UNIT 1: The Self from Various Perspectives

Intended Learning Outcomes:

 Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from various
disciplinal perspectives.
 Examine the different influences, factors and forces that shape the self.
 Compare and contrast how self has been represented across the different disciplines
and perspectives.
 Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one’s self
and identity by developing a theory of the self.

LESSON 1: Philosophy
Western Philosophical Perspective on the Self
What is Philosophy?
 Its etymology comes from the Greek – Philos – love, and Sophia – wisdom – “love of
wisdom”.
 Arose from the idea of seeking to understand fundamental truths about us, the world we
live, our relationship with the world we live, and everything in between.
 Traditionally divided into major areas of study:
o Metaphysics – study of the nature of reality.
 Is there a God? Is the world strictly composed of matter? If people have
minds, how is it related to the body?
o Epistemology – the study of knowledge.
 What is knowledge? Do we know anything at all? How do we know what
we know?
o Ethics – concerning with what we ought to do and what it would be best to do.
 What is good? What makes actions of people good? Is morality objective
or subjective?
o Logic – nature and structure of arguments of reasons.
 What constitutes “good” or “bad” reasoning? How do we determine
whether a given piece of reasoning is good or bad?
Why do we have to study philosophy?
 Gives us the ability to think critically, to question things, which aids us in understanding
ourselves better.
 Aids us in living a good life by knowing what is morally right from wrong.
 Understand your self from different perspectives.
Ancient Philosophy (1000 BC to 500 AD) before the end of the Roman empire.
Major periods:
1. Milesian School (Pre-Socratic philosophers)
2. Ancient Triumvirate (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)
3. Post Aristotelians
1. Pre-Socratic philosophers

 Beginning of western philosophy and the shift from mythology to philosophy,

grounded by knowledge and science.
 Deals with the origin and the general structure of the universe –cosmology.
 Cosmo-centric philosophers seek the meaning and origin of the human self:
o Thales – known to be the first philosopher of Western Philosophy.
- Attributed the ultimate being to water.
- The speculation of his reasoning includes water being vital to life,
nourishing living organisms. And water can change from and to
vapor, liquid, and ice; water is used in religious rituals for
purification and other uses.
o Anaximander – anchored to Thales’ view, if the origin will be a particular
element of nature, such as water, then fire (or its contrary) cannot co-exist.
- Thus, he identified the original matter out of all beings originate as
Apeiron –indefinite, unbounded.
o Anaxemenes – regards “air” as an extension of breath, implying the origin
of life; our soul, being air that keeps us together; and air encloses the
whole world.
2. The Ancient Triumvirate

 Socrates
o Left no writings of his own, but is known mainly through Plato, one of his
students.
o Declared a distinction between true knowledge (eternal, absolute, and
unchanging) and opinion (temporal, changing, and relative).
o Know thyself. – “An unexamined life is not worth living.”
o “The soul is immortal, and the care of the soul is the task of philosophy.”
 o Socrates believed that one’s death is not the end, but merely a departure
for afterlife. And that death is the departure of the soul for the eternal
world.
Two Aspects of Reality
1. Physical world: changeable, transient, and imperfect; World of
Senses/Matter

2. Spiritual world: unchanging, eternal, perfect; The World of Ideas/ Form

- Our souls (self) strive for wisdom and perfection, and reason is the
soul’s tool to achieve such a state.
- The soul is a unified, indissoluble, immortal entity that remains the
same over time, and that is in the very likeness of the divine.
 Plato
o Separated the soul into three (3) parts:
- The appetitive part seeks the fulfillment of bodily pleasures, such
as food, drink, sex, and all the worldly needs and desires of an
individual.
- The spirited or emotional part seeks honor and dignity. Accounts
for the basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition,
aggressiveness, empathy.
- The intellectual part (reason) seeks for the truth and knowledge.
the divine essence that lets us think deeply (wisdom), make wise
choices and achieve a true understanding of eternal truths. The
intellectual part must be in control of all the parts, otherwise the
individual’s desires will create chaos as it strives for its own
fulfillment.
Harmony: Justice in the individual, social and political levels.

