Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Chapter one
Mathematical logic
Introduction to logic
Logic is the analysis and assessment of arguments. In other word it is about
reasoning the arguments going from premises to a conclusion. The arguments are the
composed from different compound statement which is formulated using the word so-
called connective such as and, or, if…, then…., and if and only if, and a word not.
Further, the formulated composite sentence and statement are examined under the
various topics such as statement calculus such as truth table, validity, rule of inference,
and arithmetic formula and predicate calculus such as symbolizing everyday language,
formulation and consequence. Thus, we will try to clarify reasoning and separate good
from bad reasoning (which is called the validity of argument) with aid of logic. As a result,
logic is relevant game with funny symbols, but as a useful tool to clarify and evaluate our
reasoning.
Moreover, it is important because, reasoning is important. While you’ve been
reasoning about things all your life, this may be the first time that you try to understand
reasoning and become better at it. Reasoning and general analytical skills are important in
law, politics, journalism, education, medicine, business, science, mathematics, computer
science, and most other areas.
This chapter devoted with detail presentation, examples, activities and exercises.
Hence student can have better understanding logic (so they better support their
conclusions).
Finally, logic can be fun. Doing logic is like playing a game or doing puzzles; logic
will challenge your thinking processes in new ways. The rigor of logical systems will
likely fascinate you. Most people find logic enjoyable.
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter you will able to:
 understand the statement calculus,
 identify the importance of sentential connectives,
 apply rules of inferences,
 prove the validity of the arguments,

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

 understand the predicate calculus,

 Recognize how to symbolizing everyday language.

1.1 Review of propositional logic , connectives, compound proposition, equivalent

proposition, tautology and contradictions, predicate logic, open proposition and
qualified proposition
Definition 1.1.1. A propositional logic (statement) is a declarative sentence which is either
true or false but not both.

As stated in this definition the fundamental property of any propositional logic is that it is
either true or false (and it cannot be both true and false).we say that a propositional logic
has truth value T if it is true and truth value F if it is false. The sentences we come across
in our everyday language are not always declarative sentences. There are also sentences
such as questions, commands, suggestions, proposals or exclamations. However,
mathematics deals only with declarative sentences.
Example .consider the following sentences:
a) 2 is a prime number. c) Wonderful!
b) What is your name? d) A triangle has four sides.
It is clear that a and d are propositional logic with truth value T and F respectively. On the
other hand, the remaining sentences are not propositional logic because they cannot
classify as being either true or false.
Definition 1.1.2 An Open-proposition is a sentence which contains one or more variables
or pronouns and which becomes a statement when each of its variables or
pronouns is replaced by a specific value or an individual.
Example Consider the following sentences:
a) X is a multiple of 10. C) He is a student.
b) 2x+1=10. d) 2x+1>3
Each of these sentences is an Open-proposition. They are, as they stand now, neither
true nor false. Their truth value depends on the values or individuals which are used to
replace the variables or the pronouns.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Activities
1. Which of the following sentences are propositional logic?
a. Aksum is in Israel.
b. All triangles are isosceles.
c. Oil is solid.
d. 10 is a natural number.
2. Indicate which of the following sentences are Open-proposition.
a. x is a factor of 12. C. 9-(-6) =67
b. x+4=4
Sentential connective
In mathematical course and elsewhere so many compound statements are formed by word
not or by the words and, or, if . . . then (or implies), and if and only if. These five words or
combinations of words are called sentential connectives. Our first concern here is the
analysis of the structure of a composite sentence (that is, a declarative sentence in which
one or more connectives appear) in terms of its constituent prime sentences (that is,
sentences which either contain no connectives or, by choice, are regarded as "indivisible"
or premises). We shall look first at the propositional logic (and open propositions) and
connectives individually.
Definition 1.2.3 A sentence which is modified by the word "not" is called the negation of
the original sentence.
Example i) The negation of “2 is a prime,” is “2 is not a prime”.
ii) The negation of “ 2 is a prime and 6 is a composite number,” is, “It is not
the case that 2 is a prime and 6 is a composite number”.
Note. Later we use the phrase "It is not the case that" instead of simply the word "not."
Definition 1.1.4. The word "and" is used to join two sentences to form a composite
sentence which is called the conjunction of the two sentences.
Example The conjunction of the sentences, “sun is shining” and “It is cold outside,” is
"The sun is shining, and it is cold outside".
Note. Same time we use a word "but," instead of word “and” which is synonyms.
Definition 1.1.5 A sentence formed by connecting two sentences with the word "or" is
called the disjunction of the two sentences.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Note: The use of ꞌꞌorꞌꞌ in propositional logic is rather different from its normal use in the

English language. Here we use it in the inclusive sense.

Definition1.1.6. The composite sentence have the form "If . . . , then . . ." from two
sentence is called a conditional sentence.
Note. - The sentence immediately following "If" is the antecedent, and
- The sentence immediately following "then" is the consequent.
- “If P, then Q” (where P and Q are statements) have the same meanings with:
P implies Q ,
P only if Q ,
P is a sufficient condition for Q ,
Q , provided that P ,
Q if P ,
Q is a necessary condition for P .
Example "If 2 > 3, then 3 > 4" is a conditional sentence with "2 > 3" as antecedent and "3
> 4" as consequent.
Definition 1.1.7 The composite statement joined by the words "if and only if" is called bi-
conditional sentence.
Note: The statement has the form “if and only if Q” (where P and Q are statements) has
the same meaning with:
if P, then Q, and if Q, then P;
Q is a necessary and sufficient condition for P.
Note
To construct the composite sentence we shall use connectives word. Each of the
connectives is denoted by symbols:
for not,
⋀ for and,
⋁ for or,
→ for if . . . , then . . . ,
↔ for if and only if .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Thus, if P and Q are sentences, then

P , P ⋀ Q , P ⋁ Q , P →Q , P ↔Q are, respectively, the negation of P, the
conjunction , disjunction of P and Q, and so on.
Example
The sentence
2 is a prime, and 6 is a composite number.
Symbolized by: P ⋀ C , where P is "2 is a prime" and C is "6 is a composite number."
The sentence
If either labor or management is stubborn, then the strike will be settled iff the government
obtains an injunction, but troops are not sent into the mills is a conditional.
The antecedent is the disjunction of L ("Labor is stubborn") and M ("Management is
stubborn"). The consequent is a bi-conditional whose left-hand member is S ("The strike
will be settled") and whose right-hand member is the conjunction of G ("The government
obtains an injunction") and the negation of R ("Troops are sent into the mills"). So the
original sentence may be symbolized by
(L ⋁ M )→(S ↔(G ⋀ (R))).
Note The strength of connectives when they appear together is as follow:
↔ is the strongest followed by→.
⋁ and ⋀ are assigned to have the same strength.
is the weakest of all in strength.
For instance:
P ⋀ Q → R means ( P ⋀ Q ) → R .
P ↔Q → R means P ↔ ( Q→ R ) .
P ⋀ Q means(P) ⋀ Q .
Activities
1. Translate the following composite sentences into symbolic notation, using letters to stand
for the prime components (which here we understand to mean sentences which contain no
connectives).
a. Either it is raining or someone left the shower on.
b. If it is foggy tonight, then either Biruk must stay home or he must take a taxi.
c. Biruk will sit, and lie or Solomon will wait.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

d. Biruk will sit and wait or Solomon will wait.

2. Let C be "Today is clear," R be "It is raining today," S be "It is snowing today," and Y be
"Yesterday was cloudy." Translate into acceptable English the following.
a. C →(R ⋀ S ). (d) (Y → R) ⋁ C .
b. Y ↔C . (e¿ C ↔(R ⋀ S ) ⋁ Y .
c. Y ⋀ (C ⋁ R). (f) (C ↔ R) ⋀ (S ⋁ Y ).
Truth Tables
Given the values of the prime sentences the truth value of a composite sentence can be
determined using truth table and considering the rule of the truth value of the five
sentences connectives.
Let P and Q be two prime sentences,then,
P ≡T only if P≡F
P ⋀ q ≡T only if p≡T≡q
p ⋁ q ≡F only if p≡F≡q
p → q ≡ F only if P≡T and q≡F
p ↔ q ≡T Only if p and q takes the same truth value.
Thus, P , P ⋀ Q , P ⋁ Q , P →Q , P ↔Q can be defined using table as follows: Hence one can
adapt to these definition.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Note
Now if P and Q are statements, then so are each of P , P ⋀ Q , P ⋁ Q , P →Q ,∧P↔ Q .
The composite sentence whose prime components are statements is itself a statement.
Examples
Determine the truth value for a given composite statement
P ⋁ Q → ¿) where the truth value of P , Q, R ,∧S areT , F , F ,∧T respectively.

Solution: The antecedent part P ⋁ Q has truth value T and the consequent part R ↔ S has

truth value T. Thus in conditional statement if both antecedent and consequent have the

truth value true (T), the conditional statement has truth value T. In other way the truth

value of composite statement studied by putting successive step’s on successive lines:

If (⌐p ⋁ r ) ⋁(⌐r→ q) has a truth value F, then what is the truth value of
[r ⋁(⌐p ⋁q)]↔[(⌐q→ (r⋀ ⌐p)].
Solution: (⌐p ⋁ r ) ⋁(⌐r→ q)≡ F only if (⌐p ⋁ r ) ≡F≡ (⌐ r→ q).
(⌐p ⋁ r ) ≡F only if ⌐p≡F≡r and (⌐ r→ q) ≡ F only if ⌐ r≡T and q ≡F
⌐p≡F only if p≡T, r≡F and ⌐r≡T only if r≡F, q≡F.
∴ [r ⋁(⌐p ⋁q)]↔[(⌐q→ (r⋀ ⌐p)]
[F ⋁(F ⋁F)]↔[(T→ ¿F⋀ F )]
[F ⋁ F]↔[T→F]
F↔ F
T

Verify the truth value of composite statement

(P ⋁ C ) ⋀ (C → I )

Solution: As the value of P, C, and I change from T to F or vice versa, the composite
statement has value T or value F. This is examined using truth table for each possible
assignment (23) of truth value to P, C, & I.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

The lines 2,3,4,and 6 are show that the composite statements has truth value true and
line1,5,7,and 8 are show that the composite statement has truth value false.
Example: construct the truth table for the compound ( p ⋀ q)→(q ⋁ p).As before,we write in
the first two columns the four possible pairs of truth values for the statements p and q.
P q q p⋀ q q⋁ p ( p ⋀ q)→(q ⋁ p)
T T F T T T
T F T T T T
F T F F T T
F F T F F T
Observe that the last column in above table has only T’s.In other words,the given statement
( p ⋀ q)→(q ⋁ p) is true in every case.When this occurs,the statement is called a tautology.
A tautology is a compound (composite) statement which is true for all possible truth values
of its components. On the other hand, a compound statement that is false for all possible
truth values of its components is called a contradiction. For example
(p→ q)⋀ (q → r )]⋀ ( p → r) is contradiction.
Activities
1. Suppose that the statements P, Q, R, and S are assigned the truth values T, F, F, and T,

respectively. Find the truth value of each of the following statements.

(a). (P ⋁ Q) ⋁ R . (c) P⋁ R↔ R⋀ S.
(b). P ⋁ (Q ⋁ R). (d) S ↔ P →(P ⋁ S).
2. Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.

(a) P →(Q ⋀ R). (b) P ⋀ Q →(Q ⋀ Q → R ⋀ Q).

3. (a) Suppose the value of P →Q , is T; what can be said about the value of P ⋀ Q ↔ P ⋁ Q

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(b). Suppose the value of P↔Q is T; what can be said about the values of
P ↔Q and P ↔Q ?
(c) Suppose the value of P ↔Q is F ; what can be said about the values of
P ↔Q∧P↔ Q ?
Predicate logic
logical predicates
A logical predicate is a property that can be attributed to individuals. For instance of
ꞌꞌblackꞌꞌ can be attributed to individuals like human beings,cars,tables,etc.Another predicate
that can be attributed to numbers is ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ.in ordinary language, given a predicate
there is more or less a determined class of individuals to which it applies. For instance, let
us consider the following thee propositions which use the predicate ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ.
1. 10 is ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ. (True)
2. 3 is ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ. (False)
3. Africa is ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ. (False)
More Examples
1. England is ꞌꞌa town in Angolaꞌꞌ.
2. 2 is ꞌꞌa square root of 4ꞌꞌ.
3. Addis Ababa is ꞌꞌa whole numberꞌꞌ.
Open propositions
Definition 1.1.8 An open proposition is a sentence which contains one or more variables
and which becomes a proposition when each of its variables is replaced
by a particular individual.
Remark: if in an open proposition, the collection of objects from which we choose
replacements for the variables is specified, then this collection of objects is called the
universal set and is dented by ꞌꞌ⋃ꞌꞌ.
Example
Here are some open propositions:
x is a town in Angola
y is greater than 7.
x is a whole number.
x-y is divisible by 6.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Our next problem is to devise is to devise a shorthand notation or symbols by which we

designate open propositions. Let us consider the open proposition:
ꞌꞌ x is a square root of 4ꞌꞌ
Suppose we denote the predicate of beingꞌꞌa square root of 4ꞌꞌ by P. then the above open
proposition is simply written P(x) and is read:
x has the property P.
Similarly, the open proposition ꞌꞌy is a whole numberꞌꞌ can be written as Q(y), where Q is
the predicate of being ꞌꞌa whole numberꞌꞌ.
Compound open propositions
Formation of compound open proposition is the same as formation of compound
proposition. We just use the connectives.
If for instance we have open propositions P(x) and Q(x), we can form compound open
propositions:
P(x)⋀ Q(x) - logical conjunction.
P(x) ⋁Q(x) - logical disjunction.
P(x)→Q(x) - logical conditional(implication).
P(x)↔Q(x) - logical Bi-conditional.
P(x ) - logical negation.
If we want to construct more complicated ones, we have to simply follow the same method
as we used in the case of the propositions.
Example
If r: 6 is divisible by 3.
P(x): x is an integer greater than 0
Q(y): y is a prime number
Then: r⋀ P ( x ) :6 is divisible by 3∧x is aninteger greater than 0.
P(x) ⋁Q(x): x is an integer greater than 0 or y is a prime number
Q(x)→P(x): if y is a prime number, then x is an integer greater than 0
Changing an open proposition into a proposition.
Substitution or Replacement
Consider the open proposition:
R(x): x was a wife of Emperor Minilik.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Now if we replace x by Etege Tayitu we obtain:

R(Josephine):Etege Tayitu was a wife of Emperor Minilik.
In general, if we have an open proposition P(x),the proposition we get when we replace x
by the name of an individual A is denoted by P(A).
Example
1. R(x): x is greater than 4.
R(7):7 is greater than 4.
2. Q(x): x is the capital city of Israel.
Q(Rome): Rome is the capital city of Israel.
3. Let P(x,y):x is greater than y.
P(1,2):1 is greater than 2.
Activities

1. Let P(x): x is an integer greater than 7.

Q(x): x is a natural number.

Determine which of the following are True and which are False:

a ) P ( 3 )∧Q (−1 ) c ) P( 9)→Q ( 2 )

b ) P ( 8 )∨Q (−1 ) d ) [ P ( 6 )∨Q ( 7 ) ] ∧P ( 0 )
2. Let P(x): x is an integer.

Q(x): x is a rational number.

R(x): x is an irrational number.

S(x): x is a real number.

Express each of the following in symbolic form.

a. if x is an irrational number, then x is a real number.

b. if x is a real number, then either x is an irrational number or x is a rational number.

c. x is an integer or x is a rational number.

1.2. Argument and Validity of statements

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

In this section the analysis of logical relations among sentences which depend only
on their composition from constituent sentences using sentential connectives shall be
discussed. The setting includes the presence of an initial set the "prime sentences" and the
following two assumptions.
Each prime sentence is a statement, which its truth value is known.
Each sentence composed from prime sentences using sentential connectives and its truth
value determine from truth value of prime sentence.
Suppose there is given a nonempty set of distinct sentences and that we extend this
set by adjoining precisely all of those sentences which can be formed by using, repeatedly
and in all possible ways, the various sentential connectives.
Note. Then the extended set has the following property.
If A and B are members, then so are each of A , A ⋁ B , A ⋀ B , A → B , andA ↔ B .
The members of the extended class are called formulas.
The members of the initial set are the prime formulas, and the others are composite
formulas.
The prime formulas which appear in a composite formula are said to be contained in that
formula are called its prime components.
The truth value of a composite formula is defined inductively in accordance with the
following table

Examples
If the prime components in a formula A are P1 , P2 , … , P n then the definition of the truth
value of A in terms of truth values of P1 , P2 , … , P n can be exhibited in a truth table, as
described earlier. There are 2n rows in such a table, each row exhibiting one possible
assignment of T's and F's to P1 , P2 , … , P n.
Let A be a formula having P1 , P2 , … , P nas its prime components. Then A provides a rule
for associating with any ordered n-tuple of T ' sand F ' s, whose i th coordinate is the

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

assignment to Pi , for i=1 , 2 , … ,n , one of T and F . If we set V ={T , F }, then we can

rephrase our observation: A defines a function onV n into V . A function on V n into V is truth
function (of n arguments). Truth functions will be denoted by f (P1 , P2 , … , P n), g
(P1 , P 2 , … , Pn), and so on.
The f( P1 , P2 , … , P i−1, g(q 1 , q 2 , … , q m), Pi+1 , … , Pn) is composite function obtained
by composition from the truth function f ofn arguments and gof m arguments. It obtained
by substitution of g for the i th variable in f .
Note The combinations of truth functions are again truth functions.
n
There are 22 different truth functions of n arguments.
For example, for n=2 arguments we have sixteen truth function using the four connectives.

Remark: - The out-fix notation⋀ ( p , q)is the other form notation of ( p ⋀ q).
The statement calculus is concerned with the truth values of composite formulas
in terms of truth-value assignments to the prime components and the interrelations of the
truth values of composite formulas having some prime components in common.
Definition 1.2.1 A formula whose value is T, for all possible assignments of truth values
to its prime components called valid and denoted by ⊨ A for " A is valid
" ;otherwise it is invalid.
Note: The most mechanical method of proving the validity of a given formula is a truth
table and If a formula A is not valid its truth value is determined by using truth table.
- Let P1 , P2 , … , P n be prime components in A . A is said to be tautology iff for each of the
2n assignments of T's and F's to P1 , P2 , … , P n is T.
Example p → p and P ⋀ ( p→ Q)→ Q are tautologies, whereas P →(Q→ R) is not. These
conclusions are based on an examination of Tables I, II, and III, below.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

The computation and examination of its truth table is may be tedious. So, to overcome this,
we develop the rule to verify Tautology.
Theorem 1.2.1 (Substitution rule) Let B be a formula and let B* be the formula resulting
from B by the substitution of a formula A for all occurrences of a prime
component P contained in B. if ⊨B, then ⊨B*.
Proof: For an assignment of values to the prime components of B∗¿ there results a value
v (A )of A and a value v ¿of B∗¿ . Now v ¿ the value of B for a particular assignment of
values to its prime components, including the assignment of v (A )to P. If B is valid, then
v (B) and hence v ¿ is always T. That is, if B is valid, then so is B∗∎
Examples
From below Table IV it follows that⊨ P ⋁ Q⟷ QVP . Hence, by Theorem 1.1 ⊨(R→S)
⋁Q ⟷Q ⋁(R→S). We can verify a result by Table V.

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Since the value of P is F, we assigned a value of R → S , F. Hence R is T and S is F, and

also assigned T for Q. The rest of the computation is third line of Table IV from underlined
value of IV.
Suppose the question arises as to whether the formula
(R ⋁ S) ⋀ ((R ⋁ S)→(P ⋀ Q))→ (P ⋀ Q) is a tautology.
By Theorem1.2.1. The formula has same form as the tautology P ⋀ (P→ Q)→Q (Table II),
in the sense that it results from P ⋀ (P→ Q)→ Q upon the substitution of R ⋁ S for P and
P ⋀ Q for Q.
Definition 1.2.2. Two formulas A and B are said to be equivalent written as A eq B∨A ≡ B
,iff they have the same truth value for each union of the sets of prime
components in A and B.
Example
Show that (P →Q) eq P ⋁ Q and P eq P ⋀ (Q ⋁ Q).
Solution: To verify the equivalence of we use the truth table.

As we see from the table (P →Q) eq P ⋁ Q and P eq P ⋀ (Q ⋁ Q).

Remark: If CA is a formula containing a specific occurrence of the formula A and CA is the
result on replacing this occurrence of A by a formula B, then if B eq A , thenC B eq C A .
Theorem 1.2⊨ A ⟷ B iff A eq B .
Proof: (→) Suppose ⊨ A ⟷ B
A ⟷ B is a tautology (A∧B have same truth values)
∴ A eq B .
(←) suppose A eq B
A and B have the same truth values
A ⟷ B is a tautology
∴⊨ A⟷B∎

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Corollary 1.2.3 Let CA be a formula containing a specified occurrence of the formula A

and CB be the result of replacing this occurrence of A by a formula B.then,
a) If ⊨A ⟷ B, then ⊨C A ⟷ C B .
b) If ⊨C A , then⊨C B .
This proof is left as an exercise.
Theorem 1.2.4. If ⊨ A∧⊨ A → B , then⊨ B .
Proof: Let P1 , P2 , … , P nbe the totality of prime components appearing in A and B. For a
given assignment of truth values to these, the first part of the computation of the value of A
→B consists of computing the values of A and B, after which the computation is
completed by applying the table for the conditional. The assumptions ⊨A and ⊨A→B
imply that both the value obtained for A and that for A → B are T. According to the table
for A → B , this implies that B must also have the value T. Since this is the case for all
assignments of values to P1 , P2 , … , P n , B is valid∎
Theorem 1.2.5 If ⊨ A∧⊨ A ⟷ B , then⊨ B.
This proof is left as an exercise.
Theorem 1.2.5
Tautological Conditionals
⊨ A ⋀ ( A → B ) → B . 8.⊨ ( A ⋀ B →C ) → ( A → ( B → C )) .
⊨ B ⋀ ( A → B ) → A . 9.⊨ ( A → ( B → C ) ) → ( A ⋀ B→ C )
⊨ A ⋀ ( A ⋁ B)→ B . 10.⊨( A → B ⋀ B)→ A .
⊨ A →(B → A ⋀ B). 11. ⊨( A → B)→( A ⋁ C → B ⋁ C).
⊨ A ⋀ B → A . 12.⊨( A → B)→(A ⋀ C → B ⋀ C).
⊨ A → A ⋁ B . 13 .⊨( A → B)→(( B →C )→( A → C)).
⊨( A → B) ⋀ (B → C)→( A → C). 14.⊨( A ⟷ B) ⋀ (B ⟷C )→( A ⟷ C).
Tautological biconditionals
'
⊨ A ⟷ A 15 .⊨ A ⟷ A .
⊨( A ⟷ B)⟷(B ⟷ A ).
⊨( A → B) ⋀ (C → B)⟷( A ⋁ C → B).
⊨( A → B) ⋀ ( A → C)⟷( A → B ⋀ C).
⊨( A → B)⟷(B→ A).

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

⊨ A ⋁ B ⟷ B ⋁ A. 20'. ⊨ A ⋀ B ⟷ B ⋀ A .
⊨( A ⋁ B) ⋁ C ⟷ A ⋁ ( B ⋁ C ). 21'. ⊨( A ⋀ B) ⋀ C ⟷ A ⋀ ( B ⋀ C ).
⊨ A ⋁ (B ⋀ C )⟷ (A ⋁ B) ⋀ ( A ⋁ C). 22'. ⊨ A ⋀ (B ⋁ C )⟷ (A ⋀ B) ⋁ ( A ⋀ C).
⊨ A ⋁ A⟷ A . 23'. ⊨ A ⋀ A ⟷ A .
⊨( A ⋁ B)⟷ A ⋀ B . 24'. ⊨( A ⋀ B)⟷ A ⋁ B .
Tautologies for Elimination of Connectives
⊨ A → B ⟷ A ⋁ B.
⊨ A → B ⟷ (A ⋀ B).
⊨ A ⋁ B⟷ A→B
⊨ A ⋁ B ⟷( A ⋀ B).
⊨ A ⋀ B ⟷ (A → B).
⊨( A ⟷ B)⟷( A → B) ⋀ (B→ A) .
Note
The denial, Ad , of a formula A is the formula resulting from A by replacing each
occurrence of ⋀ by ⋁and vice versa and replacing each occurrence of Pi , by an occurrence of
Pi and vice versa.
Example The denial of P ⋁ Q is P ⋀ Q and the denial of (P ⋀ Q) is P ⋁ Q .
Theorem 1.2.6. Let A be a formula composed from prime components using only, ⋀ , ⋁, and
let Ad be the denial of A. Then⊨ A ⟷ A d .
Proof: By induction on the number of symbols appearing in a formula.
Examples
Let A=((P⋀ Q) ⋁ R ) ⋁ ¿ (Q ⋁ R )) then find the denial of A?
A =((P ⋀ Q) ⋁ R) ⋁ (P ⋀ (Q ⋁ R))
=((P ⋀ Q) ⋁ R) ⋀ (P ⋀ (Q ⋁ R))
=((P ⋀ Q) ⋀ R) ⋀ (P ⋁ (Q ⋁ R))
=((P ⋁ Q) ⋀ R) ⋀ (P ⋁ (Q ⋀ R))
=((P ⋁ Q) ⋀ R) ⋀ (P ⋁ (Q ⋀ R))
Since Ad ≡ A ,then Ad =((P ⋁ Q) ⋀ R) ⋀ (P ⋁ (Q ⋀ R))

Activities

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

1. Write each of the following formulas as a truth function in outfix notation.

For example P →(Q ⋁ (R ⋀ S)) becomes → ¿
(a) P ⋀ Q (e) P →(Q→ R)⟷Q →(P → R).
(b) P →Q . (f) P ⋁ R →( B ⋀ (S ⋁ P)).
(c) P ⋁ (Q ⋁ R). (g) (P →Q)→(S ⋀ P →Q).
(d) P ⋀ (Q→ R).
Consequence and Rules of Inference
Logic is function provide principles of reasoning, that is, a theory of inference.
Further, chain of reasoning is a finite sequence of statements which are support the last
statement in the sequence (the conclusion) may be inferred from certain initial statements
(the premises). In everyday circumstances the premises of an inference are judged to be
true (on the basis of experience, experiment, or belief). Acceptance of the premises of an
inference as true and of the principles employed in a chain of reasoning from such
premises as correct commits one to regard the conclusion at hand as true. In a
mathematical theory the situation is different. There, one is concerned only with the
conclusions (the so-called "theorems" of the theory) which can be inferred from an
assigned initial set of statements (the so-called "axioms" of the theory) according to rules
which are specified by some system of logic.
Definition(consequences)1.2.7:The statement B is the consequence of statement A 1, A2,
…, Am symbolized by A1, A2, …, Am ⊨ B, iff for every truth-value assignment
for each of the prime formulas P 1, P2,… , Pn occurring in one or more of A 1, A2,
… , Am and B, the formula B receives the value T whenever every A receives the
value T.
Note: if A1, A2, …, Am ⊨ B, then we say the argument is valid, otherwise invalid.
Example
From an inspection of Table VIII below we obtain the following three illustrations of our
definition:
P , R ,Q ⋀ P → R ⊨Q . (line 3)
P,P→ R,R⊨P ⋁Q→R. (lines 1 and 3)
Q ⋀ P → R ,Q , P→ R ⊨(P ⋀ Q). (lines 3, 7, 8)
Table VIII

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Activities
1. Verify using truth table that the following are valid or not.
a) P →Q ,(Q ⋁ R)⊨Q
b) P ⋁ Q , R ⟶Q ⊨ P → R.
2. Show that P , P Q ⊨Q is valid.
Theorem 1.2.8
A ⊨ B iff ⊨ A → B .
A1 , A 2 ,… , A m ⊨ B iff A1 ⋀ A 2 ⋀ … ⋀ A m ⊨ B or, if ⊨ A 1 ⋀ A 2 ⋀ … ⋀ A m → B (m> 2).
Proof: (⟹) For (I), let A ⊨ B. By the table for→ , A → B receives the value F if A
receives the value T, and, simultaneously, B receives the value F. From the hypothesis, this
combination of values does not occur. Hence A → B always receives the value T, that is,
⊨ A → B.
(⟸) Let ⊨ A → B , and consider an assignment of values to the prime
components such that A receives the value T. Since A → B receives the value T, it follows
from the table for→ that Btakes the value T, whence, A ⊨ B
The first assertion in (II) follows from the table for A, and the second follows from the first
by an application of (I).
Corollary 1.2.9 A1,A2,… ,Am-1,Am ⊨ B iff A1,A2,… ,Am-1 ⊨ Am→ B.
More generally, A1,A2,… ,Am-1,Am ⊨ B iff ⊨ A1 →(A2→ (…(Am→B)…)).
Proof: For m = 1, the first assertion is (I) of the theorem. So, assume that A 1,… , Am-1, Am
⊨B for m > 1.Then ⊨ (A1⋀ A2 ⋀ … ⋀ Am-1⋀ A m →B), according to the theorem. From

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

tautology 8 of Theorem 1.4 and Theorem 1.3, we deduce that ⊨(A1⋀ A2 ⋀ … ⋀ Am-1¿ →
¿ ¿B). According to (I) of the theorem, it follows that A 1⋀ A2 ⋀ … ⋀ Am-1 ⊨ Am →B and
hence, by (II), that A1,A2,… ,Am-1 ⊨ A m →B. The converse is established by reversing the
foregoing steps
Finally, the second assertion follows by repeated application of the first.
Thus, the problem of what statements are consequences of others (by the statement
calculus) is reduced to the problem of what statements are valid (which accounts for the
importance of tautologies). Indeed, we can substantiate a working form as a sequence of
formulas (the last formula being the desired consequence of the premises) such that the
presence of each is justified by a rule, called a rule of inference (for the statement calculus.
The basis of the rules of inference which we shall introduce is the following theorem.
Theorem 1.2.10
A1,…, Am-1, Am ⊨Ai for i= 1, 2, … ,m.
If A1,… , Am ⊨Bj for j = 1, 2,… ,p, and if B1,B2,…,Bp ⊨C, then A1,… ,Am ⊨C.
Proof: Part (I) is an immediate consequence of the definition of " A 1,… , Am-1, Am ⊨B."
For (II) we construct a truth table from the list P1 , P2 , … , P n. of all prime components
appearing in at least one of the A's, the B's, and C. Consider any row in which A 1, A2, … ,
Am each receive the value T. Then, by the hypotheses, each B has the value T, and hence
C has the value T. That is, for each assignment of values to the P's such that every A takes
the value T, formula receives the value T. This is the desired conclusion∎
With this result, a demonstration that a formula B (the conclusion) is a consequence
of formulas A1,… , Am-1, Am (the premises) may be presented in the form of a string (that
is, a finite sequence) of formulas, the last of which is B and such that the presence of each
formula E is justified by an application of one of the following rules.
Rule p: The formula E is a premise.
Rule t: There are formulas A , … , D preceding E in the string such that
⊨ A ⋀….,⋀ D ⟶ E.
Note If ⊨ D , then for any formula A we have⊨ A ⟶ D . Thus, D may be included in a
derivation by an application of rule I where in we take any premise as the "A."
Examples
We demonstrate that

