HARBOUR

Harbour: Defined as a sheltered area of the sea in which is partly enclosed by land or strong
walls so that vessels could be launched, built or taken for repair; or could seek refuge in time
of storm; or provide for loading and unloading of cargo and passengers.
Classification of Harbours
1. Based on safety required:
a) Natural Harbour
• Formed naturally by the protection of mountains, bays islands etc.
• The factors such as local geographical features, growth of population, development of
the area, etc. have made the natural harbours big and attractive.
• E.g.: Bombay and Kandla
b) Semi-Natural Harbour
• Protected on sides by headlands and requires man-made protection at the entrance for
more protection against wind and waves
• E.g: Vishakhapatnam
c) Artificial Harbour
• When natural facilities are not available, these protections are built artificially.
• E.g.: Madras

Natural Harbour Semi-natural harbour

 Artificial Harbour
2. Based on utility:
a) Commercial Harbour
• Loading and unloading of cargo are done
• Requires larger area for the operations and it is the busiest among the others
Requirements
• Spacious storage
• Sheltered areas
• Good and quick repair facilities
• Ample space for transportation, loading and unloading
b) Fishery harbour-Specially meant to cargos carrying seafood or aquatic animals
Requirements
• Constantly open for departure and arrival of fishing ships
• Loading and unloading facilities
• Refrigerated storage for preservation of fish
c) Military Harbour-Used as naval bases, where warships are rested while there is no work in
the sea or during repair works
Requirements
• Accommodate naval vessels
• Used as supply depots
d) Marina Harbour
• Small harbours where moorings are provided for yatchs and small ships
• Has resort and sport facilities, clubs, pubs, repair, refuelling, food etc
• Large marinas: have 200 or more berths
• Small marinas: less than 100 berths
e) Harbours of refuge
• Large area harbours which are useful to shelter the ships during emergency situations
like storms or any other natural calamities
• Harbours of refuge are constructed with large entrance and they are easily accessible
• Provide good anchorage to vessels against storms and tides
Requirements
• Accessibility from high sea
• Safe and good anchorage to vessels
• Facility to obtain supplies for repairs
3. Based on location
a) Sea Harbour
• Situated along sea shore
• Sea ports are of large area and loading and unloading of goods are done in larger
quantities
• Different countries are connected by these ports
b) River harbour
• Constructed in rivers which finally connects to sea
• These enable navigation inside a country from non-coastal areas
c) Canal Harbour
• Similar to river harbours but a canal is connected to sea through a major river
Requirements of a Good Harbour
• Sufficient depth should be available for every type of visiting ships.
• Bottom of harbour should provide secured anchorage to hold the ship against high
winds.
• Protection against waves should be adequate.
• Entrance of a harbour should be wide enough to provide the easy passage of ships and
narrow enough to restrict the wave energy during storm.
Factors affecting site selection of harbour
• Availability of cheap land and construction materials
• Transport and communication facilities
• Natural protection from winds and waves
• Industrial development of the locality
• Sea-bed subsoil and foundation conditions
• Traffic potentiality of harbour
• Availability of electrical energy and fresh water
• Favorable marine conditions
• Defense and strategic aspects
HARBOUR PLANNING
• For design of a harbour understanding of working of port, functioning of port along
with needs of various users is essential.
• Ports should be planned taking into consideration safety & convenience of ships for
proper handling of cargo & passengers.
Factors affecting the decision to build a Harbor:
➢ Need of harbour & economic justification.
➢ Amount of trade or commerce by water transport.
 ➢ Availability of inland communication.
Preliminary studies are necessary for preparation of a site investigation programme.
➢ Hydrographic & topographic surveys.
➢ Sub - soil investigations at locations of break-waters, piers, wharves.
➢ Direction & velocity of current at specific location.
Below mentioned are guiding principles of port planning:
• Port should be divided into separate zones for varied categories of expected traffic
which includes cargo, grains, oil or passengers.
• Fishing should be located outside port's area.
• Adequate space should be allocated for cargo handling and storage, movement of heavy
vehicles, equipment’s.
• Each berth should be designed for a specific purpose as per need of type of cargo.
• Any specific berth should be planned for maximum efficiency.
BREAKWATERS
• The protective barrier constructed to enclose harbour and to keep the harbour waters
undisturbed by the effect of heavy and strong seas are called breakwaters.
• Main function-break the force of incoming winds and waves by means of wave
breakers.
• Facilitate safe anchorage for ships and loading and unloading of cargo, providing calm
waters.
• Prevent erosion from shore.
• A good alignment foe breakwater is to have straight converging arms so that the angle
of intersection does not exceed 60o.
• Avoid straight parallel or diverging arms running out to sea.
Design of breakwaters:
Following information should he collected before the design of a breakwater
➢ Character of coastal currents.
➢ Cost and availability of materials of construction.
➢ Directions and force of prevailing winds.
➢ Nature of the bottom or foundation.
➢ Probable maximum height, force and intensity of waves.
The three important rules to be observed in the design of a breakwater are as under:
➢ The design should be based on the extreme phenomena of the wind and waves, and not
on the mean or the average.
➢ The height of wall should be decided accordingly by making sufficient allowance for
freeboard.
➢ It should be seen that the material in the foundation is not subject to scour
Classification of Breakwater
1. Heap/Mound Breakwater
• Heterogenous assembly of natural rubble, undresses stone blocks of different size
• Stones are dumped to sea without any bonding till the heap emerges out of water
• Foundation is never prepared. (Pell-mell construction)
• Consolidates and side slopes regulated by action of waves
• Quantity of rubble depends on depth, tides wave depth and exposure