 Aristotle
- The mind is a blank slate.
- The self consists of matter and form; matter is in a continuous process of
developing and becoming.
- The process of completion is through experiences as knowledge is acquired
through the senses (and this knowledge is true).
- That intellect in this sense is separable and unmixed as it is in its essential
nature. It alone is immortal, as when intellect is set free from its present
conditions, it’ll appear as just and nothing more.
- The soul is distinguishable by three:
 - the nutritive (all plants and animals have been capable of
absorption of nutrition, therefore both have nutritive soul).
- the sensory (it is what distinguishes animals from plants. As
Aristotle thought it was indicated by a lack of movement).
- And finally, the thinking (it is what he has thought that distinguishes
the humans from all other forms of life).

3. Post Aristotelians

 Stoicism – calls for people to accept reality and give up attachments to their
fears and desires, hence is a form of realism.
- Apathy or indifference to pleasure.
LESSON 2: Western vs Eastern
Philosophical View of Self
The concept of self perceived by the Western and Eastern philosophy are comparably
opposite. In the West, there exists a multitude of definitions of the “self”, while in the East the
predominant view is that the self is rather an illusion.
In general, Western philosophy acknowledges the existence of “self” whereas the
philosophy in the East denies its presence.

Western Philosophy
Rationalism
- This philosophy regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge. That is, reality
itself has an inherently logical structure.
René Descartes: A rationalist
 “I think therefore I am” or Cogito Ergo Sum
 Self can exist independently of the body but doesn’t deny the association of the
body to the self.
 identifies consciousness with thinking.
 The laic notion of “soul” is considered identical with the philosophical notion of
“self”. In fact, this connotation comes from the Judeo-Christian religion. In former
epochs of human history, the soul was associated with the so-called animism. The
scientific notion of “soul” is defined as “immediate experience” or “the
constitutive part of the self, remaining after the exclusion of the body.
 The self or the soul, in turn, is the “act of experience”, contrasted with the
“content of experience” (world or matter) (Krechmer, 1996: 7; see Deikman,
1982).
 A human person is composed of two parts, namely, a material body and a non-
material mind.
 The mind or the soul is superior to the body for it is in the mind that “mental
states” occur. This is because for Descartes, the mental states, such as thinking,
imagining, and analyzing, rather than the physical states of the body, such as pain,
hunger, and thirst, are fundamental to our life as persons.
 In short, it is the mind that makes us humans -thus, I think therefore I am.
 “mind is the real self.”
Empiricism
- It is the idea that all knowledge comes from only experience and observations. That is,
all concepts must originate from experience.
John Locke: An Empiricist
 “The self is consciousness”
 The human mind is a tabula rasa (blank state).
 The conscious awareness and memory of former experiences are the keys in
understanding the self.
 Every aspect of the physical body is integrated with personal identity. The body
changes. The physical self changes.
 holds that personal identity is a matter of psychological continuity. He considered
personal identity (or the self) to be founded on consciousness (viz. memory), and
not on the substance of either the soul or the body.
 “Whatever has the consciousness of present and past actions is the same person
to whom they both belong”. What he means by this is that the self is persistent to
the extent of the memories held by an individual. Locke believes the self to be an
immaterial thing, external to the physical body.
 Locke defines self to be, “a conscious, thinking thing which is sensible or conscious
of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself
as far as that consciousness extends” (278). The self is self-interested and capable
of self-identification. This differs from the concept of “man” which in Locke’s
usage means others perception of an individual. For example, under Locke’s
definition of self if one were to lose all of their memories, then they are not the
same self as before, but they are the same “man.” Therefore, Locke acknowledges
that the self is potentially subject to rapid, fundamental change external to any
physical variation.
David Hume: Empiricist, Sceptic & Nihilist

 “There is no self”
 There is no self but there is a collection of successive perceptions that can be used to
define “self”
 When people examine their content of experience, what they will see are just impressions
and ideas that results to imagination.
 Thought of the mind as a theatrical stage, composed of a flow of continuous, but
inconstant perceptions, which vary all the time.
 According to Hume, “identity” is solely a quality, which we attribute to an object, including
the self, but due to the inconstancy of our perception, the self is a fiction.
Immanuel Kant