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

A ⋁ B , A ⟶ C , B ⟶ D ⊨C ⋁ D .
Solution: An explanation of the numerals on the left is given below.
{1} (1) A⟶C Rule p
{1} (2) A⋁ B⟶C ⋁B Rule t; ⊨(1) ⟶ (2) by tautology 11
{3} (3) B⟶ D Rule p
{3} (4) C ⋁B⟶C ⋁ D Rule t; ⊨(3)⟶ (4) by tautology 11
{1, 3} (5) A⋁ B⟶C ⋁ D Rule t; ⊨(2) ⋀ (4) ⟶ (5) by tautology 7.
{6} (6) A⋁ B Rule p
{1, 3, 6} (7) C⋁D Rule t; ⊨(6) ⋀ (5) ⟶ (7) by tautology 1.
The numbers in parentheses adjacent to each formula serve to designate that
formula as well as the line of the derivation in which it appears.
Note: The set of numbers in braces for each line corresponds to the premises on which the
formula in that line depends. Thus, the formula in line 5 is a consequence of the premise in
line 1 and the premise in line 3, and the formula in line 7 is a consequence of the premises
in lines 1, 3, and 6--that is, of all the premises.
We now rewrite the above derivation, incorporating some practical
abbreviations. In this form the reader is called on to supply the tautologies employed.
{1} (1) A⟶C p
{1} (2) A⋁ B⟶C ⋁B 1t
{3} (3) B⟶ D p
{3} (4) C ⋁B⟶C ⋁ D 3t
{1, 3} (5) A⋁ B⟶C ⋁ D 2, 4 t
{6} (6) A⋁ B p
{1, 3, 6} (7) C⋁D 5,6t
As a more elaborate illustration we prove that
W ⋁ P ⟶ I , I ⟶ C ⋁ S , S ⟶ U , C ⋀ U ⊨W
by the following string of thirteen formulas.
{1} (1) C ⋀U p
{1} (2) U 1t
{3} (3) S⟶U p
{1,3} (4) S 2,3t

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

{1} (5) C 1t
{1, 3} (6) C ⋀S 4, 5 t
{1,3} (7) (C ⋁ S) 6t
{8} (8) W ⋁P⟶ I p
{9} (9) I ⟶C ⋁S p
{8,9} (10) W ⋁P⟶C ⋁S 8,9t
{1,3,8,9} (11) (W ⋁ P) 7,10t
{1,3,8,9} (12) W⋀P 11t
{1,3,8,9} (13) W 12t
Note: The preceding takes the place of a truth table having 26 = 64 lines for the purpose of
verifying that
⊨(W ⋁ P ⟶ I ) ⋀ (I ⟶ C ⋁ S ) ⋀ (S ⟶ U ) ⋀ (C ⋀ U )⟶ W .
Remark: Most of the theorems have the form of conditional. That is, A 1, A2,…,An ⊨
B⟶ C , where the A ' s are the axioms and B⟶ C is the consequence asserted.
Note: To prove such a theorem it is standard practice to adopt B as a further assumption
and then infer that C is a consequence. Thus, it is implied that
A1, A2,… , An ⊨ B⟶C, iff , A1, A2,… , An , B ⊨ C. (by Corollary1.2 )
This is as the third rule of inference, the rule of conditional proof for the statement
calculus.
Rule cp: The formula B⟶ C is justified in a derivation having A1, A2,… , An as premises
if it has been established that C is a consequence of A1, A2,… , An, and B.
Example Verify using the third rule A ⟶( B ⟶C ), D ⋁ A , B ⊨ D ⟶C .
{1} (1) A ⟶(B ⟶C ) p
{2} (2) D⋁ A p
{3} (3) B P
{4} (4) D p (introducing "D" as an
additional premise)
{2, 4} (5) A 2,4t
{1,2,4} (6) B⟶ C 1, 5 t
{1, 2, 3, 4} (7) C 3, 6 t
{1, 2, 3} (8) D ⟶C 4, 7 cp

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Activities
1. Using only rules p and t verify AV B , C ⟶ B ⊨ A ⟶ C .

Quantified proposition
The theory of inference supplied by the statement calculus is quite inadequate for
mathematics and, indeed, for everyday arguments. For example, from the premises
Every rational number is a real number,
5 is a rational number,
Certainly, 5 is a real number
is justified as a conclusion. Yet the validity of this argument cannot be established within
the context of the statement calculus. The reason is that the statement calculus is limited to
the structure of sentences in terms of component sentences, and the above inference
requires an analysis of sentence structure with the addition of three additional logical
notions, called terms, predicates, and quantifiers, it has been found that much of everyday
and mathematical language can be symbolized in such a way as to make possible an
analysis of an argument.
Note: In mathematics the letters such x∧y are reserve for names of individual objects. For
example, in order to determine those real numbers such that the square of the number
minus the number is equal to twelve, one will form the equation x2 - x = 12, thereby
regarding "x" as a placeholder for the name of any such (initially unknown) number.
Examples
The sentence
Every rational number is a real number may be translated as
For every x, if x is a rational number, then x is a real number.
In ordinary grammar, "is a real number" is the predicate of (a). In the translation (b) the
added predicate "x is a rational number" replaces the common noun "rational number."
Using "Q(x ) for x is a rational number" and " R(x ) for x is a real number," we may
symbolize (b) as
(i) For every x , Q(x )→ R(x).
Further, the statement "5 is a rational number" may be symbolized by
(ii) Q(5).

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

In terms of symbolism available at the moment, (i) and (ii) are the translations of the
premises of the argument appearing at the beginning of this section.
The sentence, Some real numbers are rational
We translate as: For some x, x is a real number and x is a rational number.
Using the predicates introduced above, this may be symbolizing
for some x , R (x) ⋀ Q (x).
The sentence
(iii) For some x , R(x )→ Q(x )
should have the same meaning as:
(iv¿ For some x , R ( x ) ⋁ Q(x ),
Since we have simply replaced " R(x )→ Q(x )" by its equivalent R( x ) ⋁ Q( x) . Now
(iv) may be translated into words as:
There is something which is either not a real number or is a rational number.
Consider the statement: if S(x) is "x is a sophomore," this predicate yields the
statement "John is a sophomore." A statement may also be obtained from S(x) by prefixing
it with the phrase "for every x":
(v¿ For every x , x is a sophomore.
No doubt, one would choose to rephrase this as:
(vi) Everyone is a sophomore .
Definition 1.2.11 The phrase "for every x" is called a universal quantifier and denoted by
(∀ x)∨(x ).
Note: The phrase "for every x," "for all x," and "for each x" have same meaning.
Using this symbol we may symbolize (v) or (vi) as (∀ x)S (x ).
Definition1.2.12: The phrase "there exists an x" is called an existential quantifier and
denoted by(∃ x ).
Note. The phrase "there exists an x ," "for some x," and "for at least one x" have the same
meaning.
Thus, (∃x)S(x) is the symbolic form of "There are sophomores."
Examples
Using the universal quantifier, symbolize the statement
"Every rational number is a real number".

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Let Q(x ), x is rational number. SinceQ ⊆ Rwe can symbolize as

a) (∀ x)(Q( x)→ R(x )).
Similarly, the sentence "Some real numbers are rational" may be translated as
b) (∃ x )(R(x ) ⋀ Q(x)).
The meaning of this sentence is simply that R ⋂ Q is nonempty.
Note: The statement of the form "Every so and so is a such and such" can be symbolized
as in (a), that the statement "Some so and so is a such and such" can be symbolized by
(∃ x )(R(x )→ Q(x)).
This has the same meaning as(∃ x )(R(x ) ⋁ Q(x)).
If A(x ) is a formula in x , consider the following four statements.
(x ) A(x ). (c) (x )(A (x )) .
(∃ x ) A (x). (d) (∃ x )( A(x )).
We might translate these into words as follows.
Everything has property A.
Something has property A.
Nothing has property A.
Something does not have property A.
Note: (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b).
The denial of (∃x)A(x) is ‘‘(∀ x)( A (x))”.
We have four basic types of statements involving quantifiers in logic.
For instance,
All rational are real. ( x )( Q( x ) → R ( x )) .
No rational are real. (x )(Q(x)→ R (x)).
Some rational are real. (∃ x )(Q(x ) ⋀ R(x)).
Some rational are not real. (∃ x )(Q( x ) ⋀ R(x)).
Note. If the symbols for negation and a quantifier modify a formula, the order in which
they appear is relevant.
(a) For example, the translation of
(x )(x is mortal) is "Not everyone is mortal" or "Someone is immortal,"
(b) The translation of

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

(x )((x ismortal)) is "Everyone is immortal."

(c ) The translation of the statement
2 2
( x )(∃ y )( x − y= y −x )is
"For every (real number) x there is a (real number) y such that x 2− y= y 2−x ." This is a
true statement. However, that
2 2
(∃ y)(x )(x − y= y −x ) ,
obtained by interchanging the quantifiers, is a different. Indeed, a false- statement.
Activities
1. Let P(x )be "x is a prime," E(x ) be "x is even," O(x ) be "x is odd," and D( x , y) be "x
divides y." Translate each of the following into English.
(a) P(7). (c) (x )(Ex → D 2 x) .
(b) E ( 2 ) P (2). (d) (x )(D2 x → Ex).
2. Translate the following statements using quantifier.
All judges are lawyers. (Jx , Lx)
Some lawyers are shysters. (Sx)
No judge is a shyster
1.3. Mathematical Proofs
Axiomatic Theories
A theory consists of two sets of statements. The first set determines the subject matter of
theory. The second set is a subset of the first and is called the set of acceptable statements.
In the experimental sciences, “acceptable” means “true” in the sense of being in
accordance with reality, and the final appeal is to observation and experiment. Thus in the
theory of nuclear physics, the acceptable statements are the true statements about atomic
nuclei. In some theories, acceptability has little relation to truth in this sense. For example,
in the theory of chess, “A bishop moves diagonally” is an acceptable statement because the
rule book says it is.
A theory of any branch of mathematics is an axiomatic theory. In axiomatic theory, the
acceptable statements are called theorems (or provable statements), and are defined to be
the statements deducible by logic alone from certain initially specified acceptable
statements called axioms. Euclidean geometry is an example of an axiomatic theory
familiar to every high school graduate.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

In axiomatic theory, the question “Is this statement true?” is not relevant. The Proper
question is, “Does this statement follow from the axioms by logic alone?”
Formal proof
In axiomatic theory, a formal proof is a finite sequences S1 , S 2 … , Sn of statements such that
each Si (1 ≤i ≤ n) is either an axiom or is inferred from one or more previous S j by a rule of
inference. The statements S1 , S 2 … , Sn are called the steps of the proof.
A theorem is a statement that is the last step of some proof. To prove a theorem means to
produce a proof whose last step is the theorem.
Every axiom is a theorem, because the finite sequence consisting of a single step-the axiom
itself- is a proof of the axiom.
In practice formal proofs are seldom given. Because a formal proof includes every step, the
formal proofs of simple theorems are often very long. The proofs in the mathematical
literature are usually informal (or semi-formal). Informal proofs are outlines, giving only
the mathematical high lights and suppressing the logical details. Of course, an informal
proof can in principle be changed on a formal proof if challenged.
Proof by contradiction
Often we are unable to give a formal proof of a theorem. When this happens, we frequently
turn to a method of proof called proof by contradiction. This method relies on the fact that
if ( ⌝ p ) is true. Hence to prove that p is true. We attempt to show that ( ⌝ p ) is false. The best
way to accomplish this is to show that ( ⌝ p ) is not consistent with the axioms and proven
theorems.
Proof Existence
For theorems of the form ( ∃ x ) p ( x ) , we can frequently give a proof by exhibiting an
example. For instance, consider the following theorem:

Theorem
Every equation of the form ax +b=0 , where a ≠ 0 , has solution in the system of real
numbers.
−b
The proof of this theorem amounts to checking that x= has the required property.
a

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Disproof by contradiction
If we have tried unsuccessfully to prove a conjectured theorem, we may well spend some
time trying to disprove it. One of the usual methods of disproof is to assume that the
theorem is true and then to derive consequences from this. If we succeed in arriving at a
consequence which contradicts a known true theorem, we have shown that the conjectured
theorem is false. This process is similar to the method of proof by contradiction.
Disproof by Counter-example
When we are considering a conjecture of the form ( ∀ x ) P ( x ), we may also consider its
negation ( ∃ x ) ( ⌝ p ( x ) ). It may be possible to find a specific individual ‘A’ so that ⌝ P (A ) is
true. If so we have shown that the negation of our conjecture is true and hence that the
conjecture is false.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Review exercises
1. Translate the following composite sentences into symbolic notation, using letters to stand
for the prime components (which here we understand to mean sentences which contain no
connectives).
I will go either by bus or by taxi.
Neither the North nor the South won the Civil War.
If I am either tired or hungry, then I cannot study.
2. Suppose that the statements P, Q, R, and S are assigned the truth values T, F, F, and T,

respectively. Find the truth value of each of the following state

(a) R →(s ⋀ P) (c) Q ⋀ S → ( P ↔ S ) .
(b) P →(R → S). (d) R ⋀ S → ( P→ Q ⋁ S )

3. Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.

(a) P →(P→ R). (c) (P →Q) ↔ P ⋁ Q .
(b) P ⋁ Q ↔ Q ⋁ P. (d¿(P → Q ⋀ R) ⋁ (P ⋀ Q).
4. Translate the following statements using quantifier.
a) Not all lawyers are judges. Lx , Jx
b) Some lawyers who are politicians are Congressmen. (Px , Cx)
c) No woman is both a politician and a housewife. (Hx)
d) There are some women lawyers who are housewives.
e) Using the letters indicated for predicates, translate the following.
f) For each real number x there is a larger real number y. (Rx)
g) There exist real numbers x, y, and z such that the sum of x and y is greater than the
product of x and z.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Summary
Logic is the analysis and assessment of arguments to clarifies reasoning and separate
good from bad reasoning (which is called the validity of argument).
Statement calculus and predicate calculus are one of the important concepts to analysis and
judge the validity of arguments logically.
Logic is applicable to areas such as: law, politics, journalism, education, medicine,
business, science, mathematics, computer science, and others.
The connective such as and, or, if…, then…., and if and only if, and a word not are used to
formulate composite sentence from prime components.
A formula A (composed statement) whose value is T, for all possible truth values of its
prime components is called valid and denoted by⊨A.
If a formula A is not valid its truth value is determined by using truth table.
A formula A equivalent to formula B iff they have the same truth value and denoted by
A eq B .
An argument (or formula) A is said to be valid by the rule of inference iff each of the
premise of the argument are truth value are T.
Suppose B is the consequence (conclusion) of the premises A’s, to verify this we have two
rules, those are:
A formulas such that either each E is a premise (rule p) and Preceding formulas in the
sequence such that if C is their conjunction, then ⊨C ⟶ E (rule t ).
In everyday language we use the quantifier such as: Universal quantifier such as “for every
x," "for all x," and "for each x”, and Existential quantifier such as "there exists an x," "for
some x," and "for at least one x".
The formula B is a consequence of formulas A1, A2,… , An (in the predicate calculus),
symbolized by A1, A2,…, An ⊨B, iff for each domain D and for each assignment to the A's
in D the formula B receives the value T whenever each A receives the value T.

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Reference
 Ademe Mekonen(2007),Logic and Set theory, Department of Mathematics, AAU.
 Anteneh and Geremew(2012), Logic and Set theory, Department of computational
sciences, AKU.
 Harry J. Gensler, (2010),Introduction to Logic, 2nd Ed., published by Routledge 270
Madison Ave, New York, NY10016
 M.L.Bettinger(1982), Logic, Proof, and Set, Edison-Wesley.
 Michael Potter(2004), Set Theory and its Philosophy, Oxford University, Published in the
United States by Oxford University Press Inc. , NewYork.
 Peter T. Johnstone(1987),Notes on logic and set theory, Cambridge University Press.
 Robert R.Stoll(1963), Set Theory and Logic, Cleveland State University, Dover
Publications, Inc. NewYork.
 Seymour Lipschutz(1965),schaum’s outline of theory and problems of general
topology,Temple University,published in the New York by Mcgraw-Hill Book Company.
 Willardvan Orman Quine(1969), Set theory and its logic, 2nd Ed. , Harvard University,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Chapter two
Set Theory
Introduction to cantor’s concept of a set
Georg Cantor’s (1845–1918) was the German Mathematician who studied the theory
of sets as a mathematical discipline. Cantor’s investigation of questions applicable to
trigonometric series and series of real numbers led him to recognize the need for a means
of comparing the magnitude of infinite sets of numbers.
Thus, cantor’s, define a set S as any collection of defined, distinguishable object of
our intuition or of our intellect to be conceived as a whole. The object are called the
elements or members of S. Distinguishable indicate any pair of objects qualified to appear
as element of a particular set , one must be able to determine whether they are different or
the same. Definite meaning that if given a set and an object is, or is not, a member of the
set. The implication is that a set is completely determined by its members.
Moreover, in this chapter the concept of intuitive set theory, axiomatic set theory
(Inclusion), the primitive notion and axioms (operations for Sets) ,algebra of set ,
relation ,function , Classification of sets and cardinal numbers were discussed with brief
definition and examples
Objectives:
At the end this chapter you will be able to :
 recognize the intuitive set theory,
 understand the axiomatic approach of set theory,
 know the primitive notion and axioms,
 understand the algebra of set,
 understand the relation,
 recognize the ordered pair,
 develop function,
 determine equivalence relation,
 understand the order relation,
 Apply counting principles in classification of sets,
 Understand the notion of cardinal of a set.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

2.1. Review of sets and set operations, ordered pairs, relations and
functions
Definition 2.1.1: A Set is a collection or group of objects or elements or members(cantor
1895).
Note:
One can determine whether or not that object is a member of that set .The resulting
sentence is capable of being classified as true or false.
The membership is a relation between objects and sets and denoted by ∈ and we write
x ∈ A if the object x is a member of set A.
If x is not a member of set A we shall write x ∉ A.
Further, if x 1 , x 2… x n ∈ A we will abbreviate as x i ∈ A for i=1,2,… , n.
Equal Sets
Definition 2.1.2: When two sets A and B consist of the same elements, they are called
equal and we shall write A=B.To indicate that A and B are not equal, we
shall write A≠B.
Basic properties of set: Let A , B ,∧C be any sets
A=B implies B= A ,
A=B∧B=C imply A=C for all sets A , B∧C .
Examples
When A ={Ashenafi,Biruk,Solano} and B={Solano, Biruk, Ashenafi},then A=B. Note that
a variation in the order in which the elements of a set are tabulated is immaterial.
When A={1,4,5} and B={1,1,4,5,4},then A=B since each element of A is in B and each
element B is in A. Note that a set is not changed by repeating one or more of its elements.
When A={1,2} and B={1,2,3,4},then A≠B since 3 and 4 are elements of B but not A.
{{1 ,3 },{2 , 4 },{5 ,6 }}; is a set with three members, namely,{1 , 3 }, {2 , 4 }, and {5 , 6 }.
The sets {{1 ,2 },{2, 3 }}and{1 , 2 ,3 }are unequal, since the former has {1 , 2 }∧{2 , 3} as
members, and the latter has 1, 2, and 3 as members.
Activities
1. Explain why 2 ∈{1 , 2 , 3}.
Is{1 , 2 }∈{{1 , 2, 3 },{1, 3 }, 1 , 2}? Justify your answer.
Axiomatic set theory; Inclusion

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Definition 2.1.3: Let A∧B be are sets, then A⊂of B , denoted by A ⊆ B, iff each member
of A is a member of B.
Note:
In other word, A is a⊂of B . Further, we agree that Bincludes A , denoted by B⊇ A , is
synonymous with A is included∈ B .
Thus, A ⊆ B∧B ⊇ A each means that, for all x ,if x ∈ A , then x ∈ B .
The negation of A ⊆ B is written A ⊈ B states that there is an x ∈ A such that x ∉ B .
Example: Consider the set A={1,3,5,7,...} B={5,10,15,20,...}
C={x: x is prime, x>2} = {3,5,7,9,…}
Then C ⊆ A Since every prime number greater than 2 is odd. On the other hand, B ⊈ A
since 10∈ B but 10∉ A .
Example: We will let N denote the set of natural numbers, Z denote the set of integer
numbers, Q denote the of rational numbers, R denote the of real numbers. Accordingly,
N ⊆Z ⊆Q ⊆ R
Observe that N ⊆ Z does not exclude the possibility that N=Z.
Note that: Two sets A and B are equal iff A ⊆ B∧B ⊇ A .
Definition 2.1.4: The set A is properly⊂of B, symbolized by A ⊂ B iff A ⊆ B but A ≠ B .
For example, The set of natural number N is properly included in the set Z of integers and
denoted by N ⊂ Z , and the set Q of rational numbers properly includes Z and denotedQ ⊂ Z .
Some basic properties of the inclusion:
A⊆ A;
A ⊆ B∧B ⊆ C imply A ⊆ C ;
A ⊆ B∧B ⊆ A imply A=B .
Definition 2.1.5: The empty or the null set ∅ is the set having no elements.
Property: The empty set∅ is a subset of every set.
Proof: Let A be a set, and ∅ be empty set.
Since ∅ has no members, the condition is automatically fulfilled.
An alternative proof indirect one, assume that it is false that ∅ ⊆ A . This case only if there
exists some member of ∅ which is not a member of A. But this is impossible, since ∅ has
no members. Hence, ∅ ⊆ A is not false; that is, ∅ ⊆ A ∎
Note: Each set A ≠ ∅ has at least two distinct subsets, A∧ ∅ .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Moreover, each member of A determines a subset of A; if a ∈ A ,then {a }⊆ A .

Example: Let A={ x: x2 =4, x is odd}.Then A is empty,i.e. A=∅ .
Definition 2.1.6: The set of all subsets of a set A is the power set of A , denoted by℘ ( A).
written as,
℘ ( A)={B │ B ⊆ A }.
Example If A={1 , 2, 3 },then ℘ (A )={ A , {1 , 2 }, {1 , 3 }, {2 , 3 }, {1 }, {2 },{3 }, ∅ }.
Note: If B⊆ A ,then B ∈ ℘ ( A )∧if a ∈ A ,then {a }⊆ A∧{a }∈ ℘ (A ).
Remark: If A is finite set, then℘ ( A)has 2n members if A has nmembers.
Proof: Consider the subset B of A = { a 1, a2,….an} it sequence of n 0's and l's where the
first entry is 1 if a1 ∈B and 0 if a1∉ B and where the second entry is 1 if a 2 ∈ B and 0 if a2
∉ B, and so on. Clearly, the subsets of A an be paired with the set of all such sequences of
0's and l's; For example, if n = 4, then {a 1, a3} determines, and is determined by, the
sequence 1010. Since the total number of such sequences is equal to 2.2…. .2 = 2 n, the
number of elements of ℘(A) is equal to 2n ∎
Activities
1. Which of the following arc true for all sets A , B ,∧C ?
If A ∉ B∧B ∉C ,thenA ∉ C .
If A ≠ B∧B ≠ C , then A ≠ C .
If A ∈ B∧B ⊈ C ,then A ∉C .
If A ⊂ Band B ⊆ C ,then C ⊈ A .
If A ⊆ Band B ∈ C , then A ∉C .
2. List the members of ℘ ( A)if A={{1 , 2}, {3 }, 1 }.
The primitive notion and axioms; Operations for Sets
We generate new sets from existing sets by defining two methods for composing pairs of
sets. These so-called operations for sets, similar to operations of addition and
multiplication for integers.
Definition 2.1.7: The union (sum, join) of two sets A∧B , denoted by A ⋃ B and read either
A union B ∨A cup B, is the set of all elements which are members of either A∨B , written
as , A ⋃ B={ x|x ∈ A∨x ∈ B } .
Note. - The word or is intended as operation of summing two sets and denoted by ⋃ .
Thus, by definition, x ∈ A ⋃ B iff x is a member of at least one of A∧B .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

For example, let A={1,2,3} ¿ B=¿ {1,3,4) ;then AUB={1,2,3,4}.

Definition 2.1.8: The¿( product , meet )of two sets A∧B , denoted by A ⋂ B and read either as
the intersection of A and B or A cap B is all elements which belong to both A and
B ,written as A B= { x|x ∈ A∧x ∈ B }
Note.
By definition, x ∈ A B iff x ∈ A∧x ∈ B.
For example,
(i) Let A= { 1 , 2, 3 } ∧B={ 1 ,3 , 4 } ; then A B={1, 3 }.
(ii) The intersection of real number and natural number are natural numbers. Since both
have common elements.
Remark: If A and B are sets then,∅ ⊆ A ⋂ B ⊆ A ⊆ A ⋃ B .
Definition: Two sets A and B will be called disjoint or non-intersecting if they have no
element in common, that is, if A ⋂ B=∅ .
Example: Let A= { 1 , 2, 3 } ∧B={ 4 ,5 , 6 } ; then A B= ∅
Definition2.1.9: A collection of sets is said to be a disjoint collection iff every distinct pair
of member sets is disjoint.
EXAMPLE: Let A= {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {10, 11}} is a disjoint collection. However
B= {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}} is not a disjoint collection because {1, 2}⋂ {2, 3}≠ ∅

Definition 2.1.10: The absolute complement or, simply, complement of a set A, denoted by
A ,is the set of elements which do not belong to A, written as A=¿ { x │ x ∈ U , x ∉ A }.
In other words, A is the difference of the universal set U and A.
For example, Let A={ 1,3,6,7,8}, B={4,6} and U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} then A is{2,4,5}
Definition 2.1.11: The relative complement of a set B with respect to a set A or, simply the
difference of A and B, denoted by A −¿B, is the set of elements which belong to A but
which do not belong to B. In other words,

A−¿B={ x|x ∈ A , x∉ B }
Observe that A−¿B and B are disjoint, i.e. (A−¿B) ¿ B=∅
Note. U −A={ x ∈U │ x ∉ A }, is the set of those members of U which are not members of
A.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

For example, Let A={ 1,{3},{6,7},8} and U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} thenU −A is {2,3,4,6,7}

Definition2.1.12: The symmetric difference of sets A and B, symbolized by A + B (some
books use a symbol A ∆ B), is defined as: A+ B= ( A−B ) ⋃ (B− A) .
Some properties of symmetric difference: Let A , B ,andC be set.
Commutative , that is, A+ B=B+ A ,
Associative, that is, ( A+ B)+C=A +(B+C ).
A+ A=∅ ∧ A+ ∅ = A . Proofs of these statements are left as exercises.
Definition 2.1.13: If all sets under consideration in a certain discussion are subsets of set
U , then U is called the universal set (for that discussion).
For examples, i) In elementary number theory the universal set is Z , and
In plane analytic geometry the universal set is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers.
Note. A graphic device known as a Venn diagram is used for assisting one's thinking on
complex relations which may exist among subsets of a universal set U.
To illustrate this, If the subsets A∧B of U are represented by circles, then A ⋂ B∧A ⋃ B
are represented by shaded regions, as in Figure 2 and Figure 3,

B
A A B A

'
A shaded A ⋂ B shaded A ⋃ B shaded
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
Disjoint sets are represented by non-overlapping regions, and inclusion is depicted by
displaying one region lying entirely within another.
Examples
Suppose A and B are given sets such that A−B=B− A=∅ . Can the relation of A ¿ B be
expressed more simply? Since A - B = ∅ . means A ⋂ B=∅ the regions representing A∧B
do not overlap (Fig.4). Clearly, B́=B, so we conclude (Fig.5) that A ⊆ B. Conversely, if
A ⊆ B, it is clear that A−B=∅ . We conclude that A - B = ∅ iff A⊆ B. Interchanging
A and B gives B− A=0 iff B ⊆ A . Thus the given relations hold between
A∧Biff A ⊆ B∧B ⊆ A∨, A=B .