• The breakwater has:

o Core-increase the bulk size of breakwater, less pervious components
o Filter layer/secondary armours-larger sized stones than the core, destroy the wave
energy, more pervious.
o Armour Blocks-resist kinetic energy of wave, have largest sized stones

Types of Heap/Mound Breakwater

a. Rubble mound breakwater
• Rubble or undressed stones are used
• 2 types-Type I: top of core of mound breakwater is above MSL, economical
construction
• Type II-core is below MSL
b. Concrete mound breakwater
• Concrete blocks are used,
• Casting of concrete blocks of required specifications are difficult, transportation to site
of breakwater is costly.
c. Rubble mound breakwater supplemented by concrete blocks
• Concrete blocks are laid towards seaside of mound to act as extra armour blocks over
the usual armour blocks of rubble stones
• Remaining construction similar to rubble round breakwater
• Concrete block can be laid in:
⮚ Pell- mell fashion
⮚ Well compacted fashion - concrete armour blocks are arranged tightly
d. Rubble mound breakwater supplemented by patented stones
• Concrete blocks having rectangular section are not rough enough
• Energy of wave water cannot be killed or dissipated partly
• Based on experiments various countries have developed different types and shapes of
concrete blocks which are hydraulically rougher & more stable.
• Such units are patented by each company.
• Patented Stones – E.g. Tetrapods, Tribars, Modified cubes etc
• Tetrapods
➢ Symmetrically prepared 4 legged truncated cones with proper amount of
reinforcements,
➢ More stable and get properly interlocked
➢ Requires less amount of concrete – more economic
➢ Hydraulically more rough than concrete blocks – dissipiate more energy
• Tribars
➢ 3-legged unit connected by a plate at mid-height
➢ More stable and get properly interlocked
2. Composite Breakwater/Mound with superstructure
• Solid construction between low water level and high-water level
• Mound construction with top part made solid
Types:-
1.Mound with superstructure at founded at low water level (LWL)
• Solid superstructure protected by a quay (solid platform) protected by parapet on
the sea face on top of rubble mound
Advantages
• Platform for handling cargo
• Protect top of mound
• Reduces the requirements of rubble

2.Mound with superstructure below LWL

• Superstructure placed well below the level of disturbance of waves
• Economical in deep waters

3. Upright Wall Breakwater

• Vertical regular wall is raised to construct harbour basin on solid natural or artificial
foundation to resist forces of waves.
• Can be constructed with smaller size units or larger sized units
 • Reflect the wave energy, protect from silting
• Reduces amount of material and less maintenance cost
• Costly method of construction
HARBOUR COMPONENTS
➢ Entrance Channel ➢ Quay

➢ Break Water ➢ Dry Dock

➢ Turning Basin Harbour ➢ Wet Dock

Components

➢ Pier ➢ Jetty

➢ Wharf

ENTRANCE CHANNEL
• Water area from which ships enter in the harbour
• Should have sufficient width
Harbor Width of Entrance
Size Channel