 “We construct the self”

 Kant’s concept of self is a contrary to Hume’s claim that self is but a container for fleeting
sensations and perceptions. Instead, we perceive and experience an organized world of
objects which creates the world that is familiar, predictable, and significantly be called as
mine.
 For Kant, the self, as such, is a noumenon (a Ding-an-sich) and not a phenomenon.
 According to Kant, the human person has a two-fold nature, namely: 1)homo noumenon,
2) homophaenomenon
 Noumenon – derived from Kant’s epistemology, refers to the essence of things. Cannot
be known because, as the essence of things, it is beyond experience.
 Phaenomenon – refers to the things as it appears to the observer. The empirical part of a
thing
 We all have an inner and an outer self which together form our consciousness.
 The inner self is comprised of our psychological state and our rational intellect.
 The outer self includes our sense and the physical world.
 When speaking of the inner self, there is apperception.

Eastern Philosophy
Buddhism
 Teachings based on Siddhartha Gautama or Buddha (“the awakened one”)
 “Individual self” is an illusion. It is not possible to separate self from its surroundings.
 The true nature of self is discovered only through inquiry, doubting, and negating self.
 Buddhism argues that the self as such does not exist, that it is an illusion – “The self
does not exist apart from the states of consciousness.
The four (4) noble truths (that lead to Nirvana)

 Dukkha: the noble truth of suffering.

 Samudaya: the noble truth of the origin of suffering
 Nirodha: the noble truth of the cessation of suffering
 Marga: the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering.
The Eightfold Path (that is a prescription given to us by Buddha to cure the samsaric condition
of Dukkha)

 Divided into three subcategories: wisdom (prajna), ethics (sila), and meditation
(Samadhi).
 o Right view – refers to the seeing the world correctly, thus accepting the four
noble truths. Failure to see this gives birth to greed, hatred, and ignorance.
o Right thought – intentions of one’s action.
- Karma is formed through one’s intention.
o Right speech – cannot be simplified to “do not lie” as truth can be deliberately
harmful (like unwantedly pointing out somebody’s flaws) or if in some situations,
telling truth may cause event more harm (white lie).
- When we speak, we must consider what is helpful and what is not.
o Right action – concerning the motivation in behind everything we do. We must
perform our motivations in a right manner of action.
o Right livelihood – legal and ethical way of living.
o Right effort – has four dimensions: preventing negative states from arising in the
mind, abandoning any that have arisen, producing positive ones, and cultivating
one’s already present.
o Right mindfulness – constant awareness and watchfulness of our sensory
experiences.
o Right concentration – suggests that one must train himself to avoid unfocused,
sporadic minds to rest on a single object.
The four (4) foundations of mindfulness:

 Contemplation of the body

 Contemplation of feeling (repulsive, attractive, or neutral)
 Contemplation of the state of mind
 Contemplation of the dhammas (phenomena)

Confucianism
 The value of relationship (communal act)
 Centered in morality, interpersonal ethics and the cultivation of the civility, which is
understood to contribute to the establishment of a harmonious and well-ordered
society.
 The self is conceived as a “relational self” – “one which is intensely aware of the social
presence of other human beings.
 The self, according to this doctrine, can be achieved through a harmonization of one’s
everyday communication with other individuals in society at large.

Taoism
 Non-doing or doing nothing.
  Not acting against the natural order but rather letting things flow in rythm.
 Embracing changes.
 It doesn’t think about it. It just does. And when it does, it doesn’t appear to do much of
anything but Things Get Done.
Way of Self-Reliance

 Recognizing who we are, what we’ve got to work with, and what works best for us.
The Great Nothing

 Some things are just unexplainable and that’s okay because not everything needs
explaining. “Why does a chicken, I don’t why”
Activity 1:

This is Andrew, a unicorn. Suppose that you happen to meet him in the pathway, and you got curious
about his existence. As a young philosopher, what will be your question/impression about him?

Note: Anchor your questions from the philosophies discussed. Choose at least three (3) philosophers
from each period (i.e., Ancient, Western, Eastern) and create a question based on their theories and
explain why you came up with that question/impression.