B
A A G L
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F
 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6

Let as investigate the question of whether it is possible to find three subsets A , B ,∧C of U
such that C ≠ ∅ , A ⋂ B ≠ ∅ , A ⋂ C=∅ ,( A ⋂ B)−C= ∅ .
The second condition implies that A and B intersect and, therefore, neither is empty. From
Example the fourth condition amounts to A ⋂ B ⊆ C , from which it follows that the first
is superfluous. The associated Venn diagram indicates that A∧C intersect; that is, the
validity of the second and fourth conditions contradicts the third. Hence, there do not exist
sets satisfying all the conditions simultaneously.
Given that F, G, and L are subsets of U such that
F ⊆ G , G ⋂ L⊆ F , L ⋂ F= ∅ .
Is it possible to simplify this set of conditions? The Venn diagram (Figure 6) represents
only the first and third conditions. The second condition forces L and G to be disjoint, that
is, G ⋂ L= ∅ . On the other hand, if F ⊆G and G ⋂ L= ∅ , then all given conditions hold. Thus
F ⊆ G and , G ⋂ L= ∅ constitute a simplification of the given conditions.
Activities
(Note: Venn diagrams are not to be used in Exercises 1-5)
1. Prove that for all sets A∧B , ∅ A ⋂ B ⊆ A ∪ B .
2. Let I be the universal set, and let
A = { x ∈ Z │ for some positive integer y, x = 2y},
B = { x ∈ Z │ for some positive integer y, x = 2y – 1},
C = { x ∈ Z │ x < 10}.
Describe A , A ∪B , C , A−C ,∧C−( A ∪ B), either in word or by a defining property.
3. Consider the following subsets of Z , the set of positive integers:
+ ¿¿
A = {x∈ Z │ for some integer y, x = 2y},
+ ¿¿
B = { x∈ Z │ for some integer y, x = 2y + 1},
C = {x∈ Z+ ¿│ ¿for some integer y, x = 3y}.
Describe A ⋂ C , B ∪ C ,∧B−C .
4. Verify that A ⋂ (B∪ C )=( A ⋂ B)∪( A ⋂ C) .
5. If A is any set, what are each of the following sets? A ⋂ ∅ , A ∪ ∅ , A−∅ , A−A , ∅ − A .
Determine ∅ ⋂ { ∅ },{ ∅ }⋂ { ∅ }, {∅ , {∅ }}− ∅ , {∅ , {∅ ,}}– { ∅ }, { ∅ , { ∅ }} – {{∅ }}.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

The Algebra of Sets

The problems examined above are somewhat more complex. Thus, we need more
systematic procedures for carrying out calculations with sets related by subset, union,
intersection, and complementation which is called "the algebra of sets" and denoted by ⊆,
, ⋂ , and ̅ respectively. The situation for algebra of set is analogue to algebra of the real
numbers, which is concerned with properties of +, ∙ ,∧≤ and their interrelations.
Our first result lists basic properties of union and intersection. For the sake of
uniformity, all of these have been formulated for subsets of a universal set U. However, for
some of the properties this is a purely artificial restriction, as an examination of the proofs
will show.
Theorem 2.1.13 For any subsets A , B ,C of a set U the following equations are identities.
Here A is an abbreviation for U −A .
LAWS OF THE ALGEBRA OF SETS
Idempotent Laws
1a. A¿ A=A 1b. A¿ A=A
Associative Laws
2a. (A¿ B) ¿ C=A¿ (B¿ C) 2b. (A¿ B)¿ C=A¿ (B¿ C)
Commutative Laws
3a. A¿ B=B¿ A 3b.A¿ B=B¿ A
Distributive Laws
4a. A¿ (B¿ C)=(A¿ B) ¿ (A¿ C) 4b.A ¿ (B¿ C)=(A¿ B) ¿ (A¿
C)
Identity Laws
5a. A¿ ∅ = A 5b. A¿ ∅ =∅
6a. A¿ U =U 6b. A¿ U =A
Complement Laws
7a. A¿ A =U 7b. A¿ A =∅
8a. Á =A 8b. U =∅ , ∅ = U
De Morgan’s laws
9a. A ⋃ B = A ⋂ B 9b. A ⋂ B=A U B
Absorption laws

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

10a. A¿
( A∩B )= A 10b.
A∩( A∪B ) =A
Proof (4a)
(⟹)WTS: A ⋃ (B ⋂ C)⊆( A ⋃ B) ⋂ ( A ⋃ C) .
Let x ∈ A ⋃ (B ⋂ C).then x ∈ Aor x ∈ B ⋂ C .If x ∈ A , then x ∈ A ⋃ B
and x ∈ A ⋃ C , and hence x is a member of their intersection. If x ∈ B ⋂ C ., then
x ∈ B∧x ∈ C .Hence x ∈ A ⋃ B∧x ∈ A ⋃ C , so x ∈( A ⋃ B) ⋂ (A ⋃ C) .
(⇐) WTS: ( A ⋃ B) ⋂ ( A ⋃ C)⊆ A ⋃ (B ⋂ C). Let x ∈( A ⋃ B) ⋂ (A ⋃ C).
Then x ∈ A ⋃ Band x ∈ A ⋃ C .Hence x ∈ A ,∨x ∈ B∧x ∈C .These imply that
x ∈ A ⋃ (B ⋂ C). Hence, the result∎
Theorem 2.1.14 The following statements about sets A and B are equivalent to one
another.
A⊆B.
A⋂ B =A.
A⋃ B =B.
Proof: (I)⟹ (II). Assume that A⊆B. Since, for all A and B, A⋂ B ⊆A, it is sufficient to
prove that A⊆A⋂ B. But if x ∈ A, then x ∈B and, hence, x ∈A⋂ B. Hence A ⊆ A⋂ B.
(II) ⟹ (III). Assume A ⋂ B = A.
Then A⋃ B=(A⋂ B)⋃ B= (A⋃ B)⋂ (B⋃ B)
= (A⋃ B)⋂ B=B.
(III) ⟹ (I). Assume that A ⋃ B = B. Then this and the identity A⊆A⋃ B imply A⊆B ∎
Examples
With the aid of the identities the complex expressions involving sets can be simplified as in
elementary algebra. For instance,

A ⋂ B ⋃ B=¿ B ¿ ⋃ B= ¿B)⋃ B = A ⋃ (B⋃ B )= A ⋃ B

(A⋂ B⋂ C) ⋃ ( A ⋂ B⋂ C) ⋃ B ⋃C = [(A⋃ A ¿ ⋂ ¿B⋂ C)]⋃ ¿C )

= [U⋂ ¿B⋂ C)] ⋃ B ⋂ C
= (B⋂ C)⋃ B ⋂ C
= U.
Activities
1. Show that each of the following equations is an identity.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

a) (A⋂ B⋂ X)⋃ (A⋂ B⋂ C⋂ X⋂ Y)⋃ (A⋂ X⋂ A )=A⋂ B⋂ X.

b) (A ⋂ B⋂ C)⋃ ( A ⋂ B⋂ C)⋃ B ⋃ C = U.
c) (A⋂ B⋂ C⋂ X )⋃ ( A ⋂ C)⋃ ( B ⋂C)⋃ (C⋂ X)=C.
2. Show that for arbitrary sets A, B, C, D, and X,
a) [( A ⋂ X ) ⋃ (B ⋂ X )]= ( A ⋂ X ) ⋃ (B ⋂ X ).
b) [(A⋂ X)⋃ (B⋂ X )]⋃ [(C⋂ X)⋃ (D⋂ X )]=[(A⋃ C)⋂ X]⋃ [(B⋃ D)⋂ X].
2.2. Ordered Pairs and equivalence relation
Definition2.2.1: An ordered pair is an entity consisting of two objects in a specified order
denote by (x , y ) where x and y are any objects.
Note. We call x the first coordinate and y the second coordinate of the ordered pair(x , y ).
The ordered triple of x , y ,∧z, symbolized by (x , y , z), is defined to be the ordered pair
((x , y ), z).
In general, ordered n−tuples of x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n , symbolized by ( x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n), to be the
ordered pair( ( x1 , x2 , … , x n−1 ) , x n ) .
Note. If (x , y )∧(u , v ) are two ordered pairs, then (x , y )=(u , v ) iff x=u and y=v .
Relation
Definition 2.2.2: A set of ordered pair is called a relation (binary relation) and denoted by
R and write (x , y )∈ R and x R y interchangeably. The inverse of R, denoted by R-1, is the
relation from Y to X defined by

R-1={ ⟨ y ,x⟩:⟨ x , y⟩∈ R }

Definition 2.2.3: A relation R from X to Y is a subset of X ×Y .
The domain of a relation R from X to Y is the set of first coordinates of the pairs in R,
denoted by D R ,i . e . ,
Domain of R ={ x|∈ R }
and its range is the set of second coordinates, denoted by R R ,i.e.,
Range of R ={ y|∈ R }
Example: consider the relation

R= { ⟨1,2⟩ ,⟨1,3⟩,⟨2,3⟩ }
in X={1,2,3}. Then the domain of R={1,2},the range of R={2,3},and

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

R-1={ ⟨2,1⟩ ,⟨3,1⟩,⟨3,2⟩ }

observe that R and R-1 are identical,respectively,to the relations < and > in X, i.e.,

⟨ x, y⟩ ∈ R iff x<y and ⟨ x, y⟩ ∈R -1

iff x>y
Note.
If R is a relation, then x is R -related to y iff x R y .
In general, a binary relation is an n-ary relation as a set of ordered n-tuples. The case n=2
we shall say "binary relation." Similarly, in place of 3-ary relation we shall say ternary
relation.
Examples
{(2, 4), (7, 3), (3, 3), (2, 1)} is a set of ordered pairs which is binary relation.
If μ symbolizes the relation of motherhood, then (selam, Henok) ∈µ means that selam is
the mother of Henok.
Human parenthood is an example of a ternary relation. If it is symbolized by ρ , then
(Elizabeth, Thomas, Solomon) ∈ ρ indicates that Elizabeth and Thomas are the parents of
Solomon. Addition in Z is another ternary relation; writing 5 = 2 + 3 may be asserting that
(2, 3, 5) ∈ +.
Cartesian products
Definition 2.2.4: let X and Y be two sets. The Cartesian product of X and Y, written

X ×Y ,consists of all pairs ⟨ x, y⟩ where x ∈ X ∧ y ∈ Y ,i.e.,

X ×Y ={│ x ∈ X∧ y ∈Y }
Example: let X ={1,2,3} and Y ={a,b}.Then

X×Y={ ⟨1,a⟩,⟨1,b⟩,⟨2,a⟩ ,⟨2,b⟩ ,⟨3,a⟩ ,⟨3,b⟩ }

Note. If a relation is relation in R , that is, R × R , then the set of points corresponding to the
members of a relation is called the graph of the relation. For instance,
y y
y

x
x
x

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

{ ( x , y ) ∈ R × R| y=x } , { ( x , y ) ∈ R × R| y ≥ x } , {(x , y )∈ R × R │0 ≤ x ≤ 2 ⋀ 0 ≤ y ≤ 1}
Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9
Activities
1. Show that if (x , y , z)=(u , v , w), then x=u , y=v ,∧z=w .
2. Write the members of (1, 2) × (2, 3, 4). What are the domain and range of this relation?
What is its graph?
Function
We have seen the definition of the graph (a relation) is a set of ordered pairs. Thus,
a function is a relation such that no two distinct members have the same first coordinate.
Definition 2.2.5: A Function f is a rule that assigns to each element in a set X one and only
one element in a set Y.if f assigns the value y to the element x in X, we write
y =f(x)
and call y the image of x under f.The set X is the domain of f,and the set of all images f(x)
is the range of f.

Definition2.2.6 : A relation f said to be a function iff y=z , ∀ ( x , y ) ,(x , z )∈ f .

Example
{(1, 2), (2, 2), (Roosevelt, Churchill)} is a function with D(f)= {1, 2, Roosevelt} and R(f)=
{2, Churchill}.
The relation {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2)} is not a function, since the distinct members {1, 2} and
{1, 3} have the same first coordinate.
Let X ={1,2,3} and Y={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}.the rule f(x)=x 2+1 defines a function f:X
→ Y whose domain D(f)=X,R(f)={2,5,10}.the image of 1 is 2,the image of 2 is 5 and the
image of 3 is 10.Note that,R(f) is a proper subset of Y.
The relation {(x 2 , x)│ x ∈ R } is not a function, because both (1, 1) and (1, -1) are members.
Definition 2.2.7: Two functions f and gare equal iff they have the same members.
Remark:
f =giff Df =D g∧f (x)=g (x) for each x in the common domain D .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Injective,surjection and bijective functions

Definition 2.2.8: A function f: X→ Y is said to be injective or one-to-one if distinct
elements of X have distinct images under f ,i.e. x 1¿ x2 implies f(x1)¿
f(x2).A function f: X→ Y is said to be surjective or onto if Y is the range
of f,i.e.to every y in Y there exists an x in X such that y=f(x),i.e.=f(x).A
bijective function is often referred to as a one to one correspondence if it
is both one-to-one and onto function.
Example: let X={1,2,3},Y={1,2,3,4,5},and f(x)=x+2.Then f:X→ Y is injective, since
f(1)=3¿ 4=f(2) ¿ f(3)=5.But f is not surjective since R(f)={3,4,5}is a proper subset of
Y,i.e. the elements 1and 2 of Y have no pre -images in X.
Example: let X={1,2,3},Y={1,2} and f(x)=x2+1.then f:X→ Y is surjective,since
R(f)={1,2}=Y,but f is not injective, since -1¿ 1 but f(-1)=2=f(1)
Example: let X={1,2,3},Y={3,5,7} and f(x)=2x+1.then f:X→ Y is bijective,since R(f)=Y
and f(1) ¿ f(2) ¿ f(3).
Equivalence and ordering relations
Equivalence Relations
Definition 2.2.9: A relation R in a set X is said to be equivalence relations if
f it is:
(i) Reflexive: x R x for each x ∈ X ,
(ii) Symmetric: x R y implies y R x for all x , y ∈ X , and
(iii) Transitive: x R y and y R z imply x R z , for all x , y , z ∈ X .
Example: Let X={1,2,3},the following Relations are defines on a set X.
R1 ={(1,1),(2,1),(2,2),(1,2),(3,3)}
R2={(1,2),(3,1),(2,1),(3,3)}
Solution: R1 is reflexive. Since (1,1),(2,2),(3,3)∈ R 1,is also symmetric and transitive. Since
for all (x, y)∈ X , there exists (y, x)∈ R 1 and for all (x,y)∈ R 1 and (y,z)∈ R 1 then (x,z)∈ R 1.(
R1 isequivalence relations but not R2)
Example: let R = {(x,y)∈ R 2 : x ≤ y } defined on R is reflexive and transitive but not
symmetric. Since (x,x)∈ R for each x in R, R is reflexive. If x R y and y R z hold , then x
≤ y∧ y ≤ z ∧therefore x ≤ z which implies x R z holds. Hence R is transitive. But we note that

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

if x≤ y ,then it is not true that y≤ x .This means x R y does not imply y R x.Thus R is not
symmetric.
Note:
If a relation R∈X is an equivalence relation in X , then D R=X .
Example
Each of the following relations is an equivalence relation on the accompanying set.
The relation of having the same number of members in a collection of finite sets.
Equality in a collection of sets.
Activities
1. Give an example of these relations.
a) A relation which is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
b) A relation which is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
c) A relation which is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive in some set.
2. Let R ={(x,y)∈ Z , x− y is a multiple of 5 }
a) Is R an equivalence relation

2.3 Classification of sets

Equivalent sets
Definition 2.3.1: A set X is equivalent to a set Y, denoted X Y, if there exists a
one-to-one correspondence f: X→ Y .
Example: let N=the set of natural numbers.
E=the set of even natural numbers,
Define f: N→ E by f(n)=2n:
f is a one-to-one correspondence.
Hence, N E
Example: let A= {1, 2, 3, 4,…}
1 1 1
, , ,
B= {1, 2 3 4 …},
1
∈
Define f: A→ B by f(x)= x ,x A
f is a one-to-one correspondence.
Hence, A B

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Example: let Z=The of all integers

{
2 n if n>0
1 if n=0
Define f: Z→ N by f(n)= 1−2 n if n<0
f is a one-to-one correspondence.
Hence, Z N
Countability
Finite and Infinite sets
Definition 2.3.2: A set is finite iff it is empty or equivalent to {1,2,…,n} for some n∈
N;otherwise it is said to be infinite(not finite). Clearly two finite sets are equivalent iff they
contain the same number of elements.
Roughly, finite set is one whose elements are exhausted if counted successively but of
an infinite set the elements cannot be exhausted by counting.For example, the set
{1,2,3,4,5} is finite and the set R and C are both infinite.
Remark: No set is both finite and infinite.
Countable and uncountable sets
Definition 2.3.3: A set is said to be countable
-if it is finite
-if it is countably infinite (denumerable)
i.e. the set S said to be countable if S N (if there exists a mapping f: N
S such that f is both one-to-one and onto).
A set S is called uncountable if it is not countable (non-denumerable)
If a set S is countable, we can write down in succession the elements of S corresponding to
the natural numbers s1,s2,s3,…such an arrangement is called an enumeration of S.
1 2 3 4
, , , ,. ..
Example: let A= { 3 4 5 6 }
Show that A is countable
x
Define f: N→ A by f(x)= x+2
Let a, b ∈ A
If f(a)=f(b)

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

a b
=
a+2 b+2
a=b
-f is one-to-one
∀ y∈ A ,∋ x∈ N such that
x 2y
y= ⇒ x=
x+2 1− y
- f is also onto function.
-f is 1-1 correspondence
Therefore A is countable (A→ N )
Theorem 2.3.4: i) every subset of a countable set is finite or countable, i.e.denumerable.
ii) if a set is equivalent to a countable set, then it is countable.
iii) The union of a finite set and a countable set is countable.
iv) The union of countably many countable sets is countable.
v) The Cartesian product of two countable sets is countable.
Proof : ( left as exercises)
Theorem 2.3.5: prove the following
The set Z is countable.
The set Q is countable

Proof i) Define f: Z
→ N as

{
2 n if n>0
1 if n=0
f(n)= 1−2 n if n<0
f is a one-to-one correspondence(bijective) and Z is countable.
1 2 3 4 5
, , , , , .. .
ii) Let Q1={ 2 2 2 2 2 }
1 2 3 4 5
, , , , ,. ..
Q2 = { 3 3 3 3 3 }
1 2 3 4 5
, , , , ,. . .
Q3 = { 4 4 4 4 4 }

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

1 2 3 4 5
, , , , ,. . .
Qn={ n+1 n+2 n+3 n+4 n+5 }
Observe that Q=¿ Qi each Qi is countable.
Activities
1. prove the following
The set (0, 1) is uncountable.
The set R is uncountable.
iii. The set I is uncountable.
iv. The set Q+ and Q- is countable.

2.4 Cardinal numbers

Definition 2.4.1: If A is equivalent to B, i.e.A B, then we say A and B have the
same cardinal number or cardinality. We write card(A) or n(A) for “the cardinal
number(or cardinality) of A”. So
card(A)=card(B) iff A B
On the other hand, if A⊂B then we say that A has cardinality less than B or B has
cardinality greater than A. That is,
card(A)<card(B) iff A⊂B
So card(A)≤card(B) iff A⊆B.
Example1:Let A={1,2,3,4,5},B={a,e,i,o,u} have the same cardinality.
Example2: Let A={a,b},B={a,b,c} has different cardinality.
card(A)=2,card(B)=3 and card(℘ ( A))=22=4.
Definition 2.4.2: If A is empty set, then Card ( A )=0.

Useful Fact: card(A)=n implies card(℘ ( A))= 22.

Note that: The power set ℘ ( A) of any set A has cardinality greater than A.
Theorem2.4.3(Schroeder-Bernstein):
If card ( A )≤card( B ) and card (B )≤card( A ), then card ( A )=card( B ).
The cardinal number of each of the sets
∅ ,{∅ },{∅ , {∅ }},{∅ , {∅ },{∅ ,{∅ }}},…

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

is denoted by 0,1,2,3,…,respectively, and is called a finite cardinal. The cardinal numbers

of N and [0,1] or R are denoted by
card ( N )=ℵ0 (aleph null)
Card ( R )=ℵ (aleph)
Accordigly, we may write 0<1<2<3<…<ℵ0 <ℵ
Basic cardinal arithmetic
Definition 2.4.4: If α =Card ( A) and β=Card (B), we let
Card ( A ∪ B )=α + β , provided that A ∩ B= ∅.
Card ( A × B )=αβ
Card ( A B )=α β

Cardinal arithmetic
Proposition 2.4.5. Suppose that a , b , c are cardinals.
a+(b+ c)=(a+ b)+c .
a+ b=b+a .
a+ 0=a.
a ≥ b ⇔(∃ d)(a=b +d ).
If b ≤ c , then a+ b ≤ a+c .
(ab)c=a(bc ).
ab=ba .
a 0=0 a , a 1=a , a 2=a+ a.
a (b+ c)=ab+ac .
b ≤ c ⇒ ab ≤ ac .
b c bc
(a ) =a .
c c c
(ab) =a b .
b+c b c
a =a a .
0 1 2
a =1 , a =a ,a =aa .
If a ≤ b and c ≤ d , then a c ≤ bd .
Proof . The proofs are all straightforward. ∎

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Review exercises
1. Try to develop a set which is a member of itself.
2. Give an example of sets A , B ,∧C such that A ∈ B , B ∈C ,∧ A ∉C .
3. Prove each of the following for sets A, B, and C.
a. If A ⊆ B∧B ⊆ C , then A ⊆ C .
b. If A ⊆ B∧B ⊂ C , then A ⊂ C .
c. If A ⊂ B∧B ⊆ C , then A ⊂ C .
d. If A ⊂ B∧B ⊂ C , then A ⊂ C .
4. Prove that for all sets A, B, and C, ( A ⋂ B ) ∪ C= A ⋂ ( B ∪ C ) iff C ⊆ A .
5. Prove that for all sets A, B, and C, ( A−B)−C=( A−C)−(B−C).
6. Show that for every set A , A + A=∅ ∧ A+ ∅ =A .
7. With the aid of a Venn diagram investigate the validity of each of the following
inferences:
a. If A, B, and C are subsets of U such that A ⋂ B ⊆ C and A ∪ C ⊆ B, then A⋂ C=∅ .
b. If A, B, and C are subsets of U such that A ⊆ B∪C and B ⊆ A ∪ C , then B = ∅ .
8. Prove that if A, B, and C are sets such that A ≠ ∅ , B ≠ ∅ , and
( A × B) ⋃ (B × A)=C ×C ,then A=B=C .
9. Show that A is finite iff there exists a function f on A such that the only f –closed
subsets of A are Ø and A itself.
10. Show that if A is finite then ℘ ( A ) is finite.
11. Find the cardinalities of the following sets:
a. The set of subsets of N with more than one element.
b. The set of infinite subsets of N .

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Summary
A Set is a collection or group of objects or elements or members(cantor 1895).
If the object x is a member of set A it is denoted by x ∈ A and if not it is write by x ∉ A.
Let A∧B be are sets, then A⊂of B , denoted by A ⊆ B, iff each member of
A is a member of Band also denoted by B⊇ A ,which is B includes A.
The set A is properly subset of B, symbolized by A ⊂ B iff A ⊆ B but A ≠ B .
The empty or the null set ∅ is the set having no elements.
The empty set∅ is a subset of every set and also the set A ≠ ∅ has at least two distinct
subsets, A∧ ∅ .
The set ℘ ( A)={B │ B ⊆ A } is called power set of set A and has 2n members if A has n
members.
A ⋃ B={ x|x ∈ A∨x ∈ B } is the union of set A and B.
A B= { x|x ∈ A∧x ∈ B } is the intersection of set A and B.
Two sets A and B will be called disjoint or non-intersecting if they have no element in
common, that is, if A ⋂ B=∅ .
The symmetric difference of sets A and B, symbolized by A + B (some books use a symbol
A ∆ B), is defined as: A+ B= ( A−B ) ⋃ (B− A) .
A relation is used in connection with pairs of objects considered in a definite order.
An object joined together with defined order is called ordered pair.
Cartesian product is a set of all pairs (x , y ), such that x ∈ X ∧ y ∈ Y and denoted by X ×Y .
Written as X ×Y ={(x , y )│ x ∈ X∧ y ∈Y }.
Functions are relations between the elements of two sets.
A function f: X→ Y is said to be injective or one-to-one if distinct elements of X have
distinct images under f ,i.e. x1¿ x2 implies f(x1)¿ f(x2).
A function f: X→ Y is said to be surjective or onto if Y is the range of f,i.e.to every y in
Y there exists an x in X such that y=f(x),i.e.=f(x).
A bijective function is often referred to as a one to one correspondence if it is both one-to-
one and onto function.
A relation R in a set X is said to be equivalence relations iff R is Reflexive , Symmetric
and Transitive.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

A set X is equivalent to a set Y, denoted X Y, if there exists a one-to-one

correspondence f: X→ Y .
A set is finite iff it is empty or equivalent to {1,2,…,n} for some n∈N;otherwise it is said to
be infinite(not finite).
If A is equivalent to B, i.e.A B, then we say A and B have the same cardinal
number or cardinality. We write card(A) or n(A) for “the cardinal number(or cardinality)
of A”. So
card(A)=card(B) iff A B
A set is said to be countable
-if it is finite
-if it is countably infinite (denumerable)
i.e. the set S said to be countable if S N
Every subset of N is countable.
Every infinite set contains a denumerable subset.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Reference
 Ademe Mekonen(2007),Logic and Set theory, Department of Mathematics, AAU.
 Anteneh and Geremew(2012), Logic and Set theory, Department of computational
sciences, AKU.
 Harry J. Gensler, (2010),Introduction to Logic, 2nd Ed., published by Routledge 270
Madison Ave, New York, NY10016
 M.L.Bettinger(1982), Logic, Proof, and Set, Edison-Wesley.
 Michael Potter(2004), Set Theory and its Philosophy, Oxford University, Published in the
United States by Oxford University Press Inc. , NewYork.
 Peter T. Johnstone(1987),Notes on logic and set theory, Cambridge University Press.
 Robert R.Stoll(1963), Set Theory and Logic, Cleveland State University, Dover
Publications, Inc. NewYork.
 Seymour Lipschutz(1965),schaum’s outline of theory and problems of general
topology,Temple University,published in the New York by Mcgraw-Hill Book
Company.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Chapter 3
Groups
Introduction
In this chapter, we shall consider in some detail the algebraic structure which will be of
primary concern to us throughout, namely the notion of a group. Actually the reader has
come in contact, during his or her mathematical career, with specific examples of groups as
will be seen by the examples we shall give. All these examples have features in common
which are desirable to axiomatize. When we prove results for the general structure, they
apply automatically to all the specific examples.
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter you will able to:
 Define binary operation on a non empty set.
 Define algebraic structures.
 Identify associative and commutative algebraic structures.
 Define homomorphism, isomorphism, monomorphism and epimorphism between
algebraic structures.
 Give definition of group and give examples of groups.
 Find an identity element of a group.
 Find the inverse of each element of a group.
 Identify commutative and non commutative groups.
 Define a permutation group.
 Define a subgroup of a group.
 Show that a non empty subset of a group can be a subgroup of a group.
 Define cyclic groups and find subsets generated by an element of the group.
 Define normal subgroup and quotient subgroup.
 State and prove Lagrange’s theorem.

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Can you define binary operations, Algebraic structures, groups and their
properties?

3.1. Binary operations, algebraic structures

Definition 3.1.1.
Let S be a non –empty set. A binary operation on S is a function from S × S into S, i.e if f
is a function from S × S in to S , then f is called a binary operations on S .
Remark: 1) If ∆ : S × S → S is a binary operation on S the value ∆ ( x . y ) o f ∆ for an
ordered pair ( x , y ) ∈ S × S is usually denoted by x ∆ y .
2) Given a set, defining a binary operation ∆ on S , one must be sure of the
following two important points.
a) ∆ assigns exactly one element to each ordered pair of element of S, (well defined)
b) The element assigned to each ordered pair of element of S is again in S . (closed)
Examples:
1. Consider Z=¿ the set of integers
a) Then “+” is a binary operation on Z because the sum of two integers is an integer
i.e x + y ∈ Z for all x , y ∈ Z
b) “+” maps an element ( x , y ) of Z × Z in to a single element of Z .
c) Similarly “–“and “.” are binary operations on Z .
d) But since Z is not closed under division, division is not a binary operation on Z .
2. Let S= {−1, 0 , 1 }
Here addition is not a binary operation on, since 1+1=2 ∉ S
But it is easy to see that multiplication is a binary operation on S .
3. Let S= {−1, 1 }
−1−1=1 −1 1=1 −1 1=−1 1 1=1
Here ⨁ is not a binary operation on S because ⨁ is not a function as the image of
(−1 , 1 ) is 1∧−1.
Definition 3.1.2
A non –empty set with one or more binary operations is called an algebraic structure.
Remark: An algebraic structure with one binary operation is usually denoted by an ordered
pair ( S , △ ) where S is a non- empty set and △ is a binary operation on S .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

An algebraic structure with two binary operations is denoted as an ordered triad ( S , △ , ∇ ) .