Small 100m
Medium 100 – 160m
Large 160 – 260m
SHELTER BASIN-It is an area protected by shore and breakwater
PIER HEAD-The structure provided at the tip of Breakwater such as Light House
BERTHING- used for parking of ships
TURNING BASIN-It is water area which is required for maneuvering the ship after entering
to the harbour and it is large enough to permit free turning
DRY DOCK-It is a chamber provided for maintenance, repairs and construction of ships. It
includes walls, floor and gate.
WET DOCK -Due to variation in tidal level, an enclosed basin is provided where in number
of ships can be berthed. It has an entrance which is controlled by a lock gate.
WHARVES
• Platforms or landing places are necessary for ships to come, close enough to the shore,
for purposes of embarkation, disembarkation, etc. at the same time.
• These platform locations should give sufficient depth of water for the ship to float.
• Wharf affords a working platform alongside the ship in continuity of the shore.
• Wharves may either be parallel to the shore and lean against it or they may project into
water either at right angles or oblique to shore
• The former type is adopted at places where depth of water is sufficient for the ships to
berth, say 10 m to 12 m
• The latter type is adopted at places where depth of water near the shore is not enough
for the ships to enter safely.
• The level of wharf should be above the high-water level.
• But at the same time, it should be economical to load the vessels when the water level
is low.
• Wharf should act as a unit when there is an impact from any vessel so it should be
properly braced and bolted.
• It is desirable to provide rounded corners for wharves which are likely to be used by
large vessels- will result in a smooth entry of vessels into the slips.
PIERS
• The structures which are built perpendicular or oblique to the shore of a river or sea are
known as piers.
• In the sea the piers are constructed where the sea is not deep and the natural harbour is
not convenient for allowing the ships to berth adjacent to the shore.
• In many cases, the piers are constructed with piles, columns and braces leaving good
space for the ocean current to flow without causing any obstruction.
• The dimensions of a pier should be worked out very carefully.
• Its length should be sufficient to accommodate the longest ship likely to take its
advantage.
• Pier should be of sufficient width to allow easy unloading of cargo without any undue
delay.
• Classified -open and solid pier
• Open pier- built over open water on exposed timber or concrete piles- RCC or timber
is used for decking purpose, used where minimum restriction of currents is specified,
relatively more economical as narrow piers in deep waters
 • Solid pier-constructed of materials like earth or rock fill, materials are partly confined
by some sort of bulk head, offer more resistance to impact and wave action. In general,
solid piers are more stable and economical than open pier
QUAY
• Wharves along and parallel to the’ shore, are generally called quays and their protection
walls are called quay walls.
• Quay walls are designed similar to retaining walls;
• But on the water side, they are subject to varying water pressure (owing to level
variations due to tides), and on the land side, earth and contained water pressures, with
proper allowances for surcharge.
JETTIES
• These are the structures in the form of piled projections and they are built out from the
shore to deep water and they may be constructed either for a navigable river or in the
sea.
• In rivers, the jetties divert the current away from the river bank and thus, the scouring
action is prevented.
• As the current is diverted to deep waters, the navigation is also controlled.
• A jetty can be defined as a narrow structure projecting from the shore into water with
berths on one or both sides and sometimes at the end also.
• Jetties are exposed to severe wave action and their structural design is similar to that of
breakwater.
• The impact caused by the berthing ships will depend on the skill of the berthing officer,
local condition of currents, wind, etc.
• The berthing velocity depends upon the condition of approach, wind, etc. and it
decreases with the increase in the size of the ships.
• Types- solid structures and piled structures. Piled structures can again be classified as
open piled structures and Pile and cylinder jetties.
FENDER
• The cushion which is provided on the face of jetty for ships to come in contact is known
as fender.
• It is provided for various forms and is made of different materials.
• The common material used as fender for jetties is the framework of timber pile driven
into the sea bed at a short distance from the jetty and filling the space with coiled rope,
springs, rubber, buffers, etc.
• The fender system controls the relative motion between dock and ship caused by wind
and waves.
• Hence, it also prevents the paint of ships being damaged.
• Classified as- Rubbing strips, timber grill, gravity-type fendering system and rubber
tendering.
TRANSIT SHEDS: These are covered temporary structures located adjacent or on the pier or
wharf for temporary storage of cargo.
PURPOSE
• To protect the cargo from rain, sun, cold, dust etc.
• To protect the cargo from damage or theft,
• To separate and stack the individual consignments,
• Storage of goods discharged from vessels and awaiting clearance through customs and
distribution to warehouses,
• Storage of goods arriving by land and awaiting export.
WARE HOUSE
• Permanent structure, usually provided on shore or directly behind transit sheds for
relatively long-term storage of cargo.
• Made of RCC, timber framing and siding with roofing covering of appropriate roofing
materials.
• It should be light in weight, fire resisting, adjacent to pier or wharves to be served.
• Road and rail services are provided at the back and front of the warehouses with roads
at the end.
NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
• Any object or device, external to a vessel that is intended to assist a navigator in fixing
his position or determining a safe course past hazards to navigation
• Includes both fixed and floating objects
• Serve to warn of hidden dangers and assist in making landfall when approaching from
the high seas.
• Provide a continuous chain of charted marks, showing improved channels and assisting
in coastal piloting.
IMPORTANCE
• Enhances safety and can act as good safety barriers.
• Help to improve safety at seas.
• Finding and safely navigating a narrow channel in a wide expanse of water.
• Help mariners in determining their position with respect to land or any navigational
hazard or hidden danger
FIXED NAVIGATIONAL STRUCTURES
a. Navigational lights of piers:For Navigational purpose at the port or harbour to locate
the light system on the piers.
b. Beacon lights
• A beacon is an intentionally conspicuous device designed to attract attention to a
specific location
• Beacons can also be combined with other indicators to provide important information,
such as the navigation of the ships.
 • Beacons help guide navigators to their destinations
Types of beacons
• Radar reflectors: Radar reflectors is an object-detection system that uses radio waves
to determine the range, angle or velocity of objects
• Radio beacons: A radio beacon is a transmitter at a known location on specified radio
frequency
• Sonic/Visual signals: Visual beacons range from small, single-pipe structure to large
lighthouse or light station and can be located on land or water.
FLOATING NAVIGATIONAL STRUCTURES
a. LIGHT SHIPS
• Lightship is a ship which is act as light house.
• They are used in waters the area to deep or unsuitable for lighthouse.
• Light ships mark the entrances to harbours or estuaries, dangerous shoals lying-in
much-frequented waters.
• The lantern is carried on an open steel tower.
• The name of the station is painted in white colours on both sides of light ship.
• The superstructures are also provided with white colours.
• The storm warning signals are also installed on the light ships.
b. BUOYS
• Buoys are floating structures, moored to the bottom of the sea.
• Used to mark channels rocks, wrecks and other dangers to navigation.
• Heavily anchored to the bottom that are intended to convey information to a navigator
by their shape and colour, by the characteristics of a visible or audible signal or a
combination of two or more such features.
• Buoys have top marks and exhibit light.
• Also fitted with radar reflectors and audio signals.
• Buoys are perhaps the largest category of aids of navigation and come in many shapes.
• Buoys are also classified according to their size, shape, colour, weight, purpose, etc.
• Mooring buoys: In harbour interiors, buoys are provided in fixed positions to which
ships could be moored during their stay in the harbour without using anchors.
• Wreck buoys: These arc of peculiar shape and are used to locate wrecks in harbour
exteriors or open seas. They are also used for sea cable crossing locations.
 Beacons Light Ships