Example: as a stoic, my impression would be that Andrew doesn’t really look that way. That,
yes, they have existed long time ago, but Siberian unicorn don’t look anything like him, except for
his horn. A Siberian unicorn is but a family of rhino that is fully covered in a shaggy coat.
Rubrics:
Points each item Mastery Accuracy Delivery
(30%) (40%) (30%)
Students can discuss Students can discuss Students have
a concept/ the concept of the delivered their
5 pts. philosophy they philosopher they argument with high
chose, with utmost have chosen, with confidence and
legitimate utmost legitimate strong sense of
information to information to conviction.
support the support the
argument. argument.

Mastery (30%) Accuracy (40%) Delivery (30%)

Students can discuss Students can discuss Students have

a concept/ the concept of the delivered their
4 pts. philosophy they philosopher they argument with
chose, with enough have chosen, with moderate confidence
legitimate enough legitimate and moderate sense
information to information to of conviction.
support the support the
argument. argument.

Mastery (25%) Accuracy (30%) Delivery (25%)

Students can discuss Students can discuss Students have

a concept/ the concept of the delivered their
3 pts. philosophy they philosopher they argument with low
chose, with poor have chosen, with confidence and poor
information to poor information to sense of conviction.
support the support the
argument. argument.

Mastery (20%) Accuracy (20%) Delivery (25%)

LESSON 3: Social Construct
Self is evidently influenced by the community in many ways. And so does the mind and
self to the community.

George Herbert Mead

 Social Philosopher
 The father of symbolic interaction
 Mead’s self
 Child development
 “I” and “Me”
 The “Looking-glass Self”
 Generalized other

Self
 An entity that helps individuals grow.
 The self is a unique sense of identity that distinguishes people from people.
 Only exists in human and not animals nor plants.
 Also doesn’t exist in infants as they are do not participate I social interactions.
 Mead believed that we must examine other people’s actions as if we are
examining our own behaviors. And it is achieved by having the ability to
unconsciously put ourselves in other people’s shoes and act as how they would
do so.
 The ability to show sympathy and adjust to the societal norms.
 “We cannot directly experience our selves, but we can do so indirectly by putting
ourselves in the position of others and see ourselves from that point of view.”
 “It is only by taking the roles of others that we have been able to come back to
ourselves.”

Child Development
 There are 2 stages to the development of self in children:
 - Play Stage. Children take on roles and attitudes of others. Child doesn’t yet
have his own view of “self” as he would take a mimicry of what he is able
to observe from the society.
- Game Stage. The very important stage of the development of self. It
enables the individual to explore and engage on different roles in the
society and earn a sense of responsibility. This way, the person is given a
chance to figure out what role suits him well and thus, contribute to the
organized group.

“I” and “Me”

 “I” is spontaneous, impulsive, and creative. Self-centered and rather unsocial.
 “Me” is mature view of self that has sense of responsibility and accountability. It
is a part of self that is concerned of how you are viewed publicly.

The Looking-Glass Self

 The self is divided into three principal elements:
- The imagination of our appearance to the other person.
- The imagination of his judgement of that appearance.
- And some sort of self-feeling such as pride or mortification.

The concepts of “I” “Me” and the “looking-glass” that the way we consider other people’s
view of us influences the way we attempt to change ourselves and fit in the societal norms.

Generalized Other
 The attitude of the entire community.
 The part of the society that influences the behavior of an individual belonging to
that group.
 “Only in so far as he takes the attitudes of the organized group to which he belongs
toward the organized, co-operative social activity or set of activities in which that
group is engaged, does he develop a complete self.”
LESSON 4: Anthropological Construct
The development of an individual’s sense of self is through interactions with another
human or a set of individuals.

Ethnocentrism
 Believing that one’s own way of life is the right one.
 The idea of seeing a person’s own culture as the correct way of living. While seeing others’
as unnatural or wrong.
 Thus, referred to cultural ignorance.
 Leading to the biases of their own culture.
 Resulting to cultural domination with enforced social change -colonialism.
 Ethnocentrism may also have a good side: a solution to tension between one cultural self
and another cultural self and guiding an individual into deciding which practices to follow.