Examples:
¿where N is the set of natural numbers and ” +” is ordinary addition of numbers, is an
algebraic structures.
( R ,+, . ) , where R is the set of real numbers and “+” and “.” are ordinary addition and
multiplication is an algebraic structure.
Definition 3.1.3
Let ( S , ∆ ) b an algebraic structure. Then the binary operation ∆ is said to be
Commutative if a ∆ b=b ∆ a for all a , b ∈ S
Associative if ( a ∆ b ) ∆ c=a ∆ ( b ∆ c ) for all a , b , c ∈ S
Examples:
¿ are commutative and associative algebraic structures.
( R−{ 0 } , ÷ ) is neither commutative nor associative , because
2 ÷3 ≠ 3 ÷ 2∧2 ÷ ( 3÷ 5 ) ≠ ( 2÷ 3 ) ÷ 5
Let Z=¿be the set of integers
∆=¿ a binary operation on Z defined by x ∆ y=Max { x , y } . Then
∆ is commutative
Since x ∆ y=max { x , y }=max { x , y }= y ∆ x
∆ is associative
Since ( x ∆ y ) ∆ z=max { x ∆ y , z }=max { max { x , y } , z }
¿ max { x , y , z } and
x ∆ ( y ∆ z )=max { x , y ∆ z }=max { x , max { y , z } }
¿ max { x , y , z }
We define a binary operation on Q as follows
xy
For x , y ∈Q x ⨁ y= , then show that ( Q , ⊕ ) is commutative and associative algebraic
3
structures.
Solution: Let x , y , z ∈ Q Then,
xy yx
x ⨁ y= = = y ⨁ x ( since multiplication of real numbers is commutative)
3 3

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

x ⨁ ( y ⨁ z )=x ⨁ ( yx3 )(by the defintion of the operation ⨁)

¿x
( 3 ) (by the definition of the operation ⨁ ¿
yx

¿
(( ) )
xy
3
z
¿
3
¿ ( x ⨁ y ) ⨁ z ¿.
Hence , ( Q , ⨁ ) is an associative algebraic structure.
Definition 3.1.4
Let ( S , ∆ , ∇ ) be an algebraic structure. Then we say
∆ is left-distributive over ∇ if a ∆ ( b ∇ c )= ( a ∆ b ) ∇ ( a ∆ c ) ∀ a , b , c ∈ S
∆ is right –distributive over ∆ if ( a ∇ b ) ∆ c= ( a ∆ c ) ∇ ( b ∆ c ) ∀ a , b , c ∈ S
∆ is distributive over ∇ is both right and left distributive over ∇
Examples
Consider ( N ,+, ∙ ) .Then , ∙ is both left and right distributive over +.
Let S be any non-empty set. Consider( p ( S ) ,∪ ,∩ ). Then,∪ is both left and right
distributive over ∩ and ∩ is both left and right distributive over ∪ .
Activity
1. Show that multiplication is a binary operation on S¿ { 1 ,−1 , i,−i } where i=√ −1
2. State which of the following are binary operations.
a. On Z defined a∗b=ab
a
b. On Q defined a∗b=
b
c. On R defined a∗b=b
d. On R defined a∗b=± ab
e. On N defined a∗b=a2 +b2 −2 ab
3. If a set A has n members, then what is the number of binary operations on A?
4. Determine whether the following are algebraic structures and decide which of them
commutative and / or associative algebraic structures.
a. ( R , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=x +3 y

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

b. ( R , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=¿min{ 3 , y }
xy
c. ( R , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=
√5
d. ( R , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=x y
e. ( R , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=2 x+ y
xy
f. ( Q , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=
3
5. Let Z be the set of integers. Prove or disprove that the usual multiplication is left-
distributive over each of the following.
a. Subtraction
b. a ∆ b=a+b+1 ∀ a , b ∈ Z , a∗b=a+ b−ab ∀ a , b ∈ Z
3.2 Identity element and inverses
Definition 3.2.1
Let ( S , ∆ ) be an algebraic structure. An element e ∈ S is said to be
a left identity element for ∆ if and only if
e ∆ x=x for all x ∈ S
a right identity if and only if
x ∆ e=x for all x ∈ S
an identity if and only if
x ∆ e=e ∆ x=x for all x ∈ s
Here, e is an identity for ∆ if and only if e is a right and a left identity for ∆ .
Examples:
¿ is an algebraic structure with an identity e=0 because for all x in Z .
we see x +0=0+ x=x
The algebraic structure ( R , ∙ ) ( where ∙ is multiplication of real numbers) has an identity
e=1 because for all x∈ R , x ∙ 1=1 ∙ x=x
xy
Let S=Q−{ 0 } , defined on ∆ by x ∆ y= , ∀ x, y∈S .
5
Find an identity element (is it exists)
Solution:
For all x ∈ S , we have,

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5. x
5 ∆ x= =x=x ∆ 5
5
Hence 5 is an identity for ∆ in S.
Remark:
All algebraic structures mayn’t contain an identity element.
Example:
¿ is an algebraic structure but has no identity element.
Consider the binary operations ∆ defined on S= { 1, 2 } by the following table.
∆ 1 2
1 1 2
2 1 1
Then it is easy to show that there is no identity element for ∆ in S .
Theorem 3.2.2 (uniqueness of an identity)
There exists at most one identity element for a binary operation ∆ on S .
Proof: we proof by contradiction.
Suppose e and e ' are identity elements for ∆ ∈S ,
' '
e ∆ e =e , since e is anidentity element .
Also e ∆ e ' =e , since e ' is an identity element.
Therefore e ' =e ,i.e we proved that there is at most one identity element.
Definition 3.2.3
Let ( S , ∆ ) be an algebraic structure x ∈ S is invertible ( has an inverse) if
The identity element for ∆ exists ; and
∃ y ∈ S such that x ∆ y =e= y ∆ x .
y is called the inverse of x for ∆.
Examples:
Consider the algebraic structure ( R−{ 0 } , ∙ ) .
1
Then for any x ∈ S , y= ∈ R− { 0 } and x . y = y . x=1
x
Hence, each elements of R−{ 0 } is invertible.
Consider the algebraic structure( Z , ∙ ) . Then the only invertible elements are 1and -1.
Notation:

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Let ( S , ∆ )be an algebraic structure. If x has an inverse, then the inverse is denoted by x−1 .
Theorem 3.2.4 (uniqueness of an inverse)
Let ( S , ∆ ) be an associative algebraic structure. Then, x ∈ S has at most one inverse.
Proof:
Let y∧z are inverses of x for ∆ . Then
z=z ∆ e=z ∆ ( x ∆ y )=( z ∆ x ) ∆ y=e ∆ y= y
Example: . the following is an example of non-associative binary operation in which the
inverse of an element is not unique.
∆ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 0 0
2 2 0 0
0 is the identity element for ∆ , ∆ is not associative
Since ( 2 ∆ 2 ) ∆ 1=0 ∆ 1=1∧¿ 2 ∆ ( 2 ∆ 1 )=2 ∆ 0=2
But 1 ∆ 1=0∧1 ∆ 2=0=2 ∆ 1
Hence 1 has no unique inverse.
Theorem 3.2.5
−1
Let ( S , ∆ ) be associative algebraic structure. If x ∈ S isinvertible then ( x−1 ) = x
Proof:
Since ∆ is an associative binary operation .If x is invertible then its inverse is unique.
−1
Let it be x−1 , again x−1 has a unique inverse ( x−1 ) . But x is also an inverse of x−1.
−1
By the uniqueness of x−1 it follows that ( x−1 ) =x .
Theorem 3.2.6
Let ( S , ∆ ) be an associative algebraic structure. If x∧ y are invertible elements, then
x ∆ y is invertible and its inverse ( x ∆ y )−1= y −1 ∆ x −1 .
Proof: Let x∧ y be invertible elements of S . Then x−1∧ y −1 are the inverses of
x∧ y respectively .
Since x−1∧ y −1 are in S and S is closed under∆ .
−1 −1 −1 −1
x ∆ y ∧y ∆ x
Then ( x ∆ y ) ∆ ( y−1 ∆ x−1 )=[ ( x ∆ y ) ∆ y −1 ] ∆ x−1

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

¿[x ∆( y ∆ y )]∆x
−1 −1

−1
¿[ x ∆e]∆ x
−1
¿x∆x
¿e
Similarly, it is easy to show that ( y −1 ∆ x−1 ) ∆ ( x ∆ y )
Therefore, we conclude that ( x ∆ y )−1= y −1 ∆ x −1
Theorem 3.2.7
Let ( S , ∆ ) be an associative algebraic structure and x , y , z ∈ S .Then
If both x and y commute with z, then x ∆ y also commutes with z .
If x commutes with y and if both x∧ y are invertible , then x−1 commutes with y −1 .
If x commutes with y and y is invertible , then x commutes y −1 .
Proof:
Suppose the assumption in (1) is true. Then,
z ∆ ( x ∆ y )=( z ∆ x ) ∆ y
¿(x ∆ z)∆ y
¿ x ∆(z ∆ y)
¿ x ∆( y ∆ z)
¿(x ∆ y)∆ z
Then we get that z ∆ ( x ∆ y )=( x ∆ y ) ∆ z
Suppose the assumption in (2) is true. Then,
−1 −1 −1
x ∆ y =( y ∆ x )
−1
¿(x ∆ y)
−1 −1
¿y ∆x
Hence x−1 ∆ y−1= y −1 ∆ x −1
Let x , y ∈ S such that y is invertible and x ∆ y= y ∆ x .Then
x ∆ y−1=e ∆ ( x ∆ y−1 )
¿ ( y −1 ∆ y ) ∆ ( x ∆ y −1)
¿ y−1 ∆ [ ( y ∆ x ) ∆ y−1 ]

¿ y−1 ∆ [ ( x ∆ y ) y−1 ]

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

¿ ( y −1 ∆ x ) ∆ ( y ∆ y −1)
¿ ( y −1 ∆ x ) ∆ e
−1
¿y ∆x
Hence, we get x ∆ y−1= y −1 ∆ x
Activity 2
1. Let x, y and z be invertible elements of an algebraic structure ( S , ∆ ) .
Show that
−1
[( x ∆ y) ∆ z] =z ∆ ( y ∆ x ) if x , y∧z are invertible .
−1 −1 −1

2. Let a i be invertible for each i∈ N . Then show that

−1
[ a 1 ∆ a2 … ∆ an ] =a−1 −1 −1
n ∆ an−1 … ∆ a1 .

3. We define ∆ on Z for x, y ∈ Z , x ∆ y= y . Then

4. Find the right and left identities. ( if they exist)
5. What is the left and right inverses of 3, 4,5,12,125 etc?
6. Determine whether or not each of the following algebraic structures admits an identity
element and find the invertible elements.
1
( R , ∆ ) where x ∆ y= xy
2
( Z , ∆ ) where x ∆ y= (1−x ) y
( N , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=x
( R , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=|x|| y|
( Z , ∆ ) where x ∆ y=| x|+ y
7. Let S= { a , b . c } with multiplication table as defined below.
∆ a b c
a a b c
b b c a
c c a b
a) What is the identity element for ∆ ∈S .
b) Find the inverses of a , b∧c .

3.3. Morphisms
Definition 3.3.1
Let ( E , ∆ ) and ¿ be algebraic structures with one binary operation.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Let f : E → F be a function from E into F such that

f ( x ∆ y )=f ( x )∗f ( y ) ∀ x . y ∈ E
Then we say f is a homomorphism from ( E , ∆ )∈¿ ¿
Definition 3.3.2
Let ( E , ∆ , ∇ )∧( F ,∗, ⨂ ) be algebraic structure with two binary operations.
Let f : E → F . We say f is a homomorphism from ( E , ∆ , ∇ ) into( F ,∗, ⨂ ) if f satisfies the
following.
f ( x ∆ y )=f ( x )∗f ( y ) , ∀ x , y ∈ E
f ( x ∇ y ) =f ( x ) ⊕ f ( y ) , ∀ x , y ∈ E
Examples:
Show that f :¿ defined by f ( x )=3 x ishomomorphism.
Solution: Let x , y ∈ Z .then
f ( x + y )=3 ( x + y )
¿ 3 x+ 3 y
¿ f ( x )+f ( y )
Hence, for all x,y in z , we get that f ( x + y )=f ( x )+ f ( y ) ∀ x , y ∈ Z
i.e f is homomorphism .
2. Let f :¿ defined by f ( x )=2x .
Then show that f is a homomorphism
Solution: Let x , y ∈ R . Then , f ( x+ y )=2 x+ y =2 x ∙ 2 y =f ( x ) ∙ f ( y )
So, f is a homomorphism from ¿
3. Let f :¿ such that f ( x )=x +2 is not a homomorphism .
Solution: Let x=2∧ y=3∈ R. Then, f ( 2+3 )=f ( 5 )=5+2=7
But, f ( 2 ) ∙ f ( 3 )=4 ∙ 5=20. Thus we seethat , f ( 2+3 ) ≠ f ( 2 ) ∙ f ( 3 )
Therefore, f is not a homomorphism.
Definition 3.3.3
Let f be a homomorphism from one algebraic structure into another. Then f is said to be
An epimorphism if f is surjective.
A mononorphism if f is injective.
An isomorphism if is bijective.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Example:
Let f :¿ . Show that f is an isomorphism.
Proof: Let x , y ∈ R . Then we see that ,f
( x+ y )
f ( x + y )=3
x y
¿3 ∙3
¿ f (x)∙f ( y)
Therefore, f is homomorphism. ------------- (1)
Let x , y ∈ R such that f ( x )=f ( y )
Then, f ( x )=f ( y ) ⟺3 x =3 y
x y
⇔ log 3 3 =log 3 3
⇔ x= y
Hence, f is injective. ----------------------- (2)
Now we will show that f is surjective . For this let y ∈ R+¿ ¿. Then we see that log 3 y ∈ R .
More, it is easy to see that f ( log 3 y )= y .
Hence, f is surjective. -------------------- (3)
Therefore, by (1),(2) and (3) , we conclude that f is an isomorphism.
Note: Let ( E , ∆ ) and ¿ be algebraic structures then we say that they are isomorphic if and
only if there exists a bijective function between ( E , ∆ ) and ¿
In this case, we write (E,∆) ≅ ¿
Definition 3.3.4
Let ( E , ∆ ) and ¿ be two algebraic structures.
Let f : ( E , ∆ ) → ¿ be an isomorphism. Then :
If ∆ is associative so is ¿ .
If ∆ iscommutative so is ¿ .
If e is the identity element for ∆ , then f ( e ) is the identity element for¿ .
−1
If x ∈ E is invertible for ∆ , then f ( x ) is invertible for ¿ and f ( x −1) =( f ( x ) )

Proof: Let x ' , y ' , z ' ∈ F such that f ( x )=x ' , f ( y )= y ' ∧f ( z )=z ' for some x , y , z ∈ E.
( x '∗y ' )∗z' = [ f ( x )∗f ( y ) ]∗f ( z )
¿ f ( x ∆ y )∗f ( z )

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

¿ f [( x ∆ y) ∆ z]
¿ f [ x ∆ ( y ∆ z )]
¿ f ( x )∗f ( y ∆ z )
¿ f ( x )∗[ f ( y )∗f ( z ) ]

¿ x '∗( y '∗z ' )

' '
x ∗y =f ( x )∗f ( y )
¿ f (x ∆ y)
¿ f ( y ∆ x )=f ( y )∗f ( x )
' '
¿ y ∗x
' '
x =f ( x )=f ( x ∆ e )=f ( x )∗f ( e ) =x ∗f ( e )
' '
x =f ( x )=f ( e ∆ x )=f ( e )∗f ( x ) =f ( e )∗x
Hence, ∀ x ' ∈ F , x '∗f ( e )=x ' =f ( e )∗x '
Therefore, f ( e ) is the identity element for¿.

f ( e )=f ( x ∆ x−1 )=f ( x )∗f ( x−1 )= x '∗f ( x −1 )

f ( e )=f ( x−1 ∆ x )=f ( x−1)∗f ( x )=f ( x−1 )∗x '
Thus ∀ f ( x )=x ' ∈ F , if x is invertible ,

x '∗f ( x −1 ) =f ( e )=f ( x−1 )∗x '

We see that f ( x −1) must be the inverse of x ' .
Example:
There is no isomorphic from( R¿ ,∙ ) into ¿. Where R¿ is the set of non-zero real numbers.
Proof:
Suppose ∋ an isomorphism f : ( R ¿ ,∙ ) into ¿.
Then f ( 1 ) =0 since 1 is the identity element in R¿ and 0 is the identity element in R . But
f [ (−1 ) ∙ (−1 ) ]= f (−1 )+ f (−1 )=2 f (−1 )
Hence, f (−1 )=0. contradiction.
Let E= the set of even integers.
Let f :¿ such that f ( x )=2 x .
f is an isomorphism from ¿.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Activity
1. Consider A={ 6 n/n ∈ Z } and B=Z . Then , give an isomorphism between ¿
2. Let A=( 0 , 1 )∧B=(−1 , 0 ) . Then
a) Give a bijective function from A to B.
b) Give a bijective function from B to A.
xy
3. Define “¿ on R , x∗y= , then
11
a) Give an isomorphism from ¿
b) Give the image of 11 using the function defined in (a).
c) Find the inverse of 52 in ¿
d) Find the inverse of 52 in ( R , ∙ )
4. Let C be the set of all continuous functions defined in some subset D of R .
5. Defined “¿ on C by for f , g ∈C , ( f ∗g )( x )=f ( x ) . g ( x ) for all x ∈ D. Then,
a) Find the identity element of “¿ in C.
b) What elements of C are invertible?
1
6. Find the inverse of f ( x )= for x ≠ 0 .
x
7. Is the function f ( x )=0 for all x ∈ D investible ?
+¿ ¿
8. Consider the two algebraic structures ¿ where R is the set of real numbers, R is the set of
positive real numbers and + and ∙ are the usual addition and multiplication.
9. Let f :¿ , such that f ( x )=10 x .
a) Is f a homomorphism ? an epimorphism? a monomorphism? an isomorphism?
10. Prove that ¿

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

3.4. Definition and examples of groups

Definition 3.4.1
Let S be anon empty set and ¿ be a binary operation on S. Then the algebraic structure ¿ is
said to be a group if it satisfies the following axioms.
Closure property
For all x , y ∈ S , x∗y ∈ S
Associativity of ¿
For all x , y . z ∈ S , x∗( y∗z )=( x∗ y )∗z
Existence of identity element
For all x ∈ S , there ∃an el ement e ∈ S such that x∗e=e∗x=x
Existence of inverse
For each x ∈ S , there exists a y ∈ S such that x∗y = y∗x=e
Here the element y is called the inverse of x.
N.B If the set S is finite then ¿ is called a finite group, otherwise it is called infinite group.
Example:1
¿is a group , further it is an infinite group, since Z is an infinite set.
¿is not a group.
( R , ∙ )is not a group.
¿is a group.
¿is a group.
2. Let Q+¿¿ be the set of all positive rational numbers . We define a binary operation on
+¿¿ xy +¿ ¿
Q as follows. a∗b= for all a , b ∈Q . Then show that ¿is a group.
5
+ ¿¿
Solution: Let a , b ,∧C ∈Q
ab +¿¿
Closure pro¿perty a∗b= ∈ Q .( Hence Q+¿¿ is closed under ¿ ¿
5
Associativity

a ( bc5 ) = ( ab5 )c =( a∗b )∗c

a∗( b∗c ) =
a∗
bc
5 ( )
=
5 5
Hence ¿ is associative in Q+¿ .¿
Existence of identity

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Let e ∈ Q+¿be identity of ∗¿ ¿.

Then a∗e=e∗a=a
ae
a∗e=a ⟺ =a
5
⟺ e=5 ¿Since a≠ 0 ¿
Hence the identity element is e=5
Existence of inverse
Let a ∈ Q+¿¿ and b be theinverse of a . Then
a∗b=b∗a=e=5
ab
Now we have a∗b=5 ⟺ =5
5
25
⟺ b= ,( since a ≠ 0)
5
25
Therefore the inverse of a is which is in Q+¿ .¿
a
Hence by ( i ) , ( ii ) , ( iii )∧( iv ) , we conclude that ¿ is a group.
Definition 3.4.2
Let ¿ be a group . The G is called an Abelian group if and only if
a∗b=b∗a for all a ,b ∈ G .
In case if there exists a, b in G such a∗b ≠ b∗a ,then the group G is called non-abelian
group.
Example :1. ¿ is an abelian group.
Notation :
Let G be a group. Then,
The inverse of a in G is denoted by a−1 .
The element a∗b is denoted by ab .
For a ∈ G and n ∈ Z , we define

{
aa … a if n positive
n
a = (−a ) (−a ) … (−a ) if n isnegative
e if n=0
d. A group with a binary operation ¿ on it is usually denoted by G.
Theorem 3.4.3:
Let G be a group . Then,

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Identity element of G is unique.

Every a ∈ G has unique inverse in G .
−1
For every a ∈ G, ( a−1 )
For all a , b ∈ G, ( ab )−1=b−1 a−1
Proof: i. This proof is a direct copy of the proof of theorem 3.2.2
This is as in the proof of theorem 3.2.4 , the uniqueness of the inverse follows because of
associativity of the binary operation in G.
Since for any a ∈ G , a a−1=a−1 a=e. We conclude that by the definition of inverse of a is
an inverse of a−1 . But by the uniqueness of an inverse the only inverse of −1
a is a, i.e
−1
( a−1 ) .
The proof follows from the proof of 3.2.6
Theorem 3.4.4 (cancellation Laws)
Let G be a group the for all a , b , c ∈ G.
ab=ac ⟹ b=c ( ¿ law )
ba=ca ⟹ b=c (¿ cancellation law)
Proof:
−1 −1
ab=ac ⟹ a ( ab ) =a ( ac )
⟹ ( a−1 a ) b=( a−1 a ) c
⟹ eb=ec
⟹ b=c
−1 −1
ba=ca ⟹ ( ba ) a =( ca ) a
⟹ b ( a a−1 )=c ( a a−1 )
⟹ be=ce
⟹ b=c
Some finite groups
Addition modulo n
Let x ∈ Z . Then we try to determine the equivalent class determined by x.
Applying the division algorism there are integers q, r such that
x=nq +r where 0 ≤r < n
Then x−r =nq where 0 ≤ r <n . Thus , we see that x ∈ r and clearly x ∈ x .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Therefore, the intersection of the equivalence classes is non-empty.

Hence, x=r where 0 ≤ r <n
Thus, the distinct equivalence classes are 0 , 1 , … ( n−1 ) .

Now define a binary operation on S= {0 , 1 , … ( n−1 ) } which makes S a group.

We define a binary operation on S as follows.
For any x , y ∈ S , x ⨁ y=x + y
Theorem 3.4.6
( Z n , ⨁ n ) is an abelian group.
Proof:
Closure:
Let x , y ∈ Z n . Then , since the only equivalence classes of the above relation are elements
of Z n, we see that x ⨁ y=x + y ∈ Z n . Hence , Z n is closed under ⨁ .
Associativity :
Let x , y , z ∈ Z n , then
x ⨁ ( y ⨁ z )=x ⨁ ( x+ y )
= x +( y + z )
¿ x+ y ⨁ z
¿(x ⨁ y)⨁ z
Therefore⨁ is associative in Z n .
Existence of identity element:
Let x ∈ Z n . Then, 0 ∈ Z n such 0 ⨁ x=x ⨁ 0
Therefore,0 is the identity element of ⨁ in Z n .
Existence of inverse
Let x ∈ Z n , then, since 0 ≤ x ≤ n−1 , we have 0 ≤ n−x ≤ n−1 ,i . e n−x ∈ Z n
And moreover x ⨁ n−x =x+ ( n−x )=n=0=n−x ⨁ x
Hence, each element in z n is invertible.
Commutativity:
Let x , y ∈ Z n ,then x ⨁ y =x+ y= y + x= y ⨁ x
Hence ⨁ is commutative in Z n .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Therefore by (i), (ii),(iii) , (iv) &(v), ( Z n , ⨁ ) is a group.

Notation:
We shall denote elements of the group Z n by 0,1, 2,…,n−1 instead of denoting by
0 , 1 ,2 , … , n−1
Example:
Construct the addition modulo 3 for Z n={ 0 , 1 ,2 }
⨁ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 1 0
2 0 0 1

The group permutations

Let A be non empty set . Let S ( A ) be the set of all one-to-one mapping of A onto itself .
S ( A ) is called the set of all permutations of A. We want to show that with composition of
mappings as a binary operation, S ( A ) is a group.
Proof:
To show that that αοβ ∈ S ( A ) for all α , β elements of S ( A ) , we need only show that αοβ is
one-to -one and onto.
One-to oneness of αοβ
( αοβ )( a )=( αοβ )( b ) ⟹ α ( β ( a ) )=α ( β ( b ) )
⟹ β ( a )=α ( b ) ⟹ a=b
⟹ αοβ is one−¿−one .
Ontoness ofαοβ
Suppose b ∈ A . since α is onto ∃ x ∈ A such that α ( x )=b . since β is onto ∃ a∈ Asuch that,
β ( a )=x . Therefore,( αοβ )( a )=α ( β ( a ) )=α ( x ) =b Hence , αοβ is onto.

To show that αο ( βογ ) =( αοβ ) ογ

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

( αο ( βογ ) ) ( a )=α ( β ( γ ( a ) ) )While ( ( αοβ ) ογ ) ( a )=( α οβ ) ( γ ( a ) )=α ( β ( γ ( a ) ) ) . Therefore,

( αο ( βογ ) ) ( a )=( ( αοβ ) ογ ) ( a ) for all a ∈ A .

Hence , αο ( βογ ) =( αοβ ) ογ
The identity mapping I A : A → A is theidnentity element ,
i.e αο I A =I A οα =α ∀ α ∈ S ( A )
'
4. Since α is onto , for each a ∈ A ,∃ a ∈ A such that
α ( a' )=a By one−¿−oneness of α , this a' is unique. Hence the corresponding a to a ' is a
mapping.
We denote this mapping by α −1 .
Notice that ( αο α −1 ) ( a )=α ( α −1 ( a ) ) =α ( a−1 )=a=I A ( a ) and

( α −1 οα )( a' )=α−1 ( α ( a' ) ) =α −1 ( a )=a' =I A ( a' )

Therefore ,αο α −1=α −1 οα =I A
Hence from (1),(2),(3) & (4) S ( A ) is a group .
The symmetric Group
Let X be the set with n elements. Then, the permutation group on X is called symmetric
group.
Theorem 3.4.7
Let X be a set with n elements and Sn be the symetri c group on X . Then the number of
elements in Sn is n !=n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) ( n−3 ) … 3.2 .1
Proof: Let A={ a1 , a2 , … , an } and let α ∈ S ( A). Then α is a bijective function from A into
A.
Then the number of ways that α maps a 1 is n possible ways.
α maps a 2 in only n-1 possible ways.
α maps a 3 in only n-2 possible ways. Continuing this process , α maps a n in only one
way.
Hence , the total number of bijective functions from A to A is given by multiplication
principles of counting n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) … 3.2.1=n !
Hence , the total number of bijective functions from A to A is n ! .
Notation:

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

1. Let α ∈ S n such that α ( ai )=r i wherer i is any one of the values for i= 1,2,3…,n. Then , we
say denoteα by the following notation.

i.e.α = ( a1 a2 a3 … an
r1 r2 r3 … r n ) this means α maps ai ¿ r i for i=1 ,2 , 3 , 4 … n.

2. From now on the symmetric group of objects will be considered on a set

S= { 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , … , n }

Example:
Consider the symmetric group of 2 objects, i.e . s2 .Then , list the elements of S2.
Here , we consider the set A to be { 1 , 2 }. Then recall that S2 is the set of all bijective
functions from A to A.

Then α = (11 22) and β=(12 21) are the only elements of S . 2

Hence S2 has 2 !=2elements .

Find the elements of S3.
Solution: we see by the theorem above that S3 contains 3 !=6
Then

α=(11 2 3
2 3
, ) α= (12 2 3
1 3
, γ= ) (
1 2 3
1 3 2
, )
λ=(
1)
θ=( )1 , ω=( 13 21 32)
1 2 3 1 2 3
,
3 2 2 3
are the only elements of S3 .
Example: Consider the symmetric group of three elements, i.e S3 .

Let α = (11 2 3
2 3 ) (
, β=
1 2 3
2 1 3
, γ=
1 2 3
1 3 2 ) ( )
Find αοβ , βοα , βογ ∧γοβ
Solution:
α ( β ( 1 ) )=α ( 2 )=2 and β ( γ ( 1 ) )=β ( 1 )=2
α ( β ( 2 ) ) =α ( 1 )=1 β ( γ ( 2 ) )=β ( 1 )=3
α ( β ( 3 ) ) =α ( 3 )=3 β ( γ ( 3 ) )= β ( 1 )=1
Hence using the above notation, we have that

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

αοβ =( 12 2 3
1 3 ) and βογ = ( 12 23 31)
βοα =(
3)
γοβ =(
3 1 2)
1 2 3 1 2 3
2 1
Therefore βογ ≠ γοβ , i.e S3 is non-abelian group with 6 elements.

Remark: For each n ∈ N , we have seen that Sn is non- abelian group. Therefore there are
infinitely many non-abelian groups.

Activity
1. Let S= { a+b √ 2 :a , b ∈Q } , Then
a) Show that ¿ is group.
2. Find the inverse of 1+ √ 2 ,2 √ 2 .
3. Find the identity element.
4. Define ∆ on R−( 0 ) as follows.
ab
For a , b ∈ R− {0 } , a ∆ b=
27
Then ,
Show that ( R−{ 0 } , ∆ ) is an abelian group
Find the identity element.
Give the inverse of 1,2,3,27,112
5. Let S be set of all polynomial with degree less than or equal to 2. We define, ∆ on S as
follows.
For f , g∈ S , ( f ∆ g ) ( x ) ≔ f ( x )+ g ( x ) for all x in the common domain of f ∧g .
Then ,
Show that ( S , ∆ ) is an abelian group.
6. Find the inverses of , f ( x )=2 x 2 +4 x +6 , g ( x )=−x +2∧¿ h ( x )=23
7. Construct the addition table for Z n, where n=1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ,7 ,and find the inverses of
each of the element of Z n .
8. Find all the elements of Sn for n=3 , 4 , 5 , 6
9. How many elements does Sn for n=3 , 4 , 5 , 6

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

10. Let α = (12 2 34

3 41 )
, β= (
1 2 34
3 4 12 )
Find αοβ , βοα ,∧αο β 3
Find the inversesαοβ , βοα ,∧αο β 3
11. Give an addition table for Z5 .
12. Give a multiplication table for S3 .
13. Let G be a group containing an even numbers of elements. Show that there exists
−1
a ∈ G, a ≠ 1 , such that a=a .
14. Let G be a group and a , b ∈ G. If a2 =b2=1 , Provethat ab=ba .
15. If G is a group and ( ab )−1=a−1 b−1 for all a , b ∈ G, prove that G is an abelian group.

16. If G is a group such that ( ab )2=a2 b2 for every pair a , b ∈ G.Prove that G is abelian.

3.5. Subgroups, cosets, and Lagrange’s theorem

3.5.1 Subgroups and cosets
Definition 3.5.1.1
A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G denoted by H ≤G if H is a group
with the binary operation of G.
We can see, from the above definition, that for any group G, the subsets
H= { e }∧K=G are subgroups of G . These subgroups are called trivial (improper)
subgroups. The subgroup H of a group which is different from { e } and G, is called non-
trivial
(Proper) subgroup.
Example:
Let E= the set of all even integers. Then ¿ is a proper subgroup of ¿ where “+” is addition
of integers.
¿ is a proper subgroup of ¿
¿ even though as sets Q +¿⊂ R .¿
Theorem 3.5.1.2
Let G be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if
a , b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H ;

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

−1
a∈ H⟹a ∈ H;
Proof:
(⟹) If H is a subgroup, (1) and (2) clearly hold.
(⟹) Suppose (1) and (2) hold. Then we need only check b and c.
Leta , b , c ∈ H .Then a ,b , c ∈G .
Since G is group,a ( b c ) =( ab ) c . Hence G2 holds for H .
Let a ∈ H . Then by ( 2 ) , a−1 ∈ H . By (2) we obtain 1=a a−1 ∈ H . This proves ( c ) . Therefore
H is a group and hence a subgroup of G.
Corollary 3.5.1.3
Let G be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if:
−1
a,b∈ H⟹a b∈ H
Proof:
(⟹): Assume that H is a subgroup of G. Then, H is a group and H ≠ ∅ .
Leta , b ∈ H ,then a−1 , b ∈ H . Since H isclosed , a−1 b ∈ H .
(⟸) Suppose a−1 b ∈ H ∀ a ,b ∈ H .
Let a ∈ H ,then e=a−1 a ∈ H . Hence , a−1=a−1 e ∈ H .Then by theorem 3.6.1 we conclude
that H a subgroup of G. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Example :
Consider( Z 4 , ⨁ 4 ) . Recall that( Z 4 , ⨁ 4 ) is abelian group.
Let H¿ { 0 , 2 }, then we use theorem 3.6.1 to verify that H ≤ Z 4
H is non-empty.
0+2=2∈ H , 0+0 ∈ H ∧2+ 2=0 ∈ H
The inverse of 0 is 0 and the inverse of 2 is 2.
Therefore, H= { 0 ,2 } is a subgroup of G .
Corollary 3.5.1.4:
Let G be a group and H , K be its sub groups. Then, H ∩ K is also a subgroup.
Proof:
Suppose H and K are subgroups of G. Then , H and K are non-empty subsets of G. Let
x , y ∈ H ∩ K . Then x , y ∈ H∧x , y ∈ K .
Since H and K are subgroups of G.