Buoys
LIGHT HOUSE
• It is a lofty structure popularly built of masonry or reinforced concrete in the shape of
a tall tower on a high pedestal
• The superstructure is generally a masonry or an R.C.C tower constructed on a
prominent basement.
• The tower is divided into convenient number of floors, the topmost floor containing
powerful lighting equipment and its operating machinery.
• The floors are accessible by a flight of winding stairs from bottom to top.
• The lower floors are used, as stores and living rooms necessary for the maintenance and
working.
• A narrow gallery is provided outside the lantern room protected by pipe railing.
• Lighthouses may be located on shore or on islands away from the mainland as in the
case of warning light stations
• Each structure has a light station that is composed of the tower and all its underlying
buildings like the fuel house, living quarters of the keeper, fog-signaling building, and
boathouse
• The Lantern Room is where the lamp and lens are located.
 • A grounding system and lightning rod are connected to the Cupola to provide safety
against lightning strikes.
• Just underneath the Lantern Room is the Service Room or Watch Room. This is where
the keeper prepares the lantern and keeps his watch for the night. Fuel and other
important supplies are also kept in this room.
• The light should be identified and its distance ascertained, for the mariner to locate his
position.
• These lights are made ‘fixed’ or flashing for easy identification by the navigator and
are classified accordingly to their illuminating power.
• The height of the tower above sea level determines the geographical range and the
intensity or power of the light the luminous range
SIGNALS
• The approach channel of a modern port should be clearly defined by the provision of
suitable signals.
• Signals will be required at the following places:
• Light ships have to be provided at important changes in the direction of the route of
ships.
• Lighted beacons are to be fixed on river banks
• Buoys are required at entrance channels to ports
Requirements
❑ visible, from a long distance
❑ should not vary in character and should be positively recognizable.
❑ should be simple for identification.
Classification of signals
a. Light signals
1. Light Ships
2. Beacons
3. Buoys
b. Fog signals
c. Audible signals
b. FOG SIGNALS
• These signals are to be provided at places likely to be seriously affected by fog and they
take the following forms:
• Ordinary bells struck by hand.
 • Ordinary bells operated by mechanism.
• Submarine bells struck by mechanism.
• Whistles or sirens blown by compressed air or steam
c, AUDIBLE SIGNALS
• Used in emergency to bring immediate attention of the mariners and they take up the
form of explosive signals, electric oscillators, sirens, bells and diaphones.
• Useful during heavy mists or fogs.
• It should also be noted that sound transmitted through the air gives sometimes the
misleading idea about the direction of sound.
• Hence, resort is made to submarine sound signals in such a way that they can be heard
from a great distance with easy identification of the direction.