● it is a means of quickly recognizing the meaning in the language
● it is a means of passively learning the structure of the language
2. Background
James J Asher developed the method in 1960s, based upon the way children learn
their mother tongue
● it is best suited for the beginner levels and the young learners.
● it is still popular in today’s language education.

3. Principle
Principle 1: meaning can be conveyed through actions
Techniques:
● using commands to direct behavior
● action sequence
Principle 2: students will begin to speak when they are ready
Techniques:
● role reversal
● storytelling

Pros:
● Fun
● Good for kinesthetic learners
● Being adaptable
● Works well with mixed-ability classes
● Not need a lot of preparation or materials

Cons:
● Sense of embarrassment

● Not flexible
● Limited level

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

1. Definition
● Focuses on communication
● Communication: Goal + Method of teaching
● Teacher: guide or facilitator
● Students: engage in class activities
2. Background
● 1970s, communicating required communicative competence more than
linguistic competence
● CLT is originated in Europe
● 1980s, CLT was truly influenced
● all learners, all levels
 ● popular in nowadays teaching method

3. Principles
Principle 1: Focus on communication
Techniques: Role-play / Language games
Principle 2: Effective communication has a clear purpose
Technique: Debates and Discussions
Principle 3: Use authentic material
Technique: Authentic Materials
Principle 4: Engage in activities within small groups
Techniques:
● Picture Strip Story
● Scrambled Sentences

Pros:
● Learner-centered approach
● Increase motivation and engagement
● Develop fluency and communication skills
Cons:
● Grammar and accuracy concerns
● Can be challenging for beginners
● Require proficient teacher
Content-based Instruction

1. Definition
Content-based instruction (or CBI) is to teach a second language by demonstrating
the specific content
=> Students can absorb the language and content simultaneously.
2. Background
● The “Language across the curriculum” movement in 1970
● Language for specific purposes
3. Principles
Principle 1: Teachers may design activities that address both language and content
and the discourse structure of the content
Techniques:
● Graphic organizer
● Dictogloss
Principle 2: Whole language approach (WL): in the WL language is regarded
holistically, rather than as pieces.
Techniques: Language experience approach

Pros:
● Based on real purpose of students
● Help students to develop very valuable thinking skills
Cons:
● Students might need a great deal of assistance

● Students might find the topic is boring

TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

1. Definition
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to the use of tasks as the core unit of
planning and instruction in language teaching.
2. Background
● Established in the 1970s-1980s.
● Two earliest applications:
● Malaysian Communicational Syllabus (1975)
● The Bangalore Project (Beretta and Davies 1985; Prabhu 1987; Beretta 1990
● A logical development of Communicative Language Teaching.
● Constructivism learning theory (John Dewey, 1913).

3. What is a task?
The tasks can be anything but preferably they would be something that your students see
relevant for real-life situations.
A task will
● have an identifiable outcome, and a goal that can be shared.
● focus on the meaning, rather than the form of the language.
● be done by students’ linguistic source of choice.
4. The Willis TBL framework
a. Pre-task
T helps Ss to explore the theme and objectives of the task:
● highlight useful words and phrases
● pre-teach new structures

Ss
● take note down useful phrases and structures.
● prepare for the upcoming main task.

This initial phase gives useful exposure.

-> Ss recall relevant words and phrases and recognize new ones.
The preparation time helps them to think of what they want to say.
b. The task cycle
i. Task
Ss
● do the task in pairs or groups
● use whatever language items they already have.
T: walks around and monitors, encouraging their effort

The emphasis: spontaneous talk and confident usage of the language, within the
privacy of the small group
=> Mistakes don't matter.
ii. Planing
Ss: draft and rehearse for the report
T:
● advises Ss on language if needed
● encourages peer-editing and use of dictionaries.
=>The emphasis: clarity, organization and accuracy, as appropriate for a public
presentation.
iii. Report
SS
● report briefly to the whole class
● exchange written reports
T (acts as a chairman)
● notes language items
● comments on the content
=> This component gives learners practice in public, and increases other students' exposure
to spoken or written language.
c. Language focus
i) ANALYSIS
● T sets some language-focused tasks to review and analyze the activity.
● T then possibly writes relevant language up on the board in list form.
ii) PRACTICE
T conducts practice activities as needed
● based on the language analysis work.
● using examples from the text or transcript.
=> done during or after the Analysis.

Pros:
● Encourages students to be more ambitious in the language.
● Create natural context and real-life situation.
● Give teachers the opportunity to assess learners’ progress.

Cons:
● Require a high level of creativity and initiative.
● Students may change to mother tongue mid-discussion.
● Students may need more guidance to “notice” the hidden linguistic feature.