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We have x−1 y ∈ H∧x−1 y ∈ K

Therefore x−1 y ∈ H ∩ K . i. e by using Corollary 3.6.3 H ∩ K is a sub group of G.
Corollary 3.5.1.5:
Let G be a group and { H k : H k is a subgroup of G } . Then
K=H K is a sub group of G.
Proof: x , y ∈ K . Then , x , y ∈ H k for all k=1 , 2 ,3 ,…
Since for each k, H k is a subgroup of G, we have x−1 y ∈ H K .
Hence, x−1 y ∈ ∩ H k ,i . e K=H K is a group of G .
Definition 3.5.1.6:
Let G be a group and a ∈ G. Then , the centralizer of a in G denoted by C( a ) is defined by
C ( a )= { x ∈G : xa=ax }
From this definition, it is clear that e ∈ C ( a )∧hence C ( a ) ≠ ∅
Theorem 3.5.1.7:
For any a in a group G, C ( a ) is asubgroup of G .
Proof: From the definition it is clear that C ( a )is non-empty as it contains identity element.
Let x , y ∈C ( a ) , then xa=ax∧ ya=ay … .(¿)
Now we will show that x−1 y ∈ C ( a )
−1 −1
From (¿) we have x=ax a−1 and hence , x−1=( ax a−1 ) =( a−1 ) x−1 a−1=a x−1 a−1 …¿

Then , ( x−1 y ) a=( a x−1 a−1 y ) a=( a x−1 a−1 ) ( ya )=( a x−1 y ) ( a−1 a )=a ( x−1 y ) … (¿∗¿)
Therefore from (¿∗¿) we see that ( x−1 y ) a=a ( x−1 y ) . Hence by the definition ofC ( a ), we
conclude that x−1 y ∈ C ( a ) . This prove C ( a ) is a subgroup of G .
Definition 3.5.1.8
Let G be a group. Then the center of G usually denoted by Z ( G ) is defined by
Z ( G )= { x ∈G : xg=gx for all g ∈G }
Theorem 3.5.1.9
Z ( G ) is agroup of G .
Proof: Since the identity element e commutes with every g in G , we have that Z ( G ) ≠ ∅ .
Let x , y ∈ Z (G ) . Then , for all g ∈ G , xg=gx∧ yg=gy
−1 −1 −1 −1
⟹ y=gy g i . e y =g y g

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

−1 −1 −1
Hence , x y g=xg y g g
−1 −1
¿ gx y g g
−1
¿ gx y
Therefore, x y−1 ∈ Z ( G ) ,i . e Z ( G ) is a subgroup of G.
Corollary 3.5.1.10
For any group G, Z ( G )=G if ∧only if G is abelian group.
Proof: Suppose that Z ( G )=G . Then for any x , y ∈ Z ( G ) , xg=gx∧¿
gy= yg for all g ∈G .
In particular, xy= yx if we replace g by y .
Hence, G is abelian.
Suppose that G is abelian group.
By the definition of Z ( G ) , it is clear that Z ( G ) ⊆G∧we will show that G ⊆ Z ( G ) .
Let now y ∈G , then for any x ∈G , we have that xy = yx ,i . e . y ∈ Z ( G ) .
Hence, G ⊆ Z ( G ) .This shows that G=Z ( G )..
Theorem 3.5.1.11
Let G be a group and let a ∈ G. Then H= { an :n ∈ Z } is a sub group of G and is the smallest
subgroup of G that contains a, that is every subgroup containing a contains H. This sub
group H of G is called the subgroup of G generated by an element a and usually denoted
¿ a> .
Proof:
Let x , y ∈H. Then x=a m , y =ak for some m , k ∈ Z
m n m +n
xy=a a =a ∈ H since m+k ∈ Z
Thus H is closed under the group operation of G.
Notice that x−1=a−m . Hence x −1 ∈ H .
Thus by Theorem 3.6.2 H is a subgroup of G.
Now we will show that it is the smallest subgroup of G containing a.
Let K be a subgroup of G containing a and K is a subset of H. Then we will show that
H=K
Let x ∈ H , then there exists n in N such that x=an

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Since K is a subgroup of G containing a , it is closed under the operation of K , i.e.

x∈ K .
This shows that K=H .
Thus, we have shown that if there exists a subgroup K of G that that is contained in H and
contains a , then H=K .
This implies that H is the smallest subgroup of G containing a.
Example: Consider the group( Z 4 , ⨁4 ). Find the subgroups ¿ 2>,<3> ¿<1>?
Solution: H= ⟨ 2 ⟩ ={ 2n : n ∈ Z }= {2 , 0 }

K= ⟨ 3 ⟩={ 3 n :n ∈ Z }= { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , }
M = ⟨ 1 ⟩ ={ 1n : n∈ Z } =Z 4

Definition 3.5.1.12
Let H be a group. Then , H is said to be cyclic group if and only if there exists an element
a in H such that H= { an :n ∈ Z } .
In this case, (H is generated by a ) a is called the generator of H and we write H= ⟨ a ⟩ .
If H is a subgroup of G , then H is called acyclic subgroup of G.
Example:
The group ¿ is cyclic group . Both 1 and -1 are the only generators for the group.
( Z 4 , ⨁4 ) is also a cyclic group both 1&3 are generators, i.e ⟨ 1 ⟩= ⟨ 3 ⟩ =Z 4
For n ∈ Z +¿¿ , the group Z n under addition modulo n, cyclic . If n>1 , then both 1 & n-1 are
generators, but there may be others.
Theorem 3.5.1.13
If a group G is cyclic, then G is abelian group.
Proof: suppose G is cyclic group. Then by definition of cyclic group, there exists a in G
such that for each x ∈ G , x=a n for each n∈ Z .
Let now x , y ∈G . Then x =an ∧ y=a m for some n , m∈ Z
Now, xy=an am =an +m=a m+n =am a n= yx
Hence, this shows that G is abelian group.
Theorem 3.5.1.14

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof:
Let G be group and H be a subgroup of G. If G is cyclic group then we want to show that
H is also a cyclic group.
Case 1: Suppose H= { e }. Then , it is clear that H is a cyclic group.
Case 2: Suppose H ≠ { e }. Then , there exists x ∈ H such that x ≠ e . Then ,since H is a subset
of G and G is cyclic group, there exists n in Z such that x=a n
Choose the smallest integer m such that a m ∈ H .
Then , we will show that H= ⟨ am ⟩
Since a m ∈ H . It is clear that ⟨ am ⟩ ⊆ H …………………………..(1)
Now we show that H ⊆ ⟨ am ⟩ . For this we let y ∈ H . Then, y=an for some n in Z .
Now applying the division algorithm on m and n, there exists q and r in Z such that
n=qm+ r where 0≤ r ≤ m−1
Then, we have r =n−mq.
−1
Therefore, a r=an−mq=an ( amq ) ∈ H . But this is a contradiction as m is the smallest
positive integer such that a m ∈ H .
Then, we conclude that r =0.This implies that y=an=( am ) ∈ ⟨ am ⟩
q

Hence, H is subset of ⟨ am ⟩………………………………….(2)

Therefore, by (1) and (2) we conclude that H= ⟨ am ⟩ ,
I.e. H is cyclic group generated bya m.
Remark:
If a group G in non-abelian, then G is not cyclic group. For example, the symmetric group
Sn is non-abelian group and hence can’t by cyclic group for n ≥ 3.
Definition 3.5.1.15
If a is an element of a group, then the smallest positive integer n such that a n=e if it exists,
is called the order of a. If there is no such integer, then a is said to have infinite order. The
order of an element a will be denoted by o ( a ) .
Example:
Consider the symmetric group of three objects.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

α= (12 2 3
3 1
, ) β= (11 2 3
3 2 )
and γ = (
1 2 3
3 2 1 )
Find the orders of α , β∧γ .

Solution: αοα =α =
2
(12 )(
2 3
3 1
ο )(
1 2 3
2 3 1
= )
1 2 3
3 1 2

a =( ) ο( )=(
1 2 3)
3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
Which is the identity in S3 .
Therefore, the order of α is 3.
In the group of non- zero rational numbers (operation multiplication), 2 has infinite order
because 2n ≠1 for every positive integer n.
The word order has been used in two senses; the order of a group and the order of an
element. The next theorem shows how the two are related.
Theorem 3.5.1.16
Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. If H= ⟨ a ⟩ and H is finite group, then the order
of H is the order of a . (left as exercise)
Theorem 3.5.1.17
Let G be a finite cyclic group generated by a. If o ( G ) =n , then:
m
a ≠ e , for any positiveinteger m<n .
{ a , a2 , … , a n−1 , a n=e } is precisely the set of elements belonging to G.
Proof:
Suppose m<n∧am =e . Let x ∈ G .Then x=ak for some integers k. By Division Algorism,
∃unique integers q, r such that k =qm+r and 0 ≤ r <m . Then
m q
=( a ) a =e a =e a =a .
k qm+r r q r r r
x=a =a
Hence, every element of G is of the form a r, where 0 ≤ r <m.
Hence G has at most m elements, wherem<n . Contradiction.
We know that the elements a , a 2 , … , a n−1 , an all belong to G. Next we show that these
elements are distinct. Suppose a i=a j for some positive integers i< j ≤ n . Then multiplying
by a−i, we get:
0 i−i i −i j −i j−i
e=a =a =a a =a a =a
and since i< j ≤ n , we must have 0< j−i<n . But by (1) above,

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

m 2 n−1 n
a ≠ e for m<n . Contradiction. Thus the elements a , a , … , a , a are all distinct. Since
o(G)¿ n , then G must be precisely the set { a , a2 , … , a n−1 , a n }.
However, since G is a group, e ∈ G . But a m ≠ e if m< n. Hence, a n=e .
Theorem 3.5.1.18.
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Activity
1. Determine the elements in each of the cyclic subgroups of S3 . Also give the order of each
elements of S3 .

2. Show that ({ 11 )(
2 3 , 1 2 3
2 3 1 3 2 )} is a subgroup of s .
3

3. Let G be group, and let A and B be subgroups of G. Prove that A ∩ B is a subgroup of G.

Show that A ∪ B need not be a subgroup of G.
4. Show that the set E of all even integers is a subgroup of addition group Z.
5. Consider the group, the set of all 2 x 2 matrices with integers as entries, with matrix
addition
6. Prove that the set of all diagonal matrices forms a subgroup.
7. Find all subgroups of S3.

8. Let G be an abelian group show that the set { a∈ G: an=e for some n ∈ Z } is a subgroup
of G.
9. Let G be a group and let Z (G)={x ∈ G: xg=gx for all g ∈ G} . Prove that Z (G) is a
subgroup of G, called the center of G.
10. Let G be a group for a ∈ G, define c ( a ) ={ga :g ∈ G} prove that c (a) is a subgroup of
G.
3.5.2. Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem
Definition 3.5.2.1.
Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G, then Ha={ha∨h ∈ H } is called the right
coset of H in G determined by a.
The element a is often called a representative of the right coset Ha.
Similarly, aH ={ ah|h∈ H } is called the left cosets of H in G. Of course, if G is abelian
Ha=aH for all a ∈ G.
Example

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Consider Z 4= {0 , 1 , 2, 3 } and its sub-group H={0 , 2} we will compute all the right cosets
of H in Z 4 .
HO=H 2={ 0 , 2 }
H 1=H 3= {1 , 3 }
There are two distinct right cosects of H in Z 4. Observe that, in fact, these distinct right
cosets of H form a partition of Z 4 .
Let G=Z nad H =¿ 7>¿ then
H +3=¿ 7>+3={… ,−14 ,−7 , 0 ,7 , 14 , … }+3
¿ {… ,−11,−4 ,3 , 10 ,17 , …}
This is the congruence class 3 in Z7
Let G=S 3 and H={(1),(1 ,2)}. Then
H ( 1 )={ ( 1 ) ( 1 ) , ( 1 , 2 ) (1 ) }={ (1 ) ,(1 , 2)}
H ( 1 ,2 , 3 )= { (1 )( 1 , 2, 3 ) , ( 1 ,2 ) ( 1 ,2 , 3 ) } ={( 1 , 2, 3 ) ,(2 , 3)}
H ( 1 ,2 , 3 )= { (1 )( 1 , 3 ,2 ) , ( 1 ,2 ) ( 1 ,3 , 2 ) } ={( 1 , 2, 3 ) ,(1 , 3)}
Exhibit the left cosets and the right cosets of the subgroup 3 Z of Z .

Solution:
Our notation here is additive, so the coset of 3 Z containing m is m+3 z. Taking m=0 , we
see that 3 Z ={… ,−9 ,−6 ,−3 , 0 , 3 ,6 ,9 , … }is it self one of its left cosets, the coset
containing 0. To find another left coset, we select an element of Z not in 3 Z , say 1, and
find the left coset containing it. We have
1+3 Z ={… ,−8 ,−5 ,−2 ,1 , 4 ,7 , 10 , … }
These two left cosets, 3 Z and 1+3 Z , do not yert exhavst Z . For example, 2 is in neither of
them. The left coset containing 2 is
2+3 Z ={… ,−7 ,−4 ,−1, 2 , 5 ,8 , 11, … }
It is clear that these three left cosets we have found do exhaust Z , so they constitute the
partition of Z into left cosets of 3 Z . Since Z is abelian, the left coset m+3 Z and the right
cosect 3 Z +m are the same. So the partion of Z into right cosets is the same.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

For a subgroup H of an abelian group G, the partion of G into left cosets of H and the
partion into right coseots are the same.
The group Z 6 is abelian. Find the partion of Z 6 into cosets of the subgroup
H={0 , 3 }
Solution:
One coset is {0 ,3 } itself. The coset containing 1 is 1+{0 ,3 }={1, 4 }. The coset containing
2+{0 ,3 }={2 ,5 } since {0 ,3 },{1 , 4 } and {2 , 5 } exhaust all of Z 6, these are all the cosets.
Theorem 3.5.2.2.
Let G be a group, H be a subgroup of G and a , b ∈ G. Then
( 1 ) Ha=H ⟺ a ∈ H
( 2 ) Ha=Hb⟺ a b−1 ∈ H
( 3 ) aH =bH ⟺ a−1 b ∈ H
Proof
Now Ha=H ⟹ ea ∈ Ha=H as e ∈ H
⟹a∈H
i .e . Ha=H ⟺ a ∈ H
( ⟸ ) Let a ∈ H , then ha ∈ H ∀ h ∈ H as H is a subgroup, so by definition H a ⊆ H . Now for
any h ∈ H , h=( h a−1 ) a∈ Ha. This yields H ⊆ Ha
Thus Ha=H
Hence Ha=H ⟺ a ∈ H
Ha=Hb ⟹ a∈ Hb Since a=ea ∈ Ha
⟹ a=hb for some h ∈ H
⟹ Ha=H ( hb )= ( Hh ) b
¿ Hb ,Since Hh=H by (1 )
The proof (3) is similar to that of (2)
Definition 3.5.2 .3
Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G. For a , b ∈ G we say a is congruent to b modulo
H, written as a ≡ b ( modH ) , if ab−1 ∈ H
Note “Congruence modulo H is a relation on G
Theorem 3.5.2.4.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

The relation a ≡ b ( modH ) is an equivalence relation on G.

Proof
Since H is a subgroup, a a−1=e ∈ H , 0 ≡a (modH )
−1
Suppose a ≡ b ( modH ), i.e. a b−1 ∈ H then b a−1=( ab−1 ) ∈ H Hence, b=a ( modH )
Suppose a ≡ b(modH ) and b ≡ c (modH ), i.e.
❑
a b ,b c ∈ H Now a c =( ab ) ( b c ) ∈ H
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1

Hence, a ≡ c ( modH )
Therefore, the reflexive, symmetric and transitive properties hold and a ≡ b(modH ) is an
equivalence relation on G.
Remark
If G=Z and H=nZ , then the relation a ≡ b ( modH ) , i.e. a b−1 ∈ H , under the addition
notationn, reads a−b is a multiple of n. This is the usual number theoretical congruence
modulon.
Since the set of right cosets of H in G are simply the equivalence classes of an equivalence
relation on G, we immediately obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 3.5.2.5.
Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Then the set of all right cosets of H in G
form a partition of G. Hence every element of G belongs to one and only one right cosect
of H in G. i.e. any two right cosects of H in G are either identical or have no elements in
common.
Corollary 3.5.2.6
There is a 1-1 correspondence between any two right cosets of H in G.
Theorem 3.5.2.7. ( Lagrange)
If H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then the order of H is a divisor of the order of G
(i . e . 0(H )∨0 ( G ) ).
Proof
Let n=0 ( G ) ,m=0(H ) Let K=¿ the number of distinct right cosets of H in G.
By (3.5−6.6∧3.5−6.7 ¿ any two distinct right cosets of H in G have no element in
common and each has m elements.
Hence n=mk

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Therefore 0 ( H )∨0(G)
Example
Since S3 has order 3 !=6, any subgroup of S3 must have order 1 , 2, 3 or 6: S3 can not have
subgroups of order 4 or 5. A group of order 7 can have any the two obvious subgroups {e }
of order and the group it self of order 7.
Definition 3.5.2.8
Let G be a group and H is subgroup of G . The number of distinct right cosets of H in G is
called the index of H in G . The symbol i G ( H ) denotes the index of H in G .
By Lagrang’s Theorem, in case G is a finite group
0 (G)
i G ( H )=
0(H)
Definition 3.5.2.9
If G is a group and a ∈ G, the order (or period) if a is the least positive integer m such that
m
a =e . If no such integer exists, we say that a is infinite order. We use the notation 0(a)
for the order of a.
Note that o( a )=o ( H ) where H=¿ a>¿
Corollary 3.5.2.10
If G is a finite group a ∈ G, then the order of a is divisor of the order of G.
( i . e . o(a)∨o (G) )
Proof:
We know o ( a )=o ( H ) , where H= ⟨ a ⟩ . We also know by lag rage’s theorem o ( H ) /o ( G )
Corollary 3.5. 2.11 :
If G is a finite group of order n, then a n=e for all a ∈G .
Proof:
Let m=0 (H ) from the above corollary 1
n=mk for some positive integer k.
k
Thus a n=a mk =( a m ) =e k =e since a n=e
Corollary 3.5.2.12
If G is a finite group of order p where p is a prime number, then G is cyclic and every
elements of G except the identity element is a generator of G.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Proof
Let e ≠ a∈ G by corollary 1, 0 ( a )∨ p. Since p is prime and 0 ( a )> 1, 0 ( a )= p. Hence the
cyclic subgroup generated by any element of G other than the identity e has order p and
therefore must be all of G.
Corollary 3.5.2.13
A group G of prime order contains no subgroup other than {e } and G.
Proof
This is a direct consequences of Lagrangels Theorem, since a prime has not positive
divisor other than 1 and itself.
Activity
1. Let n be a positive integer. List all right cosets of nZ in Z.
2. Let G be a group, 0 ( G )=12 . What is the maximum number of proper subgroup G can
have? If G has subgroup of order 2 and 3, what is the minimum number of proper
subgroups G can have
3. Let G be an abelian group, H <G , K <G , with 0 ( H )=5 and 0 ( K )=7 . Prove that there
exists an element in G of order 35
4. Let R[ x ] be the set of all polynomials over the reals and L be the set of all polynomials in
R[ x ] of degree 1 or less.
5. In R [ x ] , is 3 x 2 ≡ ( 1+ 2 x 2 ) ( modl ) ?

6. In R [ x ] , is 4 x3 +2 x 2−5 x+ 3≡ ( 4 x3 +2 x 2+ 8 x −19 ) ( modl ) ?

7. In R[ x ], is x 2 ≡ ( 1+ x+ x 2 ) ( modl ) ?
8. Find all cosets of the subgroup 4 Z of 2 Z
9. Find all cosets of the subgroup ¿ 4 >¿ of Z12
10. Let δ=( 1 , 2 ,5 , 4 ) ( 2, 3 ) ∈S 5 . Find the index of ¿ δ >¿ in S5
11. Let G=S 3 and H=¿ (1 , 3 ) >¿
Determine the right cosets of H in G.
Determine the left cosets of H in G.
Verify that the collection of right cosets is different from the collecton of left cosets
3.6. Normal subgroups and quotient groups
3.6.1. Definition

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

A subgroup H of a group G is normal (denoted by H ≤ G) if its left and right cosets

concide, that is, if gH=Hg for all g ∈G . For a group G, G and {e } are always normal
subgroups of G and these subgroups are called trivial normal subgroups. A group G ≠{e }
which does not have any non-trival normal subgroup is called a simple group.
Theorem 3.6.2.
A subgroup H of a group G is normal iff g−1 hg ∈ H for every h ∈ H , g ∈G .
Proof
Let H be a normal subgroup of G. Let h ∈ H , g ∈G . Then Hg=gH (definition of normal
subgroup)
Now hg ∈ Hg=gH
So hg=gh1 for some h1 ∈ H
i.e. g−1 hg=h1 ∈ H
Conversely let H be such that
−1
g hg ∈ H ∀ h ∈ H , g∈ G
Consider a ∈ G for any h ∈ H , a−1 ha ∈ H
Therefore ha=a ( a−1 ha ) ∈ H
Consequently Ha⊆ aH
Let b=a−1
Then b−1 hb ∈ H
−1
But b−1 hb=( a−1 ) h a−1=ah a−1
This gives ah a−1 ∈ H
So that ah=( ah a−1 ) a ∈ Ha
Which proves that aH ⊆ Ha
Hence aH =Ha
⟹ H is a normal subgroup of G.
Definition 3.6.3
gH g−1={ gh g−1 :h ∈ H } for g ∈ G
Corollary 3.6.4
A subgroup H of a group G is normal gH g−1 ⊂ H ∀ g ∈ G
Note

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

If H ≤G and H ≠G , where write H <G ¿)

Example
If H is a subgroup of an abelian group G and h ∈ H and g ∈G , then
−1
gh g =h ∈ H . Thus every subgroup of an abelian group is a normal subgroup.
The subgroup ¿ ( 12 )≥{ ( 1 ) , ( 12 ) } of s3 is not normal, because for example
( 1 23 )( 1 2 ) (1 2 3 )−1=( 2 3 ) ∉< ( 1 ,2 ) >¿
Properties of normal subgroups
Theorem 3.6.5
The following are three equivalent conditions for subgroup H of a group G to be a normal
subgroup of G.
−1
gh g ∈ H for all g ∈G∧h ∈ H
−1
gH g =H for all g ∈G
gH=Hg for all g∈ G
Corollary 3.6.6:
Let G be a group and H∧K are normal subgroups of G . Then H ∩ K is a normal subgroup
of G .
Proof
Suppose H and K are normal subgroups of G. Then, since H and K are subgroups, we
recall that H ∩ K is a subgroup of G. Now, for all g ∈G and for all h ∈ H ∩ K , we have
−1 −1 −1
ghg ∈ H and ghg ∈ K . This shows that ghg ∈ H ∩ K . Hence, H ∩ K is a normal
subgroup of G.

Definition 3.6.7.
G
Let G be a group and let N ≤G . Then we define ={Nx : x ∈ G }. In other words, G/ N is
N
the collection of all right cosets of N in G.
Theorem 3.6.8
Let G be a group and let N ≤G . Then G/ N is a group under the operation 0 defined by
Na 0 Nb=Nab ∀ Na , Nb ∈G/ N
Proof
First we shall prove that the binary operation is well defined in G/ N .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Let a 1 ∈ N a∧b 1 ∈ N b
⟹ a1=n1 a∧b 1=n2 b for some n1 , n2 ∈ N
−1 −1
⟹ a=n1 a1∧b=n2 b1

⟹ ab=( n−1
1 a1 )( n2 b1 )
−1

1 ( a1 n2 ) b1
¿ n−1 −1

−1
¿ n1 ( n 3 a 1 ) b 1

¿ ( n−1
1 n3 ) a1 b1 ∈ N a1 b1

⟹ ab ∈ N a1 b 1
But ab ∈ Nab
Therefore Nab=N a 1 b 1
Hence, 0 is well defined
Closure
Na 0 Nb=Nab∈ G/N (because Nab is also a right coset). Hence G/ N is closed under 0.
Associativity
Nao(NboNc)=Nao(Nbc)
¿ Na ( bc )
¿ N ( ab ) c
¿ NaboNc
¿ ( NaoNb ) oNc ∀ Na , Nb , Nc ∈G/ N
Hence o is associative.
Existence of Identity
Let e be the identity of G. Then
Ne=N NeoNa=Nea=Na∧NaoNe =Nae=Na ∀ Na ∈G/ N . Hence Ne is the identity
element of G/N.
Existence of Inverses
Let Na∈ G/ N . Then Nao Na−1=Naa−1=Ne=N N a−1 oNa=Na−1 a=Ne=N
Therefore ( Na )−1=Na−1
Hence (G/ N , o) forms a group.
Definition 3.6.9

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

The group (G/ N , o) is called the quotient group or the factor group of G by N . A factor
group G/ N is called proper if N ≠G∧N ≠{e }.
Corollary 3.6.10
If G is a finite group and N ≤G , then

o ( GN )= oo(( GN ))
Proof
The elements of G/ N are subsets of G . If G is finite, then the order of G/ N is the number
of right cosets of N in G that is i G (N ) the index of N in G . From Lagrange’s theorem.
o(G)
i G ( N )=
o (H )

o ( GN )= oo(G)
(N)
Example: considerG/ N for G=S 3 and N=¿(1 , 2, 3)>. We have

N= { ( 1 ) , ( 1 , 2 ,3 ) , ( 1 ,3 , 2 ) } ≤ G3 and o ( SN )= 63 =2
3

Theorem 4.6.11.
Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal .
Example
Let G=Z then ¿ is a group
Let N=3 Z={… ,−9 ,−6 ,−3 ,0 , 3 , 6 , 9 , … }
N is a cyclic subgroup generated by 3. Therefore, G is an abelian group.
Hence N ≤G .
Consider the group ¿, since ¿ is an abelian group , every subgroup is normal and in
particular H is a normal subgroup of ¿

Activity
1. Let G be an abelian group and N , a subgroup of G . Prove that the quotient group G/ N is
abelian.
2. Let n be a positive integer and N=¿ n>¿ by the cyclic subgroup of the additive group Z of
integers. Show that o (Z /N )=n .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

3. Let H be the subgroup of Z12 generated by 3. List the cosets of H in Z12 and construct a
table for Z12∨H
4. Consider the group G={1 ,−1 ,i ,−i } under multiplication of real numbers
5. Let H={1 ,−1 }. Then ,
a) Find the quotient group
b) Find the number of elements in the quotient group
c) What is the identity element in the quotient group?
d) Find the inverse of each element in the quotient group?
3.7. Homomorphisms
Definition
Let G and G' be any two groups let ‘0’ and ‘¿’ denote their respective binary operations.
Then a mapping f :G → G' called a homomorphism if f ( aob )=f ( a )∗f ( b ) ∀ a , b ∈G .
Definition
Let f :G → G' be a homomorphism
If f is onto, f is called an epimorphism.
If f is one-to-one, f is called a monomorphism.
If f is both an epimorphism and a monomorphism then f is called an isomorphism. If f is
an isomorphism then G and G' are said to be isomorphic, & we write G ≅ G' .
For any groups G and G' , there is always atleast one homomorphism f :G → G' namely the
trivial homomorphism defined by f ( a )=e for all a ∈ G. Where e the identity in G' .
Example
Consider Z, the additive group of integers and G={2n : n∈ Z }
G is a group under the usual multiplication of real numbers.
Define f : Z → G by f ( n )=2n ∀ n∈ Z
Since f ( n+ m )=2n+ m=2n .2 m=f ( n ) f ( m ) ∀ n , m∈ Z
f is a homomorphism of Z in to G . Clearly f is onto and G is a homorphic image of Z .
Let G be the multiplicative group of all non singular nxn matrices over the real numbers.
¿
Let R be the multiplicative group of all non zero real numbers.
Define f :G → R ¿ by f ( A )=detA for all A ∈G . Since for any two nxn matrices
A , B det( AB)=detA . det B we get f ( AB)=f ( A)f (B)
Hence f is a homomorphism of G into R¿ . f is also onto

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Let G={1 ,−1 }, G is a group under multiplication. Define f : Z → G by putting f (n)=1 if n

is even and f ( n )=−1 if n is odd consider any two integers m , n.
Both m , n are even. Then m+n is even consequently by definition f (m)=1, f(n)=1,
f (m+n)=1. This yields f (m+n)=f (m) f (n).
One of m and n is even other odd. To be define let us suppose m is even and n is odd then
f (m)=1 and f (n)=−1. Further as m+n is also odd, f (m+n)=−1=1 (−1)=f (m)f ( n) .
Both of m and n are odd. Then f (m)=−1 and f (n)=−1. Now as m+n is even,
f ( m+n )=1=(−1 )(−1 )=f ( m ) f ( n ) .T his shows that (m+n)=f (m)f (n) ∀ m ,n ∈ Z . Since
f (2)=1 , f (3)=−1 we see that f is also onto hence f is an epimorphism
Corollary
Let f :G → G' be a homorphism of groups and let e , e' are identity elements of G and G'
respectively. Then:
'
Ker ( f )={a ∈ G∨f ( a )=e } , is called the kernel of f
Im(f)={a ' ∈G' ∨f ( a ) =a' } for some a ∈ G is called the image of f .
Corollary
Let f :G → G' be homorphism. Let e , e' be identity elements of G and G' respectively. Then
'
f ( e )=e
f ( a−1 ) =f ( a ) ∀ a ∈G
−1

Ker ( f ) is a normal subgroup of G

Proof
e .e=e
f ( e ) f ( e )=f ( e ) , However f ( e ) ∈G' gives
' '
f ( e )=e f ( e ) .Thus f ( e ) f ( e )=e f ( e )
' '
⟹ f ( e )=e ,by ¿ cancellation∈G
For any a ∈ G, Since a a−1=e , we get f ( a ) f ( a−1 )=f ( a a−1) =f ( e )=e'
Similarly a−1 a=e gives f ( a' ) f ( a )=e '
Hence f ( a−1 ) =f ( a )−1
Since f ( e )=e' , e ∈ kerf
This shows that ker f ≠ ∅

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Now let a , b ∈ ker f , x ∈ G , a∈ ker f ,b ∈ ker f

'
⟹ f ( a )=e , f ( b )=e
' −1
⟹ f ( a )=e , f ( b )=f ( b ) =( e ) =e
' ' −1 '

⟹ f ( ab−1 )=f ( a ) f ( b ) =e' e' =e'

−1

This proves that ker f is a subgroup of G . It remains to show that it is also normal.
Now f ( x−1 ax )=f ( x−1 ) f ( a ) f ( x )
−1
¿ f ( x ) f (a ) f (x )
−1 '
¿ f (x) e f (x)
−1
¿ f (x) f ( x )
'
¿e
Consequently x−1 ax ∈ ker f
Hence ker f is normal subgroup of G .
Theorem
Let f :G → G' be a homorphism. Then
f is an epimorphism if and only if ℑ( f )=G '
f is a monomorphism if and only if ker (f )={e }.
Where e is the identity element in G.
Proof
It is obvious
Suppose f is a monomorphism. Let a ∈ ker ⁡{f }. Then f ( e )=e' . Where e ' is the identity
element in G' . But f ( e )=e' . Hence f ( a )=f ( e ) . Since f is one-to-one, a=e . Therefore
ker (f )={e }.
Suppose ker(f)={e}. Let a,b∈G such that f(a)=f(b). Then
e 1=f ( a ) f ( b ) =f ( a b−1 )=f ( a b−1 ) ⟹ a b−1 ∈ker f
−1

−1
⟹ a b =e ⟹ a=b . Hence, f is monomorphism
Theorem
Let f :G → G' be an ephimorphism.
Then G ' ≅ G/ ker (f )
Proof

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Define a map Φ :G/ ker ⁡(∝)→ G by Φ ( Ka )=∝ ( a ) , where K=ker ⁡( ∝).