Xenocentrism
 The preference of an individual to practice other culture’s as their way of living.
 Belief of “the grass is always greener on the other side.”
 The idolization of other culture may lead to people feeling resentment from their on
culture and can result in the rejection of one’s own nation, and cultural identification.

Cultural Relativism
 Culture is best understood from the experiences of its own people.
 The basis of ethics and morality depends upon the cultural context from which they were
derived.
 The understanding of the diversity and variety of culture from different places.
 It is said that cultural relativism may become problematic in a way that people may confuse
which way to believe and may not know which belief is morally or socially right or wrong.
LESSON 5: Cognitive Construct of Self
Self can be viewed in various theories: psychoanalytical, behavioral, and developmental.

William James
 American philosopher and the Father of American psychology.
 His school of thoughts are Pragmatism and Functionalism.
 Pragmatism – the truth can never be proven, but instead, we focus on the “cash value” or
the usefulness of the idea.
 Functionalism – the idea is evaluated by how it should serve its purpose.

“Me” self
- Self as an object.
- Sense of self and self-consciousness.
- “my arm is broken” “my leg is missing”

“I” self
- Self as subject. (The sThinker)
- Higher order of self-model.
- Phenomenologically based definition of self.
- Also referred in a metaphysical aspect.

Carl Rogers
 Humanistic psychologist.
 Divided the self into 2 categories:
o Ideal self. The person than you like to be.
o Real self. The person that you really are.
 Incongruence is the difference between the real self and ideal self.
 Congruence is the similarity of our perception of the real self and ideal self.
 Self-concept is an individual’s knowledge of who he is -it is active, dynamic, and malleable.
And it is divided into three (3) concepts: self-image, self-efficacy, and self-esteem.
Abraham Maslow
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory comprising the eight-tier model of
human needs.
 Maslow believed that each level needs to be fulfilled for the person to move on to the next
level. Until you meet the prerequisite, you can not move on to the next level.

Lawrence Kohlberg
 Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop
morality and moral reasoning. It suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six
stages and that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.
o One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer,
and her doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been
discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200 per dose and
sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to
buy the drug.
o He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit
to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept
 partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the
drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done that?"
 Kohlberg’s levels of moral development are as follows:
o The Preconventional level: children accept the authority (and moral code) of others.
If an action leads to punishment, it must be bad. If it leads to a reward, it must be
good. There is also a sense in which decisions concerning what is good are defined
in terms of what is good for us.
o The Conventional level: children believe that social rules and the expectations of
others determine what is acceptable or unacceptable behavior. A social system that
stresses the responsibilities of relationships and social order is seen as desirable
and must, therefore, influence our views of right and wrong.
o The Postconventional level: here what is right is based on an individual’s
understanding of universal ethical principles. What is considered morally
acceptable in any given situation is determined by what is the response most in
keeping with these principles.
Developmental Self

Sigmund Freud
o Freud described how the development of an individual's personality is influenced
by five psychosexual stages.
o Personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-
seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An
erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive
to stimulation.
o Psychosexual energy, or the libido, was described as the driving force behind
behavior.
o If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A
fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at
the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
Erik Erikson
o Erikson's theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle. This
principle suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and in the
context of a larger community.
o In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological
quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for
personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure.
Understanding your Personality

Hans Eysenck
o Eysenck’s theory focused on temperament—innate, genetically based personality
differences. He believed personality is largely governed by biology, and he viewed
people as having two specific personality dimensions: extroversion vs. introversion
and neuroticism vs. stability.
 An extravert is commonly described as an outgoing, expressive person, but
the technical definition described by Eysenck is more complex. Extraversion
is a combination of sociability, impulsiveness, frivolity, general activity, and
overt sexuality.
 Neuroticism refers to one’s emotional stability, or lack thereof. It
incorporates mood swings, poor emotional adjustment, feelings of
inferiority, a lack of social responsibility, a lack of persistence, issues of trust
vs. suspiciousness, social shyness, hypochondria, and the lack of relaxed
composure.
 Eysenck recognized a four-level hierarchy of behavior organization: (1)
specific acts or cognitions; (2) habitual acts or cognitions; (3) traits, or
personal dispositions; and (4) types or superfactors.
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