Claim Φ is well-defined. We need to show that if b ∈ Ka then ∝ ( a )=∝ ( b ) . But
b ∈ Ka⟺ a ≡ b ( modK ) ⟺ ab−1 ∈ K ⟺ ab−1 =K for some k ∈ K . Therefore, a=Kb for
some k ∈ K . Hence, ∝ ( a )=∝ ( k ) ∝ ( b )=1 . ∝ ( b ) . Thus Φ is well-defined.
Now Φ ( KaKb )=Φ ( Kab )=∝ ( ab )=∝ ( a ) ∝ ( b )=Φ ( Ka ) Φ ( Kb ) . Hence, Φ is a
homomorphism.
Suppose

Φ ( Ka )=Φ ( Kb ) ⇒ ∝ ( a )=∝ ( b ) ⇒ ∝ ( ab−1 )=∝ ( a ) ∝ ( b ) =1 ⇒ ab−1 ∈ ker ( ∝ ) ⇒ a ≡b ( mod K ) ⇒ Ka=Kb .

−1

Hence Φ is one-to-one. Clearly, Φ is onto, since ∝ is onto. Hence, Φ is an isomorphism.

Activity
1. Let φ :G →G ' be homomorphism . Prove that
a) ℑ ( φ ) is a subgroup of G ' .
2. If φ is onto and H ≤G , then φ ( H ) ≤ G.
3. If G cyclic , then ℑ ( φ ) iscyclic.
4. If G is abelian then ℑ ( φ ) is abelian.
5. Let G be a finite group and o ( G ) =p , where p is a prime. Prove that Z p ≅ G .
6. Define f :¿ by f ( x )=e x . Show that f is an isomorphism.
7. Let R={ x : x >0 } . Then ,identify which of the following functions are homomorphism,
monomorphism and isomorphism.
f :¿
f :¿
f : ( R , . ) → ( R , . ) defined by f ( x )=√ 2
Find the kernel and image of the functions in question 4 above.

Review exercise
1. Let ( X , ⨁ ) be an algebraic structure where ⨁ is defined on X =¿ as follows.
For x , y in X, x ⨁ y=Min {x , y }. Show that ⨁ has no identity element in X.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

2. Let Z be the set of integers. Define “¿” on Z as follows.

For all x , y in Z , x∗y =x+ y−xy .Then,
a) Show that 0 is the identity element
b) Show that “¿” is associative .
c) Is “¿” commutative?
3. Let ⨁ defined on R by, for all x , y ∈ R , x ⨁ y=x + y−3
a) Show that (R,⨁ ¿ is associative and commutative algebraic structure with identity
4. Compute 12 ⨁[3 10] and find it’s inverse
5. Consider the algebraic structure (R , ⨁) where x ⨁ y=x + y + xy 2 for x , y in R.
a) Then show that ( R , ⨁ ) is a commutative algebraic structure and find the inverse of each
element (if invertible)
6. Let f :¿ be defined by f ( x )=2x . Then, show that f is an isomorphism and give three different
isomorphisms which are different from f .
a) Prove that ( R−{ 0 } , . )∧¿ can’t be isomorphic
7. Give three isomorphism from ¿ where k =4 ,6 ,8 ,10.
xy
8. Let ⨁ be defined on R by for x , y in R , x ⨁ y= . Prove that (R , .) and (R , ⨁) are
√2
isomorphic. Give at least four isomorphism.
9. Let G be a group such that a 2=e for all a in G. Then, show that G is abelian group.
10. Let a be in a group G of order n. Prove that a m=e iff n divides m
11. Let G be a group such that ( ab )2=a2 b2 for all a , b in G. Then show that G is abelian group
12. Define ¿ where “¿” is defined by a∗b=a+ b+ab . Then, show that ¿ is an abelian group.
13. Let G be a group of order p, p is prime. If H ⊴ G , and that H ≠ { e } , then
14. Prove that o ( G /H ) =1.
a) Give the number of generators of G/H.
15. Let ∝: ( R ,. ) → ¿ be defined by ∝ ( x ) =logx . Then
a) Show that ∝ is homomorphism.
b) Find the kernel of ∝ , image of ∝ .
c) Is ∝ a homomorphism?

Unit Summary
An algebraic structure can have at most one identity element

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

An associative algebraic structure can have at most one inverse (if possible) for each
element of the algebraic structure ¿
The product of invertible element is also an invertible element
Two algebraic structures are said to be isomorphic if and only if there is an isomorphism
between them.
The composition of isomorphisms is also an isomorphism
The group of all bijective functions from a non empty set x to x is called the permutation
group
If two algebraic structures are said to be isomorphic, then both are commutative and
associative
Let ∝: ¿ be isomorphism and x be in X. then, x is invertible if and only if ∝(x) is invertivel
and [∝ ( x ) ]−1=∝ ( x−1 )
For any group G, and a , b in G, if a and b are invertible, thena , b is also invetible
Ever finite semigroup which satisfies all the cancellation laws is also a group
The group of addition modulo for any positive integer n, is an abelian group
Permutation group is a non-abelian group
Let G be a group and H be a non empty subset of G. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only
if for all x , y ∈ H , xy−1 ∈ H
The intersection of any collection of subgroups (normal subgroups) is also a subgroup
(normal subgroup)
Let G be a group and a ∈ G. Then,
C ( a )={ x ∈G /xa=ax } is called the centralizer of a
Z ( G )={x ∈ G/ xg=gx for all g ∈ G } is called the center of G
C (a) and Z (G) are subgroups of a group G
A group is abelian if and only if Z ( G )=G
Let a ∈ G and H= { an /n ∈ N } . Then, H is a subgroup of G and is called the smallest
subgroup of G containing a.
A subgroup of cyclic group is also cyclic
A group of prime order is cyclic
Cyclic group is always abelian group

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Z p is a cyclic group that has p-1 generators

The external product of groups is abelian if and only if each of the groups abelian groups
The order of a subgroup of a are finite order divides the order of the group (Lagrange’s
theorem)
A subgroup of a group is normal if and only if the left and right cosets are the same
Let G be a group and H be a subset of G. Then, H is normal if and only if ghg−1 ∈ H
Let G be a group and H be a normal subgroup of G. Then, if G is abelian (cyclic) group,
then G/H is also abelian (cyclic)
Let G be a group and H be a subset of G. Then, the index of H in G denoted by
n (G)
[ G , H ]= .
n (H)
The homomorphic image of an abelian group is also abelian
Let ∝: ¿ be homomorphism. Then, α is monomorphism if and only if K er ∝={ e } .
A cyclic of order n is isomorphic to Z n

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

References
 Demissu Gemeda and Seid Mohammed ,(2008),fundamental concepts of algebra, Dept. of
Mathematics,AAU
 Durabin ,J.R. (2005). Modern Algebra, An introduction, 6 th ed., John Wily&Sons, New
york
 Fraleigh,J.B. (2003). A First Course In Abstract Algebra, 7th ,ed. ,Addison Wesley-World
Student Series.
 Sing , S. & Zameerudin, Q. (1990). Modern Algebra, 3rd ed.,Vikas Publishing House,New
Delhi.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Chapter 4
Rings
Introduction
Many sets are naturally endowed with two binary operations: addition and multiplication.
Examples that quickly come to mind are the integers, the integers modulo n, the real
numbers, matrices, and polynomials. When considering these sets as groups, we simply
used addition and ignored multiplication. In many instances, however, one wishes to take
into account both addition and multiplication. One abstract concept that does this is a ring.
This notion was originated in the mid-nineteenth century by Richard Dedekind.
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter you will able to:
State the definition of rings and give some examples.
Discuss some elementary properties of rings and apply them to solve some related
problems.
Describe some types of rings such as division ring, commutative rings integral domain and
fields.
Explain sub rings and characteristic of ring.
Define ideals and quotient rings.
Explain what is meant by ring homomorphism.
Discuss on polynomial rings.
Define prime ideals.
4.1. Definitions of Rings and examples

Can you explain rings and their properties?

Definition 4.1.1.
Let R be any non-empty set with two binary operations+¿ ⋅. Then (R ,+, ⋅) is said to be a
ring if and only if
¿ is an abelian group
⋅ is associative in R

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

⋅ is distributive over “+” i.e for all a , b , c ∈ R ,

a ⋅ ( b +c )=a ⋅ b+a ⋅c (left distributive )
( b+ c ) ⋅ a=b ⋅ a+c ⋅a (right distributive)
We note that + and ⋅ may not be the usual addition and multiplication of real numbers.
Notation:
In a ring (R ,+, ⋅)
The identity element for ¿ is usually denoted by 0 .
If the ℜ exists anidentity element for ⋅ in R , we call it the unity of the ring (R ,+, ⋅) and
denoted by 1.
The inverse of a with respect to + is denoted by – a .
If the inverse of a in R with respect to ⋅ exists, then it is denoted by a−1 .
Examples:
( Z ,+ ,⋅ ) , (Q ,+ ,⋅)∧(R ,+ ,⋅) are rings where + and ⋅ are usual addition and multiplication of
real numbers.
Let R be the set of real numbers
We define * on R as follows.
ab
For a , b ∈ R , a∗b= .Then show that ¿ is a ring.
3
Solution
It is clear that ¿ is an abelian group
Associatively of *

Let, a , b , c ∈ R . Then, a∗( b∗c )=a∗ ( bc3 )= abc9 and ( a∗b )∗c=( ab3 )∗c= abc9
Hence, ( a∗b )∗c=a∗(b∗c ) for all a , b , c ∈ R . i.e. *is associative in R .
Distributive property of * over +.
Let a , b , c ∈ R . Then
a ( b+ c ) ab+ ac ab ac
a∗( b+ c )= = = + =( a∗b )+ ( a∗c )
3 3 3 3
( a+b ) c ac +bc ac bc
Similarly, ( a+ b )∗c= = = + = ( a∗c )+(a∗c )
3 3 3 3
Hence, * is distributive over +.
Therefore by 1,2 and 3 above, ¿ is a ring.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Definition 4.1.2.
Let (R ,+, ⋅) be a ring. We say:
( R ,+, ⋅ ) is a commutative ring if a ⋅b=b ⋅ a for all a , b ∈ R .
If ∃u ∈ R such that a ⋅u=u ⋅a=a ∀ a ∈ R , then it is easy to show that u is unique. u is called
a unity element of R and is often denoted by 1 and (R ,+, ⋅) is called a ring with unity.
( R ,+, ⋅ ) is called a division ring if it is a ring with unity and for each non-zero a ∈ R , ∃ and
element b ∈ R such that a ⋅b=b ⋅ a=1.
(R ,+, ⋅) is called a field if it is a commutative division ring.
Example
(Z ,+ ,⋅) is a commutative ring with unity.
(Q ,+, ⋅) and (R ,+, ⋅) are fields.
(Z n , ⨁ n ,⨀ n) is a commutative ring with unity.
(Z 7 , ⨁ 7 ,⨀ 7) is a field.
(Z 6 , ⨁ 6 , ⨀6 ) is not a field.
Elementary Properties of Ring
Theorem 4.1.3.
Let (R ,+, ⋅) be a ring. Then, for all a , b , c ∈ R , we have:
a ⋅0=0 ⋅a=0.
a ⋅ (−b )=(−a ) ⋅ b=−( ab ) .
( – a ) ⋅ (−b ) =ab .
(−1 ) ⋅ ( a ) =−a , if R has unity element 1.
(−1 ) ⋅ (−1 )=1 , if R has unity element 1.
P roof
Observe that a ⋅0=a ⋅ ( 0+ 0 )=a⋅ 0+a ⋅0
Therefore, 0=a ⋅0+ [−(a ⋅0) ] = { a ⋅0+a ⋅0 }+ [ −(a ⋅ 0) ]
¿ a ⋅0+ {a ⋅0+ [− ( a ⋅0 ) ] }
¿ a ⋅0+ 0
¿ a ⋅0.
Observe that 0=a ⋅0=a ⋅ [ b+(−b) ] =a ⋅b+a ⋅ (−b ) .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Therefore, a ⋅ (−b )=−( ab ) .

Similarly, (−a ) ⋅ b=−( ab ) .
(−a ) ⋅ (−b )=− [ a ⋅(−b) ] (by (2))
¿−(−ab) (by(2))
¿ ab .
(−1 ) ⋅a=−(1 ⋅a) (by (2))
(−1 ) ⋅ (−1 )=(1⋅1) (by (3))
¿1
Theorem 4.1.4
Let (R ,+, ⋅) be a ring with unity. Let a ∈ R . If a has right inverse b and a left inverse c
under the multiplicative binary operation (i.e. a ⋅b=1 and c ⋅a=1), then b=c .
Proof
b=1⋅ b= ( ca ) b=c ( ab )=c .1=c .
Remark
Let (R ,+, ⋅) be a ring with unity. Let a ∈ R . If a has both a right and a left inverse under
the multiplicative binary operation, the two are the same by Theorem 4.1.4 above. We shall
denote the unique two-sided inverse of a by a−1. An element of R which has a two sided
inverse under the multiplicative binary operation is called a unit element of R.
Theorem 4.1.5
(R ,+, ⋅) be a ring with unity. Let U R be the set of all units of R. U R is a group under the
multiplicative binary operation of R.
Activity
1. Identify which of the following subsets of R are rings or not?
a) ( Z ,+ ,⋅ ) (d) ( { a+b √ 2∨,a ,b ∈ R } ,+, ⋅ )
b) ( N ,+, ⋅ ) (e) ¿
c) ( Q ,+, ⋅ ) (f) ( { b √ 3∨b ∈ R } ,+ ,⋅ )
2. Let C denote the set of all continuous functions on [ 0 , 1 ]
For all f , g ∈C , we define, f +g , and f . g by
( f +g ) ( x ) =f ( x )+ g (x) and ( f . g ) ( x )=f ( x ) . g ( x ) , ∀ x ∈ [ 0 , 1 ]
Then show that (C ,+ ,⋅) is a ring
3. Let S= { a+bi∨a , b ∈Q , i=√ −1 }

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Then (S ,+, ⋅) is a ring where + and ⋅ are the usual addition and multiplication of
complex numbers.
4.2. Sub rings and characteristics of a ring
A non –empty subset S of a ring R is a sub ring of R if S itself is a ring with respect to the
binary operation of R.
Example :
The ring of even integers is a subring of the ring of all integers. The ring of integers is a
subring of the ring of rational numbers. If R is any ring , then R is a subring and { 0 } is
asubring.
Theorem 4.2.1
Let R be a ring and let S be a non –empty subset of R. Then S is a subring of R if and only
if
a , b ∈ S ⟹ a+ b ∈ S∧a ∙ b ∈ S ;∧¿
a ∈ S ⟹−a ∈ S
Proof:
(⟹): If S is a subring of R, clearly (1) and (2)
(⟸): Suppose (1) and (2) hold
Since a , b ∈ S ⟹ a+ b ∈ S∧−a ∈ S , it follows that S is a subgroup of R under the additive
binary operation of R. Moreover, the additive binary operation of R is commutative in R
and hence in S. Therefore, S is an abelian group under the additive binary operation of R.
Since the multiplicative binary operation of R is associative on R, it is also associative on
S.
The multiplicative binary operation of R is both left and right distributive over the binary
operation of R. This still holds when we restrict the underlying set to S. Therefore, S is a
ring under the binary operation of R and , hence S is a subring of R.
Theorem 4.2.2:
Let R be a ring and m , n positive inte gers. Then for alla , b ∈ R the following holds:
m n m+ n
a a =a
n
( a m ) =amn
( m+n ) a=ma+na
m ( na )=( mn) a

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

( ma ) ( nb )= ( mn )( ab )=( na )( mb )
Proof (left as an exercise)
Definition 4.2.3:
Let R be a ring. If there exists a positive integer n such that na=0 for each a ∈ R ,the
smallest such positive integer is called the characteristic of R. If no such positive integer
exists, R is said to have a characteristic zero.
Notation: The characteristic of R is denoted by charR.
Example :
The ring Z n is of characteristic n, while Z , Q , R∧C all have characteristic 0.
Theorem 4.2.4
If R is a ring with unity, then R has characteristic n> 0 if and only if n is the smallest
positive integer such that ne=0 .
Proof:
( ⟹ ) suppose n> 0 is the characteristic of R. Then na=0 for all a ∈ R . In particular, n 1=0.
Suppose there is a positive integer m such that m<n and me=0. Then for each a ∈ R , we
have:
ma=a+a+ a+…+ a(m factors )
¿ a ⋅e +a ⋅ e+a ⋅ e+…+ a ⋅e ( m factors )
¿ a ⋅ ( e+e +e+ …+e )
¿ a ⋅ ( me )
¿ a ⋅0
¿ 0.
However, this contradicts the fact that n is the smallest positive integer such that na=0 for
each a ∈ R . Hence, n is the smallest positive integer such that n 1=0.
( ⟸ ) : Suppose n is the smallest positive integer such that n 1=0. Let a be any element of
R. Then:
na=a+ a+a+ …+a( n factors )
¿ a ⋅e +a ⋅ e+a ⋅ e+…+ a ⋅e ( n factors )
¿ a ⋅ ( e+e +e+ …+e )
¿ a ⋅ ( n 1)
¿ a ⋅0

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

¿ 0.
Activity
1. Which of the following become ring under addition and multiplication? If not why?
2. The set of positive integers.
3. The set of odd integers.
{ a+ b √ 2: a ,b ∈ Q }
4. Determine whether the following rings are commutative , division rings or not?
a) ( Z 6 ,+ ,∙ )
b) ( Z ,+ ,∙ )
c) ( Q ,+, ∙ )

d) ( Z 5 ,+ ,∙ )
5. Let * be defined on R−{ 0 } by :
ab
a∗b= , for a ,b ∈ R− { 0 }
√3
Then
a) Is ¿a commutative ring?
b) Is ¿a division ring?
4.3. Ideals and quotient rings
Definition 4.3.1
A non-empty subset I of a ring R is called
A left ideal of R if
a−b ∈ I for all a , b ∈ I
r a ∈ I for all r ∈ R , a ∈ I
and I is called a right ideal if
a−b ∈ I for all a , b ∈ I
ar ∈ I for all r ∈ R , a ∈ I
A non empty subset I of ring R is called an ideal (two sided ideal) if I is both left and right
ideal of R.
Example:
Let R be a ring. Then R and { 0 } are ideals of the ring.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Here R and { 0 } are trivial (improper) ideals of R. Any right , left or two sided ideal I of R ,
which is not equal to { 0 } and R is called a proper right , left or two –sided ideal of R.
Let E={ 2 m:m∈ Z } and consider the ring ( Z ,+ ,∙ )
Then for any x , y ∈ E ,r ∈ Z , we have
x− y =2 p−2 a
¿ 2 ( p−a )
¿ 2 h , h=p−a∈ Z i.e. x− y ∈ E
Moreover ,rx =r (2 p )=2 ( pr )=2 s ∈ E , for all r ∈ Z
and xr= ( 2 p ) r=2 ( pr ) ∈ E for all r ∈ Z
Hence, is a two sided ideal of the ring of integers.
Let S= { a+b √ 2 :a , b ∈ R } .Then , show that S is a two sided ideal of ( R ,+, ∙ )
Solution:
Let x , y ∈ S , then, x=a +b √ 2 ,a ,b ∈ R
y=a + b √2 , a , b ∈ R
' ' ' '

Then , i. x− y =( a−a' ) + ( b−b ' ) √ 2

¿ c +d √ 2∈ S Where c=a−a' ∧d=b−b'
For all r ∈ R ,
rx =r ( a+b √ 2 )
¿ ra+ rb √ 2
¿ h+ k √ 2 , where h=ra∧k=rb ∈ R
⟹ rx ∈ S
Similarly, xr ∈ S for all r ∈ R . Thus, S is a two sided ideal of ( R ,+, ∙ )
Definition 4.3.2
Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let a ∈ R . The ideal ( a )={ ar :a ∈ R } is called
the principal of R generated by a.
Theorem 4.3.3
Every ideal of the ring Z of integers is principal.
Proof:
Let I be an ideal of Z .We must show that I =( a ) for some a ∈ Z .
If I =( 0 ) , then I =( 0 )={ 0. r :r ∈ R } , hence I is principal.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Suppose I contains a non –zero element, say x . If x is negative , then – x is positive and
−x ∈ I
Hence I contains a positive integer. Let a be the smallest positive integer contained in I.
Claim: I =( a ) , clearly ( a ) ⊆ I . Let b ∈ I , by division algorithm ∃ q , r ∈ Z such that
b=qa+r ∧0 ≤ r <a . But since I is an ideal and a ∈ I , qa ∈ I .
Thus r =b−qa belongs to I. Since a was the smallest positive integer belonging to I , we
must have r =0.
Hence , b=qa∧b ∈ ( a ) .Thus I ∈ ( a ) , Therefore , I =( a )
Quotient Rings
Ideals play approximately the same role in the theory of rings as normal subgroups do in
the theory of groups.
We now proceed to define the quotient ring of a ring R modulo an ideal of R.
Let R be a ring and let I be an ideal of R. Consider the additive group ¿ and the quotient
group R/I in which addition is given by:
( a+ I ) + ( b + I )=( a+b ) + I .
We wish to make the quotient group R/I into ring.
Theorem 4.3.4
If multiplication is defined by
( a+ I ) ( b+ I )=ab+ I
Then the quotient group R/I becomes a ring.
Proof
We first show that the multiplication given in R/I is well defined.
Suppose a+ I =a' + I and b+ I =b' + I .
Then, a=a ' + x andb=¿ b ' + y for some x , y ∈ I
⟹ ab=( a ' + x ) ( b' + y ) =a' b' + x b ' + a' y + xy
' ' ' '
⟹ ab−a b =x b +a y+ xy ∈ I
' '
⟹ ab+ I =a b I .
Therefore, ( a+ I ) ( b+ I )=( a' + I ) ( b' + I )
2.The multiplication is associative and distributive over addition .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Definition 4.3.5
If R is a ring, I is ideal of R, then the ring R/I is called the Quotient ring (or factor ring) of
R modulo I.
Example :
Let I ={ 6 n :n ∈ Z }. Then we have then before that I is an ideal of ( Z ,+ ,. ) .
Z
Then , ={ I ,1+ I ,2+ I ,3+ I , 4 + I , 5+ I }
I
Z
The is a ring called the ring of integers modulo 6 and multiplication modulo 6.
I
Activity
1. List all ideals of A12 .
2. Let S be the ring of all continuous functions from R into R with the usual addition and
multiplication of functions and let I ={ f ∈ S :f ( n )=0 ∀ n∈ N }
a) Show that I is an ideal of S.
b) If I 1∧I 2 are ideals of a ring R.
3. Prove that I 1 ∩ I 2 is an ideal of R. Give an example to show that I 1 ∪ I 2 need not be an
ideal of R.
4. Let I be an ideal of a ring R.
If a−b ∈ I ∧c−d ∈ I , prove that ac−bd ∈ I
5. Find the ideal generated by 2 in Z 8 .
6. Let S and W be rings. Define addition and multiplication on S ×W as follows:
( a , b )+ ( c , d ) =( a+c , b+d )
( a , b ) × ( c , d ) =( ac ,bd )
a) Prove that S ×W is a ring.
G. Prove that the intersection of arbitrary family of ideals is an ideal
H .Let a be fixed element of a ring R. Then show that I ={ x ∈ R :ax=0 } is an ideal of R.
Prove that the intersection of two left ideals of a ring is again a left ideal of the ring.

The set N of all 2x2 matrices of the form [ ab 00] for a , b integers is a left ideal but not a right

ideal in the ring R of all 2x2 matrices with elements as integers.

If R is a ring and a ∈ R , let M = { x ∈ R :ax=0 } .Prove that M is a right ideal of R.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

4.4. Homomorphism of rings

Definition 4.4.1
Let f be a mapping from a ring R into a ring S such that
i. f ( a+b )=f ( a )+ f ( b ), a,b ∈ R∧¿
ii. f ( ab )=f ( a ) f ( b ) ,a ,b ∈ R
Then , f is called a homomorphism of R into S.
Note:
If f is one to one , then f is called a monomorphism of R into S.
If f is onto , then f is called an epimorphism of R into S.
If f is both one to one and onto , then f is called an isomorphism of R into S. In this case ,
we say that the two rings R and S are isomorphic and we write R ≅ S .
Theorem 4.4.2
Let f : R ⟶ S be a homomorphism of a ring R in to a ring S. Then we have the following:
If 0 is the zero of R , then f ( 0 ) is the zero of S.
If a ∈ R , then f (−a )=−f ( a )
Proof:
Let a ∈ R . Then f ( a )=f ( a+0 )=f ( a )+ f ( 0 ) . But
f ( a )=f ( a ) +0. Hence , f ( a ) +0=f ( a )+ f ( 0 ) . Since ¿ is a group , we have by cancellation
property that f ( 0 )=0. Hence , f ( 0 ) is the zero element of S.
0=f ( 0 )=f ( a+ (−a ) )=f ( a ) +f (−a ), therefore ,
f (−a )=−f ( a )
Definition 4.4.3.
Let f : R → S be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring S.
The set { f ( a ) :a ∈ R } is called the homomorphic image of R by the mapping f and is
denoted by Imf.
The set { a∈ R :f ( a )=0 } is called the kernel of f and is denoted by kerf.
Theorem 4.4.4
Let f : R → S be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring S. Then
Imf is a subring of S.
Kerf is an ideal of R.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Proof
Let x , y ∈ Imf . Then ∃ a ,b ∈ R such that x=f ( a )∧ y=f (b). Then:
x + y=f ( a ) + f ( b )=f ( a+b ) ∈ Imf :
xy=f ( a ) f ( b )=f ( ab ) ∈ Imf .
−x=−f ( a )=f (−a ) ∈ Imf .
Hence, Imf is a sub ring of S.
Let a , b ∈ Kerf and let r ∈ R then:
f ( a+b )=f ( a )+ f ( b )=0+0=0
Therefore, a+ b ∈ Kerf .
f ( ab )=f ( a ) . f ( b )=0.0=0
Therefore, ab ∈ Kerf .
f (−a )=−f ( a ) =−0=0
Therefore, −a ∈ Kerf .
Thus, Kerf is a sub ring of R, and then
f ( ra )=f ( r ) f ( a ) =f ( r ) .0=0
f ( ar )=f ( a ) f ( r )=0. f ( r )=0
Therefore, ra , ar ∈ Kerf .
Hence, Kerf is a two-sided ideal of R.
Theorem 4.4.5
Let f : R → S be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring S. Then:
If 1 is the unity of R, then f (1) is the unity of the subring Imf of S.
If R is a commutative ring, then Imf is a commutative ring.
Proof
Let x ∈ Imf . Then ∃ a∈ R such that x=f ( a ) . Then
f ( 1 ) x=f (1 ) f ( a )=f ( 1a )=f ( a )=x
xf ( 1 )=f ( a ) f ( 1 )=f ( a 1 )=f ( a )=x
Hence, f ( 1 ) x=x=xf ( 1 ) ∀ x ∈ Imf .
Therefore, f ( 1 ) is the unity of the subring imf of S.
Let x , y ∈imf . Then ∃a , b ∈ R such that x=f ( a ) and y=f ( b )
Then , xy=f ( a ) f ( b )=f ( ab )=f ( ba )=f ( b ) f ( a )= yx

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Therefore , Imf is a commutative ring.

Let R be a ring and I be an ideal of R. Recall that regarding R as an additive group and R/I
as the quotient group, the map φ :→ R/ I given by φ ( r )=r + I is an epimorphism of the
group R onto the grup R/I. It was called the canonical epimorphism. The kernel of φ is I.
We show below that φ is also an epimorphism of the ring R onto the quotient ring R/I with
kernel I.
Theorem 4.4.6
Let R be a ring and I an ideal of R. The mapping φ : R → R / I given by φ ( r )=r + I is an
epimorphism of rings with kernel I.
Proof
Let a , b ∈ R
φ ( ab )=ab+ I =( a+ I ) ( b+ I )=φ ( a ) φ ( b )
Therefore, φ also preserves multiplication and hence is an epimorphism of rings.
Ker( φ )={ a ∈ R :φ ( a )=I }
¿ { a ∈ R : a+ I =I }
¿ {a ∈ R : a ∈ I }
¿I.
Theorem 4.4.7
(Fundamental theorem of homomorphisms).
Let f : R → S be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring S with ker f =K .
Then R/ K ≅ Imf .
Proof
Define ψ : R/K→ Imf by ψ ( a+ K ) =f ( a ) .
ψ is a group isomorphism. Therefore, it remains only to show that ψ preserves
multiplication.
Let a+ K ,b+ L∈ R/K. Then
ψ [ ( a+ K ) ( b+ K ) ] =ψ ( ab+ K ) =f ( ab )=f ( a ) f ( b )
¿ ψ ( a+ K ) ψ (b+ K )
Thus, ψ preserves multiplication and hence is an isomorphism of a ring R/K onto the ring
Imf.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Consider the ring Z of integers. We saw That every ideal of Z is of the form nZ , where n
is the smallest positive integer contained in the ideal.
Theorem 4.4.8
Let n be a positive integer grater than or equal to 2. Then Z n ≅ Z /nZ as rings.
Proof
Define ϕ :Z n → Z /nZ by ϕ ( a ) =a+nZ .
It is an easy exercise to show that ϕ is an isomorphism of rings.
Activity
1. Let f : S → W and g :W →T be ring homomorphisms. Prove that
gof :S → T is a ring homomorphism.
2. Let R be a ring with 1, and f : R → R be given by f ( x )=−x . is f a ring homomorphism?
3. Let S be the ring of polynomials over R and let r ∈ R . Let α r :S → R be defined by
α r ( f )=f (r ) for f ∈ S . Is α r a ring homomorphism?
4. Let f : Z 4 → Z 2 be given by f ( x )=x 2 . Is f a ring homomorphism?

4.5 Integral Domains and the field of quotients

One of the most important algebraic properties of our usual number system is the fact that
if the product of two numbers is zero, then at least one of the two numbers is zero. This is
the basis for solving quadratic equations. For example, to solve the equation
2
x −5 x+ 6=0 in the real number system. We need only observe that
2
x −5 x+ 6= ( x−2 )( x−3 ). Then, by the above mentioned property of the real number
system, it follows that either x−2=0∨x−3=0 , and hence x=2∨x=3.
One the other hand, in Z12 , ( 2 )( 6 )=0 , although 2 ≠ 0 and 6 ≠ 0, showing that Z12 does not
possess the above mentioned property.
Definition 4.5.1
Let R be a ring. Let a , b ∈ R ¿ {0¿}. If ab=0 , then a and b are called zero divisors (or
divisors of zero). In, particular, a is a left divisor of zero and b is right divisor of zero.
In a commutative ring, there is no distinction between left and right divisors of zero.
Example
The rings Z,Q and R do not contain zero divisors; 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 and 10 are zero divisors in
Z12 .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Definition 4.5.2
Let R be a ring. We say that the cancellation laws hold in R if for a , b , c ∈ R , with a ≠ 0 ,
we have:
ab=ac ⟹ b=c
ba=ca ⟹ b=c

Theorem 4.5.3
Let R be a ring. The cancelation laws hold in R if and only if R has no left or right divisors
of zero.
Proof
( ⟹ ) Suppose the cancellation laws hold in R. Suppose ab=0 for some a , b ∈ R . We must
show that either a=0∨b=0. If a ≠ 0 then ab=a .0 implies that b=0. Similarly,
b ≠ 0 implies a=0 , so there can be no left or right divisors of zero.
( ⟸ ) Conversely, suppose R has no left or right divisors of zero. Suppose ab=ac with
a ≠ 0. Then ab−ac=a ( b−c )=0
Since a ≠ 0, we must have b−c=0 , i.e. b=c . A similar argument shows that ba=ca with
a ≠ 0 implies b=c .
Definition 4.5.4
An integral domain is a commutative ring with unity containing no divisors of zero.
Example
The rings Z , Q , R are integral domains. The ring Z12 is not an integral domain, although it
is a cumulating ring with unity.
The ring Z n is not an integral domain, if n is not a prime number. To see this, let m ∈ Z n ,
where m ≠0 and gcd ⁡(m , n)≠ 1. Let d=gcd ⁡(m, n).

Then m ( nd )=0∈Z , since m ( nd )=( md ) n , a multiple of n, while neither m nor dn is 0. Hence,

n

m is a divisor of zero in Z n .
Every field is an integral domain. To see this, let F be a field. Suppose ab=0 for
a , b ∈ F , a ≠ 0.

Then, b=1 b= ( 1a . a) b= 1a ( ab )=( 1a ) 0=0.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Thus, there are no divisors of zero in F.

Theorem 4.5.5
Every finite integral domain is a field.
Proof
Let D be a finite integral domain.
Let 0 , 1 , a1 ,a 2 , … a nbe all the elements of D.
Let x ∈ D , x ≠ 0.
Now consider x 1 , x a1 , xa2 , … xan .
These elements of D are distinct, for xai =xa j implies that a i=a j, by the cancellation laws.
Also, none of these elements is zero, since D has no zero divisors.
Hence by counting, we find that x 1 , x a1 , xa2 , … xan are the elements 1 , a1 , a2 ,… an in some
order. Therefore, either ¿ x 1=1 , in which case x=1, or xai =1 for some a i . In either case,
there exist y ∈ D such that xy=1, showing that x has a multiplicative inverse. D is a a
commutative ring with unity in which every non-zero element is invertible under
multiplication. Hence, D is a field.
Corollary 4.5.6
If p is prime, then Z p is a field.
Proof
Follows from the fact that Z p is a finite integral domain.
Field of Quotients of an integral domain
Let D be an integral domain.
Let E={ ( a , b ) :a ,b ∈ D ,b ≠ 0 }
Define a relation on E by:
( a , b ) ( c , d ) ⇔ ad=bc
Theorem 4.5.7
The relation is an equivalence relation on E.
Proof
( a , b ) ( a ,b ) , since ab=ba for all ( a , b ) ∈ E .
There fore, reflexive.
Suppose ( a , b ) ,(c , d )∈ E such that ( a , b ) ( c , d ) .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Then, ad =bc
⟹ da=cb , since R is a commutative ring
⟹ ( c , d ) ( a ,b )
Therefore , is symmetric.
Suppose ( a , b ) , ( c , d ) ,(e , f )∈ E such that ( a , b ) (c ,d ) and ( c , d ) (e , f ) .
Then ad =bc and cf =de .
⟹ adf =bcf ∧bcf =bde (multiplying the first equation by f and the second by b)
⟹ adf =bde
⟹ afd=bed
⟹ af =be (by cancellation as d ≠ 0 ¿
⟹ ( a , b ) (e , f )
Therefore, is transitive.
Notation
a
We shall denote the equivalence class of (a ,b)∈ E by , i.e.
b
a
={ { ( c ,d ) ∈ E : ( c , d ) ( a , b ) } =( c ,d ) ∈ E : ad=bc }.
b
Let F=¿ The set of all equivalence classes of on E.

¿ {ba :a , b ∈ D ,b ≠ 0}
We define “addition” and “multiplication” on F by:
a c ad +bc
+ = ;∧¿
b d bd
a d ac a c
. = for all , ∈ F .
b d bd b d
Theorem 4.5.8
The “addition” and “multiplication” given above are well-defined.
Proof
' '
a a c c
Suppose = ' and = '
b b d d
Then ab ' =c d ' =c ' d … ( 1 )
Multiplying the first equation by dd ' and the second by bb ' we obtain

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

' ' ' '

ad b d =a d bd … ( 2 )
' ' ' '
bc b d =b c d …(3)
Adding (2) and (3) we obtain:
( ad +bc ) b' d ' =( a ' d ' + b' c' ) bd
' ' ' '
ad+ bc a d +b c
⟹ = ' '
bd bd
' '
a c a c
⟹ + = '+ '
b d b d
Therefore, the “addition” given is well-defined. It can similarly be shown that the
“multiplication” given is also well-defined.
Theorem 4.5.9
F, with respect to the addition and multiplication defined above, is a field.
Proof
It is an easy exercise to show that the addition defined on F is both commutative and
associative.
0
The zero element of F is for any 0 ≠ x ∈ D.
x
a −a
The additive inverse of is .
b b
Therefore, ¿ is an abelian group.
It is also an easy exercise to show that the multiplication defined on F is both commutative
and associative.
Similarly, it is an easy exercise that the multiplication defined on F is distributive over the
addition defined on F. Therefore, (F ,+ , .) is a commutative ring.
x
The unit element of F is for any 0 ≠ ∈ D .
x
a b
Let be an non-zero element of F, i.e. a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0 then is also an element of F. And
b a

( ab )( ba )= abba =¿ The unit element of F.

Hence, every non-zero element of F is invertible under multiplication. Therefore, (F ,+ , .)
is a field.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Definition 4.5.10
F is called the field of quotients of D (or the field of fractions of D).
Observe that in the special case when D is the ring of integers Z, the field F so constructed
above is the field of rational numbers Q. The field F so constructed could be regarded in
some sense as the smallest field containing D. This is obvious, since every field containing
a
D must contain all elements of the form for a , b ∈ D with b ≠ 0.
b
Activity
1. List all zero divisors of Z14 .
2. Let f : S → W be a ring isomorphism. Prove that if a ∈ S is a zero divisor , then f (a) is a
zero divisor in W.
3. Find the field of quotients of Z3 .
4. Let f : S → W be a ring homomorphism which is onto. If n ≠ 0 is the characteristic of S,
show that characteristic of W is non-zero and divides n .

4.6. Polynomial Rings

If R is a commutative ring and a 0 , a 1 , … , an ∈ R , then an expression of the form
2 n
a 0+ a1 x+ a2 x +…+ an x ( ¿ )
is called a polynomial in x . It is a finite sum of terms, each of which is some element of R
times a nonnegative integral power of x . We become acquainted with such expressions,
and how to add and multiply them, in elementary algebra. H ere we want to consider
polynomials in the context of commutative rings.
Definition 4.6.1
Let R be a commutative ring. A polynomial is indeterminate x over R is an expression of
the form (*) where the coefficients a 0 , a 1 , … , an are elements of R.
Note
If a n ≠ 0, then the integer n is the degree of the polynomial, and a n is its leading coefficient.
A polynomial over a field is said to be monic if its leading coefficients is the unity of the
field.
Two polynomials in x are equal if and only if the coefficients of like powers of x are
equal.
The set of all polynomials in x over R will be denoted by R[x].

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

The indeterminate x used in constructing R[x] can be any element such that an expression
of the form (*) equals the zero element of R if and only if a 0=a 1=…=an=0 . This
requirement on x is equivalent to the requirement that two polynomials in x are equal if
and only if the coefficients of like powers of x are equal.
Polynomials are added by adding coefficients of like powers of x . They are multiplied by
assuming that the laws of a commutative ring apply to all symbols present (the elements of
R, the powers of x , the +¿ sing, and the juxtaposition of the coefficients with powers of x ).
Before stating the formal definition that follows from this assumption, let us look at an
example.
ln Z [x ],
( 2 x+ 5 x 2 ) + ( 1−3 x2−x 3 )
¿ ( 0+ 2 x +5 x 2+0 x 3 ) ( 1+0 x + (−3 ) x 2+ (−1 ) x 3 )
2 3
¿ ( 0+1 ) + ( 2+ 0 ) x + ( 5−3 ) x + ( 0−1 ) x
2 3
¿ 1+2 x+2 x −x , and
( 2 x+ 5 x 2 ) ( 1−3 x 2−x 3 )=2 x ( 1−3 x 2−x 3 )+ 5 x 2 ( 1−3 x 2−x 3 )
¿ ( 2 x−6 x 3−2 x 4 ) + ( 5 x 2−15 x 4−5 x 5 )
2 3 4 5
¿ 2 x+5 x −6 x −17 x −5 x
Definition 4.6.2
Let
m
p ( x )=a 0+ a1 x +…+ am x
And
n
q ( x )=b0 +b 1 x +…+b n x
be polynomials over a commutative ring R. Then
n n +1 m
p ( x )+ q ( x )=( a 0+ b0 ) + ( a1 +b1 ) x +…+ ( an +b n) x +a n+1 x + …+a m x , for m ≥n
---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)
With a similar formula if m<n .
m+n
And p ( x ) q ( x ) =a0 b0 + ( a0 b1 +a 1 b 0 ) x +…+ am bn x --------- (2)
The coefficient of x k being
a 0 b k +a1 bk −1 +a 2 b k−2+ …+a k b 0

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Example
In Z 4 [ x ]

2+2 x+ ( 2+3 x−x 2)

And ( 2+2 x ) ( 2+3 x−x 2 )=2 x +2 x2
Theorem 4.6.3
If R is a commutative ring then R [ x ] is commutative ring with respect to the operations
defined by (1) and (2). If R is an integral domain, then R [ x ] is an integral domain.
Proof:
Then zero of R [ x ] is the polynomial; having all coefficients equal to the zero of R.
Assume that R is an integral domain, with unity 1. Then it is easy to verify that the
polynomial of degree zero with coefficient 1 is a unity for R [ x ] . Also, if p ( x ) and q ( x ) is
nonzero elements of R [ x ] , with leading coefficient a m b n ≠ 0 , and thus p ( x ) q ( x ) is also
nonzero. Therefore, R [ x ] have no zero divisors. This proves that R [ x ] is an integral
domain.
Notice, in particular, that F [ x ] is an integral domain if F is a field. However F [ x ] is not a
field, no matter what F is. The ring R [ x ] is called the ring of polynomial in x ∈R . In the
following sections we concentrate on rings of polynomials over fields. We use deg f ( x ) ¿
denote the degree of a polynomial f ( x ) .
Theorem: (Division Algorithm) 4.6.4
If f ( x ) and g ( x ) are polynomials over a field F, with g ( x ) ≠ 0 then there exist unique
polynomial q ( x )∧r ( x ) over F such that
f ( x )=g ( x ) q ( x ) +r ( x ) , with r ( x )=0∨degr ( x )< degg ( x ) .
The polynomial q ( x ) and r ( x ) are called, respectively , the quotient and remainder in the
division of f ( x ) by g ( x ) .
Proof:
m n
Let f ( x )=a0 +a 1 x +…+ am x ∧g ( x ) =b0 +b 1 x +…+b n x .
Since g ( x )=0 , w e can assume that b n ≠ 0 so that deg g ( x )=n . The theorem is trivial for
f ( x )=0 , and therefore we also assume that a 0 ≠ 0 so that deg f ( x )=m.
We first prove that the existence of q ( x )∧r ( x ) , using induction on m. If m<n, then
f ( x )=g ( x ).0+ f ( x ) gives the required representation ; that is , we can take

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

q ( x )=0∧r ( x )=f ( x ) . Thusassume that m ≥n . If m=0 ,then f ( x )=a 0 and g ( x )=b 0 in this
case a 0=b 0 b−1 −1
0 a0 +0 ; hence we can take q ( x ) =b 0 a0 and r ( x ) =0

It remains to prove the statement fordeg f ( x )=m, on the basis of the induction hypothesis
that it is true whenever f ( x ) is replaced by a polynomial of degree less than m.
Let f 1 ( x )=f ( x )−am b−1
n x
m−n
g ( x ) . Then deg f 1 ( x ) < degf ( x ) .
Therefore, by induction hypothesis, there exist polynomials q 1 ( x ) and r 1 ( x ) such that :
f 1 ( x )=g ( x ) q1 ( x ) +r 1 ( x ) ,with r 1 ( x )=0∨deg r 1 ( x ) < deg g ( x ) .
This implies that :
−1 m−n
f ( x )=am bn x g ( x ) + g ( x ) q 1 ( x ) +r 1 ( x )

¿ g ( x ) [ am b−1
n x
m−n
+ q1 ( x ) ] +r 1 ( x ) .

Thus we can take q ( x )=am b−1

n x
m−n
+q 1 ( x ) and r ( x )=r 1 ( x ) . This proves the existence of
q ( x ) and r ( x ) .
¿ ¿
To prove that the polynomial q ( x ) and r ( x ) are unique, assume that q ( x ) and r ( x ) are also
polynomial over F, and that
¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
f ( x )=g ( x ) q ( x ) +r ( x ) , withr ( x ) =0∨deg r ( x ) <deg g ( x )
¿ ¿
Then g ( x ) q ( x ) +r ( x )=g ( x ) q ( x ) +r ( x )
And g ( x ) [ q ( x ) −q¿ ( x ) ] =r ¿ ( x )−r ( x )
The right side of this equation is zero or of degree less than deg g ( x ). Since the left side is
¿ ¿
zero or of degree at least g ( x ) , this forces q ( x )=q ( x ) .Then we must also have r ( x )=r ( x ) .
If the indeterminate x in a polynomial.
f ( x )=a0 +a 1 x +…+ an x ∈ F [ x ]
n

Is replaced by an element c ∈ F , then the result is an element of F:

n
f ( c ) =a0 + a1 c+ …+an c ∈ F .
The mapping from F [ x ]to F given by f ( x ) ⟶ f ( c ) is a ring homomorphism , because of the
way in which the operations are defined on F [ x ] . We say that f ( c ) results from f ( x ) ,by
substitution of c for x . If f ( x )=g ( x ) ∈F [ x ] , then f ( c ) =g ( c ) in F.
Example
If f ( x )=x 3−2 x 2 +2∈ R [ x ] , then
3 2
f ( 3 )=3 −2. 3 +2=11∈ R

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Theorem: (Remainder theorem) 4.6.5

If f ( x ) ∈ F [ x ] ,∧c ∈ F , then the remainder in the division of f ( x ) by x−c is f ( c ) .
Proof:
Because deg ( x−c )=1 , the remainder in t he division of f ( x ) by x−c must be either 0 or
degee 0. Thus , for some q ( x ) ∈F[x].
f(x) =(x-c)q(x)+r, with r∈F
Substitution of c for x yields
f(x) =(c-c)q(x)+r=r
Example:
Divide f(x) = x 3−2 x 2+2 ∈ R [ x ] by x−3
The quotient is x 2+x+3 and the remainder is 11. Also, f (3)=11, as we saw in the example
above.
If f(x), g(x)∈F[x] , with g(x)≠0, then f(x) is divisible by g(x) over F if f(x)q(x) for some
q (x)∈ F [ x].Thus f (x) is divisible by g(x ) if the remainder in the division of f (x) by
g(x ) is zero. If f(x) is divisible by g(x ) over F, then we also say that g(x ) is a factor of
f (x) over F.
Theorem 4.6.6
If f (x) ∈ F (x ) and c ∈ F , then x−c is a factor of f (x) if and only if f (c )=0.
Proof:
An element c ∈ F is called a root (or zero) of a polynomial, f(x)∈ F [ x ] if f ( c )=0
Then by factor theorem, c is a root of f ( x ) if and only if x−c is a factor of f ( x ) .
Definition 4.6.7
A polynomial p ( x ) ∈ F [ x ] is irreducible (or prime ) over F if:
i . p ( x ) has a positive degree:
ii . p ( x ) is not expressible as a product of polynomials of positive degree over F.
Note:
The property of being irreducible depends on the field F. For example , x 2−2 is irreducible
x −2=( x+ √ 2 ) ( x−√ 2 )
2
overQ but reducible over R , i.e.
Activity
1. Perform the following operation.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

( x 2 +2 x +1 ) + ( 2 x 2 + x+ 2 ) ∈¿ Z3 [ x ]
( 2 x 3+ x 2 +2 x+ 1 ) + (−x 3−x 2+ x−1 ) ∈Z 3 [ x ]
( 3 x+ 4 )+ ( 2 x 2 +2 x+ 2+ 2 ) ∈Z 6 [ x ]
( x 2 +2 x +2 )+( x−2 ) ∈Z 5 [ x ]
2. Which of the following polynomials are irreducible over Z5 [ x ] ? If reducible , factorize it.
a) x 2+ 3 x −3
b) x 3 +4 x +1
c) 2 x 2−x+ 4
3. Find the quotient and the remainder of
a) x 2+ x+2 when divided by ( x +1 ) ∈Z 3 .

b) x 3 + x 2+2 x +1 when divided by ( x 2 +1 ) ∈Z n.

4.7. Prime fields

Let R be ring with unity 1.
Recall that:

{
1+1+…+1 ( n summands ) , if n>0
n 1 (−1 ) + (−1 )+ …+ (−1 ) (|n| summands ) ,if n<0
0 if n=0
Theorem 4.7.1
Let R be a ring with 1. Define ∅ :Z → R by ϕ ( n )=n1. Then ϕ is a homomorphism of rings.
Proof
ϕ ( m+ n )= ( m+ n ) 1=m1+n 1=ϕ ( m ) + ϕ ( n ) . Notice that by the distributive property in R, for
m , n>0 , and we have:
ϕ ( mn )=( mn ) 1=( m1 )( n 1 )=ϕ ( m ) ϕ ( n ) for, n> 0. Similar argument can be given for and
m , n∈ Z .
Corollary 4.7.2
If R is a ring with 1 and char R=n>1, then R contains a subring isomorphic to Z n . If cha
R=0, then R contains a subring isomorphic to Z.
Proof

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

By theorem 4.5.11 The map ϕ :Z → R given by ϕ ( n )=n1 is a ring homomorphism.

Observe that:
If char R=n>1, then ker ϕ=nZ .
If char R=0, then n 1 ≠ 0 for all n ≠ 0 , and so kerϕ= { 0 } .
Therefore, it follows that:
If Char R=n>1 , ℑ ϕ ≅ Z /nZ ≅ Z n .
If char R=0, ℑ ϕ ≅ Z .
Theorem 4.7.3
Let F be field. Then either
Char F is a prime number p and in this case F contains a subfield isomorphic to Z p . or
Char F is 0 and in this case F contains a subfield isomorphic to Q.

Proof
Suppose char F=m>1. Then, by corollary 4.5.12, F contains a subring isomorphic to Z n .
Then n must be a prime number p, otherwise F would have zero divisors.
Suppose char F=0. Then, by corollary 4.5.12 F contains a subring isomorphic to Z. But any
field which contains Z contains Q. Hence, F contains a subfield isomorphic to Q.
Definition 4.7.4
The fields Z p and Q are called prime fields.
Activity
1. Consider the subring S={0 , 2 , 4 , 6 } of Z 8. What is the characteristic of S?
2. Does Z 6 have a subring isomorphic to the ring Z3 ? Justify your answer.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Review Exercise
For each of the following problems, show your work clearly.
1. Prove that the intersection of arbitrary family of ideals (subrings) is an ideal (subring)
2. Let (G,+) be an abelian groups.
3. Define “¿” on G by: for x , y ∈G , x∗y =0.
a) Show that (G ,+, .) is ring.
4. Let R be a ring. Then the center of R denoted by Z(R) is defined by,
Z ( R ) ={ x ∈ R| x . r=r . x , ∀ r ∈ R } .
Show that Z(R) is a subring of R.
5. Let R be a ring and S= { x ∈ R| x . y=0 , ∀ y ∈ R } . Then, S is an ideal of R.
6. Show that S=R × R is a field for the two operations defined as follows
( a , b )( c , d )=( a+c ,b +d ) ,
( a , b ) . ( c , d )=(ac+ bd , ad +bc )
7. Let a ∈ R be fixed, where R is a ring.
Then show that C ( a )= { x ∈ R∨ax=xa } is a subring of R.
8. Let a be fixed element of the ring R.
Then show that I ={ x ∈ R∨ax=0 } is an ideal of R.
9. Let R be a commutative ring with unity such that the only ideals are are {0} and R. Prove
that R is a field.
3 ab
10. Consider the ring ( R ,+, . ) . We define, “*” on R by a∗b=
4
Then, show that ( R ,+, . ) and ¿ are isomorphic.
11. Let f : R → S be homomorphism. Then, show that
Ker f is sub ring of R
f (R)is a sub ring of S
12. Let f :¿
g : ( S , ⨂ , ⨁ ) → (G , ⋄ , x ) be ring isomorphisms.
Then , show that ¿ and ( G , ⋄, x ) are isomorphic
13. Let ( R , ∇ , ⨁ ) be a ring with unity 1.
14. Let ∝: ( R , ∇ , ⨁ ) → ¿ be ring isomorphism. Then, prove that
∝(1) is the unity of ¿.
15. If u in R is unit element, then prove that ∝(u) is also a unit element of S.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Summary
Let ( R ,+, . ) be a ring. Then, for all x , y in R.
x .0=0=0. x
x . (− y ) =(−x ) . y=− ( x . y )
(−x ) . (− y )=xy
Let (R ,+, .) be a ring. Then (R ,+, .) is called
Commutative ring if and only if a . b=b . a fro all a , b in the ring
Division ring if and only if every non-zero elements of the ring R are invertible with
respect to “.”.
Let (R,+,.) be a ring. Then x ∈(R ,+ ,.) such that x ≠ 0 is called a zero divisor of the ring
(R ,+, .) if and only if there exists y in (R ,+, .) such that y ≠ 0 and x . y =0
A rign (R ,+, .)is called an integral domain if and only if (R ,+, .) has no zero divisors
Z n is and integral domain if and only if n is prima e
If ring (R,+,.) is an integral domain, then it satisfies all the cancellation laws
m ∈ Z n is a zero divisor if and only if GCF (m , n)≠ 1
Every field is an integral domain
Every finite integral domain is a field
The intersection of subrings (ideals) is also a subring (ideal)
Every ideal is a subring
A field has no proper ideal
Let (R ,+, .) and ¿ be rings and f : ( R ,+ ,. ) → ¿ be an osomorphism, then kernel of f denoted
by ker f is an ideal (subring) of (R ,+, .)

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

References
 Demissu Gemeda and Seid Mohammed ,(2008),fundamental concepts of algebra, Dept. of
Mathematics,AAU
 Durabin ,J.R. (2005). Modern Algebra, An introduction, 6 th ed., John Wily&Sons, New
york
 Fraleigh,J.B. (2003). A First Course In Abstract Algebra, 7th ,ed. ,Addison Wesley-World
Student Series.
 Sing , S. & Zameerudin, Q. (1990). Modern Algebra, 3rd ed.,Vikas Publishing House,New
Delhi.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

CHAPTER 5
The System of Integers
Introduction
In the most general sense, number theory deals with the properties of different sets of
numbers. In this chapter, we will discuss some particularly important set of numbers,
called the set of integers. Logical development of the system of integers will be explained
based on few assumptions (axioms). One of the most important proof techniques in
number theory (and in much of mathematics) is mathematical induction. We will discuss
the two forms of mathematical induction, illustrate how they can be used to prove various
results, and explain why mathematical induction is a valid proof technique. Continuing, we
will deals with a fundamental notion in number theory, that of divisibility. We will
establish some of the basic properties of division of integers, including the "division
algorithm". The purpose of the final section of this chapter this chapter is to explain how
integers are represented using base b expansions, and how basic arithmetic operations can
be carried out using these expansions. In particular, we will show that when b is a positive
integer, every positive integer has a unique base b expansion.
Objectives
 At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Define set of integers.
 State the order and the well ordering axioms on the set of integers prove related
theorems.
 State the principle of mathematical induction and prove related assertions.
 Identify the system of integers as a well ordered integral domain and conversely.
 Prove elementary divisibility properties in Z .
 Compute GCD (greatest common divisor) and LCM (least common multiple) for
given finite number of non-zero integers.
 State Euclidean algorithm and apply to find GCD of a finite number of non-zero
integers.
 Define a prime number and express a positive composite integer as product of
positive prime numbers.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

 Express an integer in different bases.

5.1. Properties of Addition and Multiplication

Can you explain properties of addition and multiplication of integers?

The theory of numbers is concerned, at least in its elementary aspects, with properties of
the integers and more particularly with the positive integers 1 , 2, 3 , …(also known as the
natural numbers). The origin of this misnomer harks back to the early Greeks for whom the
word number meant positive integer, and nothing else. The natural numbers have been
known to us for so long that the mathematician Leopold Kronecker once remarked, "God
created the natural numbers, and all the rest is the work of man." Far from being a gift
from Heaven, number theory has had a long and sometimes painful evolution, a story that
is told in the ensuing pages.
We frequently use the integers, and particularly the natural numbers. Though the integers
seem to be familiar objects, we often ask ourselves whether a fact about integers is indeed
so because it is itself an axiom or a consequence of the axioms. When specially confronted
with some of the challenging problems in integers, we frequently ask ourselves about what
the integers actually are, that is the basic axioms governing them and consequences of
these assumptions.
We shall try to construct the integers axiomatically, assuming that any student using this
module is familiar with basic definitions in group and ring theory and at least has an
exposure to some models satisfying the basic notions.
We assume that the system of integers is a non-empty the Z , with two binary operations:
the first called addition and denoted by ‘+ ’ and the second is called multiplication and
denoted by ‘ . ’ satisfying the following four axioms.
¿ is an abelian group.
(Z ,+ ,.) is an integral domain, that is a commutative ring with unity having no zero divisor.
Definition 5.1.1. 0 denotes the additive identity while 1 denotes the multiplicative identity.
Definition 5.1.2. The binary operation subtraction denoted by ‘−’ is define on Z as follow,
x− y =x+ (− y ) , for each x , y ∈ Z .
5.2 Order axiom of the system of integers

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

(Order Axiom) Z has a non-empty subset, denoted by P, such

P is closed under ‘+’ and ‘.’
For each x ∈ Z , exactly one of the three conditions x ∈ P , or −x ∈ P , or x=0 holds.
Definition 5.2.1. A ring R satisfying axiom 1, 2 and 3 is called an ordered integral domain.
The sub set P whose existence guaranteed by the order axiom is called the set of ’positive’
elements of R.
Notation: We denote the set of positive elements of Z ,by N .
Definition 5.2.2. If R is an ordered integral domain with P as the set of positive elements
of R, We can introduce order on R as follows. If x , y ∈ R , we say that
x > y if ∧only if x+(− y )∈ P.
x ≥ y if ∧only if x > y∨x = y .
Notation: we write y < x if ∧only if x > y .
Example 1. Consider the set of rational numbers, Q , and the set of real numbers, R , under
addition and multiplication of real numbers, both are ordered integral domains with P
respectively denoting Q+¿={x∈Q : x>0 }¿ and R+¿={x ∈R : x >0 }¿ .
Definition 5.2.3. If S is a non empty sub set of Z , thenα ∈ S is a least element of S if and
only if α ≤ x , for all x ∈ S .
5.3 Well-Ordering axiom
(Well Ordering Axiom) Every non-empty subset of P has a least element.
Remark: The above four axioms precisely describes the ring of integers up to
isomorphism.
Well Ordering Axiom plays a critical role in the proofs here and in subsequent chapters;
we will use it to show that the set of positive integers has what is known as the
Archimedean property. Before that, let us deduce some important results about set of
integers.
Example1. Show that 1 is the least element of N , that is 1 is the smallest positive integers.
Proof : In Exercise 1.1, you will show that 1=12 is a positive element of Z . Hence 1 ∈ N .
By Well Ordering Axiom, N has a least element, say α . We will show that α =1. suppose
α ≠ 1 , then α <1.(why ?) Hence 1−α , α ∈ N . But N is closed under multiplication, then
( 1−α ) α =α −α 2 ∈ N . It follows that α 2< α and α 2 ∈ N , as N is closed under multiplication.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

This contradicts the assumption that α is the least element of N . Hence α =1 is the least
element of N .
Activity : Explain why the following holds true.
0=−0
0∉N
−1<0
a−1<a , ∀ a ∈ Z .
Example 2. Show that if a ∈ Z , there is no integer between a∧a+1.
Proof: Let a ∈ Z and suppose there exists an integer b between a∧a+1 ,that is a< b< a+1.
Then a+ 1−b=a+1−a+ a−b=( a+ 1−a )−(b−a)∈ N . Hence ( b−a )< ( a+1−a )=1, but
b−a ∈ N . (why ?) Hence 1 is not the smallest positive integer. This is a contradiction.
Thus if a is an integer, then there is no integer between a∧a+1.
Theorem 5.3.1. (Archimedean property) If a and b are any positive integers, then there
exists a positive integer n such that na> b .
Proof: Assume that the statement of the theorem is not true, so that for some a and b ,
na< b for every positive integer n . Then the set S= { b — na: n∈ N }, consists entirely of
positive integers. By the Well Ordering Axiom, S will possess a least element, say, β ,that is
β=b — ma , m∈ N . Notice thatb — (m+1)a ∈ S, because S contains all integers of this
form. Furthermore, we have b — ( m+1)a=(b — ma) — a<b — ma , contrary to the
choice of β=b — ma as the smallest integer in S. This contradiction arose out of our
original assumption that the Archimedean property did not hold; hence, this property is
proven true.
Notation: We define the notation 1+1=2 , 2+1=3 , 3+1=4 , 4 +1=5 , 6+1=7, 7+1=8 and
8+1=9.We shall later see that every integer, and in fact every real number, can be
expressed essentially using the different ten symbols 0 , 1 ,2 , … , 9 known as base ten
numeration.
Theorem 5.3.2. In the set of integers, N={1 ,2 , 3 , … }
Proof: Since 1 ∈ N , as N is closed under addition, we have { 1 ,1+1 , 1+1+1 , … } ⊆ N
Using the above notation, {1 , 2 ,3 , … }⊆ N . It remains to show that N ⊆ { 1 ,2 , 3 , … }
suppose N ⊈ {1 , 2 ,3 , … }. Then S={x ∈ N : x ∉ {1 , 2 ,3 , … } } is a non-empty subset of N . It
follows that by Well Ordering Axiom S has a least element, say θ . As 1 ∉ S, we conclude

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

that θ>1. As θ−1∈ N and θ−1<θ, we have θ−1∉ S . Hence θ−1∈ { 1 ,2 , 3 , … }. But
then, θ=( θ−1 ) +1 ∈ {1 , 2 ,3 , … }
This is a contradiction as S ∩ { 1 ,2 , 3 , … }= ∅ . Hence N ⊆ { 1 ,2 , 3 , … }. Therefore
, N={1 ,2 , 3 , … }
Corollary 5.3.3: The set of integers Z ,is given by Z={ … ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1, 2 , 3 ,… } .
Proof: we know that N={1 ,2 , 3 , … }⊆ Z and 0 ∈ Z, since ¿ is a group,
{ … ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 } ∈ Z . ( why ? ) Hence { … ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , … } ⊆ Z . Conversely, if x ∈ Z
, by order axiom ,either x ∈ N∨−x ∈ N ∨x=N . Using Theorem 1.1.2, it follows that
x ∈ { … ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1, 2 , 3 ,… } . Hence { … ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , … } ⊆ Z . Therefore,
Z={ … ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1, 2 , 3 ,… } .
Activity
1. If R is a ring, show that for everyr , s ∈ R
r 0=0 r=0 .
(−r )s=−(rs)
(−r )(−s)=rs
2. If R is a ring with unity and has at least two elements, then 0 ≠ 1.
3. Prove that any ordered integral domain has at least two elements.
4. conclude from 2 and 3 that in any integral domain 0 ≠ 1.
5. Let R be an ordered integral domain and P be the set of positive elements of R .
a) Show that for any x ∈ R ¿ 0 }, x 2 is a positive element.
b) Show that { 1 ,1+1 , 1+1+1 , … } ⊆ P .
6. Conclude from 5(b) that every ordered integral domain is infinite.
5.4. Mathematical Induction
One of the most powerful techniques in proving assertions or solving problems that
involves integers is the Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI).In this section, we
formulate two equivalent versions mathematical induction. With the Well Ordering Axiom
available, one can derive the First Principle of Mathematical Induction, which provides a
basis for a method of proof called mathematical induction. Loosely speaking, the First
Principle of Mathematical Induction asserts that if a set of positive integers has two
specific properties, then it is the set of all positive integers.

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Theorem 5.4.1 (First Principle of mathematical Induction) Let S be a set of positive

integers with the following properties:
The integer 1 belongs to S.
Whenever the integer k is in S, the next integer k +1 must also be in S.
Then S is the set of all positive integers. That is S=N .
Proof: Let T be the set of all positive integers not in S, and assume that T is nonempty.
The Well Ordering Axiom tells us that T possesses a least element, which we denote by a .
Because 1 is in S, certainly a> 1, and so 0< a — 1< a. The choice of a as the smallest
positive integer in T implies that a — 1 is not a member of T, or equivalently that a — 1
belongs to S. By hypothesis, S must also contain (a — 1)+1=a, which contradicts the fact
that a lies in T. We conclude that the set T is empty and in consequence that S contains all
the positive integers.
Example 5.4.2 Here is a typical formula that can be established by mathematical
induction:
n ( 2 n+1 ) (n+1)
12 +22 +…+n 2= , n≥ 1 Eq. (1)
6
In anticipation of using Theorem 1.2.1, let S denote the set of all positive integers n for
which Eq. (1) is true. We observe that when n=1, the formula becomes
2 1 (2+1 ) (1+ 1)
1= =1 . This means that 1 is in S. Next, assume that k belongs to S (where k
6
is a fixed but unspecified integer) so that
k ( 2 k+ 1 ) (k +1)
12 +22 +…+k 2= Eq. (2)
6
To obtain the sum of the first k +1 squares, we merely add the next one, (k + 1)2, to both
sides of Eq. (2). This gives
k ( 2 k +1 ) (k+ 1)
12 +22 +…+k 2+(k +1)2= +(k +1)2
6
After some algebraic manipulation, the right-hand side becomes

[ ]
k ( 2 k +1 ) +6 ( k+ 1 )
[ ]
2
( k +1 ) 2 k +7 k +6
=(k +1)
6 6
(k + 1) ( 2 k +3 ) ( k +2)
¿
6

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Which is precisely the right-hand member of Eq. (1) when n=k +1. Our reasoning shows
that the set S contains the integer k +1 whenever it contains the integer k . By Theorem
1.2.1 (First Principle of mathematical Induction), S must be all the positive integers; that
is, the given formula is true for n ≥ 1.
Although mathematical induction provides a standard technique for attempting to prove a
statement about the positive integers, one disadvantage is that it gives no aid in formulating
such statements. Of course, if we can make an "educated guess" at a property that we
believe might hold in general, then its validity can often be tested by the induction
principle.
Example 5.4.3 Consider, for instance, the list of equalities.
1=1
1+2 = 3
1 + 2 + 22 = 7
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 = 15
1+ 2 + 22 + 23 + 24=31
1+ 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 25 = 63
We seek a rule that gives the integers on the right-hand side. After a little reflection, you
might notice that
1 = 2-1 3 = 22- l 7 = 23- l
15 = 24 - 1 31 = 25 -1 63 = 26- l
(How one arrives at this observation is hard to say, but experience helps.) The pattern
emerging from these few cases suggests a formula for obtaining the value of the expression
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +…+2n-1 ; namely,
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +…+2n-1 = 2n-1 , for every positive integer n . Eq. (3)
To confirm that our guess is correct, let S be the set of positive integers n for which Eq. (3)
holds. For n=1, Eq. (3) is certainly true, whence 1 belongs to the set S. We assume that
Eq. (3) is true for a fixed integer k , so that for this k
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +…+2k-1 = 2k-1
and we attempt to prove the validity of the formula for k +1 . Addition of the term 2k to both
sides of the last-written equation leads to
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +…+ 2k-1 +2k = 2k-1+2k

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

= 2.2k-1=2k+1-1
But this says that Eq. (3) holds when n=k +1, putting the integer k +1 in S so that k +1 is in
S whenever k is in S. According to the induction principle, S must be the set of all positive
integers.
Remark: When giving induction proofs, we shall usually shorten the argument by
eliminating all reference to the set S, and proceed to show simply that the result in
Activityis true for the integer 1, and if true for the integer k is then also true for k +1 .
We should inject a word of caution at this point, to wit, that one must be careful to
establish both conditions of Theorem 1.2.1 before drawing any conclusions; neither is
sufficient alone. The proof of condition (a) is usually called the basis for the induction, and
the proof of (b) is called the induction step. The assumptions made in carrying out the
induction step are known as the induction hypotheses. The induction situation has been
likened to an infinite row of dominoes all standing on edge and arranged in such a way that
when one falls it knocks down the next in line. If either no domino is pushed over (that is,
there is no basis for the induction) or if the spacing is too large (that is, the induction step
fails), then the complete line will not fall.
The validity of the induction step does not necessarily depend on the truth of the statement
that one is endeavoring to prove.
Example 5.4.4 Let us look at the false formula.
1 + 3 + 5 +…+(2n-1) = n2 + 3 Eq. (4)
Assume that this holds for n=k in other words,
1 + 3 + 5 +…+(2k-1) = k2 + 3
Knowing this, we then obtain
1 + 3 + 5 +…+(2k-1) +(2k+1) = k2 + 3+2k+1
= (k + 1)2 + 3
Which is precisely the form that Eq. (4) should take when n=k +1. Thus, if Eq. (4) holds
for a given integer, then it also holds for the succeeding integer. It is not possible, however,
to find a value of n for which the formula is true.
There is a variant of the induction principle that is often used when Theorem 1.2.1 alone
seems ineffective. As with the first version, this Second Principle of Mathematical

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Induction gives two conditions that guarantee a certain set of positive integers actually
consists of all positive integers.
Theorem 5.4.5 (Second Principle of mathematical Induction) Let S be a set of positive
integers with the following properties:
The integer 1 belongs to S.
If k is a positive integer such that 1 , 2, ... , k belong to S, then k +1 must also
be in S.
Then S is the set of all positive integers. That is S=N .
Proof: let T represent the set of positive integers not in S. Assuming that T is nonempty,
we choose n to be the smallest integer in T. Then n>1 , by supposition (a). The minimal
nature of n allows us to conclude that none of the integers 1 , 2, ... , n−1 lies in T, or, if
we prefer a positive assertion, 1 , 2, ... , n — 1 all belong to S. Property (b) then puts
n=( n — 1 ) +1 in S, which is an obvious contradiction. We conclude that the set T is empty
and in consequence that S contains all the positive integers.
Remark : The First Principle of Mathematical Induction is used more often than is the
Second; however, there are occasions when the Second is favored and you should be
familiar with both versions. It sometimes happens that in attempting to show that k +1 is a
member of S, we require proof of the fact that not only k , but all positive integers that
precede k , lie in S. Our formulation of these induction principles has been for the case in
which the induction begins with 1. Each form can be generalized to start with any positive
integer n 0. In this circumstance, the conclusion reads as "Then S is the set of all positive
integers ≥ n0 . "
Mathematical induction is often used as a method of definition as well as a method of
proof. For example, a common way of introducing the symbol n ! (pronounced "n
factorial") is by means of the inductive definition.
(a) 1 !=1 ,
(b) n !=n ∙(n — 1) ! for n>1.
This pair of conditions provides a rule whereby the meaning of n ! is specified for each
positive integer n . Thus, by (a), 1 !=1; (a) and (b) yield
2 !=2∙ 1!=2 ∙1
While by (b), again,

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3 !=3∙ 2 !=3∙ 2 ∙1
Continuing in this manner, using condition (b) repeatedly, the numbers 1 ! , 2! , 3 ! , ... ,n ! are
defined in succession up to any chosen n . In fact,
Definition 5.4.6 For each positive integer n , n !=n∙ ( n−1 ) … 3∙ 2 ∙1.
Remark : Induction enters in showing that n !, as a function on the positive integers, exists
and is unique; however, we shall make no attempt to give the argument. It will be
convenient to extend the definition of n ! to the case in which n=0 by stipulating that
0 !=1.
Example 5.4.7 To illustrate a proof that requires the Second Principle of Mathematical
Induction, consider the so-called Lucas sequence:
1 ,3 , 4 , 7 ,11 ,18 , 29 , 47 , 76 , …
Except for the first two terms, each term of this sequence is the sum of the preceding two,
so that the sequence may be defined inductively by
a 1=1
a 2=3
a n=a n−1 + an−2 for all n≥ 3
n
7
We argue that the inequality, a n<( ) holds for every positive integer n .
4
The argument used is interesting because in the inductive step, it is necessary to know the
truth of this inequality for two successive values of n to establish its truth for the following
value. First of all, for n=1∧2, we have
1 2
7 7
a 1=1<( ) =7 /4 and a 2=3<( ) =49/16
4 4
Whence the inequality in Activityholds in these two cases. This provides a basis for the
induction. For the induction step, choose an integer k ≥ 3 and assume that the inequality is
valid for n=1 ,2 , ... , k−1. Then, in particular,
k−1 k−2
7 7
a k−1<( ) =7 /4 and a k−2<( )
4 4
By the way in which the Lucas sequence is formed, it follows that
k −1 k−2
7 7
a k =a k−1+ ak−2 <( ) +( )
4 4

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

( ) ( 74 +1)
k−2
7
¿
4

¿ ( ) ( )<( ) ( ) =( )
k−2 k−2 2 k
7 11 7 7 7
4 4 4 4 4
Because the inequality is true for n=k whenever it is true for the integers 1 , 2 ,... , k — 1, we
n
7
conclude by the second induction principle that a n<( ) for all n ≥ 1. Among other things,
4
this example suggests that if objects are defined inductively,
then mathematical induction is an important tool for establishing the properties of these
objects.
Remark: We can use the following Extended Principle of mathematical Induction toshow
that a given statement is true for all natural
Extended Principle of mathematical Induction : If conditions (a) and (b) hold that is,
A statement is true for a natural number j
If the statement is true for some natural number k ≥ j , then it is also true for the next
natural number k +1 . then the statement is true for all natural numbers ≥ j .
Activity
1. Establish the formulas below by mathematical induction:
n ( n+1 )
1+2+3+…+ n= for all n ≥1.
2
2
1+3+5+ …+(2 n−1)=n for all n ≥1.
n ( n+1 ) (n+2)
1 ∙2+2 ∙ 3+3 ∙ 4+…+ n(n+1)= for all n ≥1.
3
n ( 2n−1 ) (2 n+1)
12 +32 +52 +…+(2 n−1)2= for all n ≥ 1.
3
2+ 4+6+ …+2 n=n(n+1)for all n≥ 1.
1 n
= ( 4 −1 ) for all n ≥ 1.
2 n −1
1+4 +4 +…+ 4
3

[ ]
2
3 3 3n ( n+1 ) 3
1 +2 +3 +…+ n = for all n ≥1.
2
1 1 1 1 n
+ + +…+ = for all n ≥ 1.
1∙ 2 2 ∙3 3∙ 4 n(n+ 1) n+1

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

1 1 1 1 n
+ + +… + = for all n≥ 1.
1∙ 3 3 ∙ 5 5 ∙7 (2 n−1)(2 n+1) 2 n+1
n
n< 2 for every positive integer n .
n
2 <n ! for n ≥ 4.
5
n −n is divisible by 5 for every positive integer n .
2. The ∑ of the cubes of three consecutive integers isdivisible by 9.

a ( r n+1−1 )
If r ≠ 1, show that for any positive integer n , a+ ar +a r 2 +…+ a r n= .
r−1
Use the Second Principle of Mathematical Induction to establish that for all n ≥ 1,
n n−1 n−2 n−3
a −1=( a−1 ) (a +a +a + …+a+ 1)
[ Hint : an+1 −1=( a+ 1 ) ( an−1 ) −a ( a n−1−1 ) ]
5.5. Characterization of the system of integers
Divisibility of integers
We start with a number of fairly elementary results and techniques, mainly about greatest
common divisors. You have probably met some of this material already, though it may not
have been treated as formally as here. There are several good reasons for giving very
precise definitions and proofs, even when there is general agreement about the validity of
the mathematics involved. The first is that 'general agreement' is not the same as
convincing proof: it is not unknown for majority opinion to be seriously mistaken about
some point. A second reason is that, if we know exactly what assumptions are required in
order to deduce certain conclusions, then we may be able to deduce similar conclusions in
other areas where the same assumptions hold true. Our starting-point is the division
algorithm, which is as follows:
The division Algorithm
We have been exposed to relationships between integers for several pages and, as yet, not a
single divisibility property has been derived. It is time to remedy this situation. One
theorem, the Division Algorithm, acts as the foundation stone upon which our whole
development rests. The result is familiar to most of us; roughly, it asserts that an integer a
can be "divided" by a positive integer b in such a way that the remainder is smaller than is
b . The exact statement of this fact is Theorem 1.3.1.
Theorem (Division Algorithm) Given integers a∧b , with b>0 , there exist

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unique integers q∧r satisfying a=qb+ r ,0 ≤ r <b .

The integers q∧r are called, respectively, the quotient and remainder in the division of
a by b.
Proof: We begin by proving that the set S={a — xb∨x an integer ; a — xb ≥0 }
is nonempty. To do this, it suffices to exhibit a value of x making a — xb nonnegative.
Because the integer b ≥ 1, we have |a|b ≥|a|, and so
a — ( — |a|)b=a+|a|b ≥ a+|a|≥ 0
For the choice x=— |a| ,then, a — xb lies in S. This paves the way for an application of the
Well-Ordering axiom, from which we infer that the set S contains a smallest integer; call it
r . By the definition of S, there exists an integer q satisfying r =a — qb , 0≤ r
We argue that r <b . If this were not the case, then r ≥ b and
a−(q+1)b=(a−qb)−b=r −b ≥ 0
The implication is that the integer a — ( q+1)b has the proper form to belong to the set S.
But a — (q+1)b=r — b<r , leading to a contradiction of the choice of r as the smallest
member of S . Hence, r <b .
Next we turn to the task of showing the uniqueness of q∧r . Suppose that a has
two representations of the desired form, say, a=qb+ r=q ' b+r '
where 0 ≤ r <b , 0 ≤ r ' <b. Then r ' — r=b (q — q ') and,
owing to the fact that the absolute value of a product is equal to the product of the absolute
values,
¿ r ' — r∨¿ b|q — q '|
Upon adding the two inequalities — b< — r ≤0∧¿ 0 ≤ r ' <b , we obtain — b<r ' — r <b or,
in equivalent terms, |r ' — r|<b . Thus, b|q — q '|<b , which yields 0 ≤|q−q '|<1
Because |q−q '| is a nonnegative integer, the only possibility is that |q−q '|=0, whence
q=q ' this, in turn, gives r =r ' ending the proof.
A more general version of the Division Algorithm is obtained on replacing the restriction
that b must be positive by the simple requirement that b ≠ 0.
Corollary: If a∧b are integers, with b ≠ 0, then there exist unique integers q∧r such that
a=qb+ r ,0 ≤ r <¿ b∨¿
Proof: It is enough to consider the case in which b is negative. Then |b|>0 , and
Theorem 1.3.1 produces unique integers q '∧r for which

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

a=q |b|+r , 0 ≤r < ¿ b∨¿ . Noting that

'
|b|=— b, we may take q=— q ' to arrive at
a=qb+ r , withO ≤r <|b|.
To illustrate the Division Algorithm when b< 0, let us take b=— 7 . Then, for the choices
of a=1 , — 2 , 61,∧— 59 , we obtain the expressions
1=0(−7)+1
−2=1 (−7 )+ 5
61=(−8) (−7 ) +5
−59=9(−7)+ 4
We wish to focus our attention on the applications of the Division Algorithm, and not so
much on the algorithm itself. As a first illustration, note that with b=2 the possible
remainders are r =0∧r =1. When r =0, the integer a has the form a=2 q and is called even;
when r =1, the integer a has the form a=2 q+1 and is called odd. Now a 2is either of the
form (2 q)2=4 k ∨(2 q+ 1)2=4 ( q 2 +q )+ 1=4 k +1.The point to be made is that the square of
an integer leaves the remainder 0 or 1 upon division by 4 .
We also can show the following: The square of any odd integer is of the form 8 k +1 . For,
by the Division Algorithm, any integer is representable as one of the four forms:
4 q , 4 q+1 , 4 q+2 , 4 q +3. In this classification, only those integers of the forms 4 q+1 and
4 q+3 are odd. When the latter are squared, we find that
2 2
( 4 q+1) =8 (2 q +q)+1=8 k +1
and similarly
( 4 q+3 )2=8 ( 2 q2 +3 q+ 1 ) +1=8 k + 1
As these remarks indicate, the advantage of the Division Algorithm is that it allows us to
prove assertions about all the integers by considering only a finite number of cases. Let us
illustrate this with one final example.
2
a(a +2)
Example We propose to show that the expression is an integer for all a ≥ 1.
3
According to the Division Algorithm, every a is of the form 3 q ,3 q+ 1,∨3 q+2.
2
a(a +2) 2
Assume the first of these cases. Then =q(9 q +2) , which clearly is an integer.
3
2
a(a +2)
Similarly, if a=3 q+1 , then ( 3 q+ 1 ) ¿ ¿, ¿ is an integer in this instance also.
3

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Finally, for a=3 q+ 2, we obtain ( 3 q+ 2 ) ¿ ¿ , an integer once more. Consequently, our

result is established in all cases.
The greatest common divisor
Of special significance is the case in which the remainder in the Division Algorithm turns
out to be zero. Let us look into this situation now.
Definition An integer b is said to be divisible by an integer a ≠ 0, in symbols a∨b , if there
exists some integer c such that b=ac . We write a ∤ b to indicate that b is not divisible by a .
Thus, for example, — 12 is divisible by 4, because — 12=4 (— 3). However, 10 is not
divisible by 3; for there is no integer c that makes the statement 10=3 c true.
There is other language for expressing the divisibility relation a∨b . We could say that
a is a divisor of b , that a is a factor of b , or that b is a multiple of a. Notice that in Definition
1.3.2.1 there is a restriction on the divisor a : Whenever the notation a | b is employed, it is
understood that a is different from zero.
If a is a divisor of b , then b is also divisible by — a (indeed, b=ac implies that
b=(— a)(— c )), so that the divisors of an integer always occur in pairs. To find all the
divisors of a given integer, it is sufficient to obtain the positive divisors and then adjoin to
them the corresponding negative integers. For this reason, we shall usually limit ourselves
to a consideration of positive divisors.
It will be helpful to list some immediate consequences of Definition 1.3.2.1
(Although not stated, divisors are assumed to be nonzero.)
Theorem For integers a , b , c ,the following hold :
a∨0 , 1∨a ,a∨a .
a∨1 if ∧only if a=± 1.
If a∨b∧c∨d , thenac∨bd .
If a∨b∧b∨c , then a∨c .
a∨b∧b∨a if ∧only if a=± b .
If a∨b∧b ≠ 0 ,then|a|≤|b|.
If a∨b∧a∨c ,then a∨(bx +cy )for arbitrary integers x∧ y .
Proof: We shall prove assertions (f) and (g), leaving the other parts as an exercise. If a∨b,
then there exists an integer c such that b=ac ; also, b∨0 implies that c∨0. Upon taking

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absolute values, we get |b|=|ac|=|a||b| |. Because c ≠ 0, it follows that ¿ c∨≥ 1, whence

|b|=|ac|=|a||b|≥|a|.
As regards (g), the relations a∨b∧a∨c ensure that b=ar and c=as for suitable integers r
and s. But then whatever the choice of x and y , bx +cy =arx +asy =a(rx +sy )
Because rx + sy is an integer, this says that a∨(bx+ cy), as desired

It is worth pointing out that property (g) of Theorem 1.3.2.1 extends by induction to sums
of more than two terms. That is, if a∨b k for k =1 ,2 , ... , n , then
a∨(b1 x 1 +b 2 x 2+ …+b n x n )
for all integers x 1 , x 2 ,… . , x n. The few details needed for the proof are so straightforward
that we omit them as exercise.
If a∧b are arbitrary integers, then an integer d is said to be a common divisor of a∧b if
both d∨a∧d∨b . Because 1 is a divisor of every integer, 1 is a common divisor of a∧b;
hence, their set of positive common divisors is nonempty. Now every integer divides zero,
so that if a=b=0 , then every integer serves as a common divisor of a∧b . In this instance,
the set of positive common divisors of a∧b is infinite. However, when at least one of a∨b
is different from zero, there are only a finite number of positive common divisors. Among
these, there is a largest one, called the greatest common divisor of a∧b. We frame this as
Definition 1.3.2.2
Definition Let a∧b be given integers, with at least one of them different from zero. The
greatest common divisor of a∧b , denoted by gcd (a , b), is the positive integer d satisfying
the following:
d∨a∧d∨b .
If c∨a∧c∨b , thenc ≤ d .
Example The positive divisors of —12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, whereas those of 30 are 1, 2,
3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30; hence, the positive common divisors of — 12 and 30 are 1, 2, 3, 6.
Because 6 is the largest of these integers, it follows that gcd (— 12, 30)=6 . In the same
way, we can show that gcd (−5 , 5 ) =5 , gcd ( 8 ,17 )=1 , gcd (−8 ,−36)=4
The next theorem indicates that gcd (a , b) can be represented as a linear combination of
a∧b. (By a linear combination of a∧b, we mean an expression of the form ax +by , where
x∧ y are integers.) This is illustrated by, say,

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gcd (−12 ,30)=6= (−12 ) 2+30 ∙ 1

or
gcd (−8 ,−36)=4=(−8 ) 4+(−36)(−1)
Now for the theorem.
Theorem Given integers a∧b , not both of which are zero, there exist integers x∧ y such
that gcd ( a , b )=ax+ by .
Proof : Consider the set Sof all positive linear combinations of a∧b :
S={au+ bv : au+bv >0 ; u , v integers }
Notice first that S is not empty. For example, if a ≠ 0, then the integer |a|=au+b ∙ 0
lies in S, where we choose u=1∨u=— 1 according as a is positive or negative. By virtue
of the Well-Ordering Axiom, S must contain a smallest element d . Thus, from the very
definition of S, there exist integers x∧ y for which d=ax+ by >0. We claim that
d=gcd (a , b). Using the Division Algorithm, we can obtain integers q an d r such that
a=qd +r , where 0 ≤ r< d . Then r can be written in the form
r =a — qd=a — q(ax +by)
¿ a (1−qx )+ b(−qy)
If r were positive, then this representation would imply that r is a member of S ,
contradicting the fact that d is the least integer in S (recall that r <d ). Therefore, r =0, and
so a=qd , or equivalently d∨a. By similar reasoning, d∨b, the effect of which is to make
d a common divisor of a∧b .
Now if c is an arbitrary positive common divisor of the integers a∧b , then part (g) of
Theorem 1.3.2.1 allows us to conclude that c∨(ax +by ); that is, c∨d . By part (f) of the
same theorem, c=|c|≤|d|=d , so that d is greater than every positive common divisor of
a∧b. Piecing the bits of information together, we see that d = gcd(a , b). Piecing the bits of
information together, we see that d=gcd (a , b).
Remark: It should be noted that the foregoing argument is merely an "existence" proof and
does not provide a practical method for finding the values of x∧ y .
An inspection of the proof of Theorem 1.3.2.2 reveals that the greatest common divisor
of a∧b may be described as the smallest positive integer of the form ax +by .
Consider the case in which a=6∧b=15. Here, the set S becomes
S={6(−2)+15 ∙ 1, 6 (−1)+15 ∙ 1 ,6 ∙ 1+15 ∙0 , ... }

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

¿ {3 , 9 , 6 , ...}
We observe that 3 is the smallest integer in S , whence 3=gc d (6 , 15).
The nature of the members of S appearing in this illustration suggests another result, which
we give in the next corollary.
Corollary : If a∧b are given integers, not both zero, then the set
T ={ax+ by∨x , y are integers }
is precisely the set of all multiples of d=gcd (a , b).
Proof : Because d∨a∧d∨b , we know that d∨(ax +by )for all integers x , y . Thus,
every member of T is a multiple of d . Conversely, d may be written as d=a x 0+ b y 0
for suitable integers x 0∧ y 0 , so that any multiple nd of d is of the form
nd=n ( a x 0+ b y 0 )=a ( n x 0 )+ b ( n y 0 )
Hence, nd is a linear combination of a∧b , and, by definition, lies in T .
It may happen that 1∧— 1 are the only common divisors of a given pair of integers a∧b ,
whence gcd (a , b)=1. For example:
gcd (2 ,5)=gcd (−9 ,16)=gcd (−27 ,−35)=1
This situation occurs often enough to prompt a definition.
Definition Two integers a∧b , not both of which are zero, are said to be relatively prime
whenever gcd (a , b)=1.
The following theorem characterizes relatively prime integers in terms of linear
combinations.
Theorem Let a∧b be integers, not both zero. Then a∧b are relatively prime if and only
if there exist integers x∧ y such that 1=ax+ by .
Proof : If a∧b are relatively prime so that gcd (a , b)=1 , then Theorem 1.3.2.2
guarantees the existence of integers x∧ y satisfying 1=ax+ by .
As for the converse, suppose that 1=ax+ by for some choice of x∧ y , and that
d=gcd (a , b). Because d∨a and d∨b, Theorem 1.3.2.1 yields d∨(a x +by ), or d∨1.
Inasmuch as d is a positive integer, this last divisibility condition forces d to equal 1 ( part
(b) of Theorem 1.3.2.1 plays a role here), and the desired conclusion follows.
This result leads to an observation that is useful in certain situations; namely,
Corollary : If gcd (a , b)=d , then gcd (a /d , b /d)=1.

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Proof: Before starting with the proof proper, we should observe that although a /d∧¿
b /d have the appearance of fractions, in fact, they are integers because d is a divisor both
of a∧of b . Now, knowing that gcd (a , b)=d , It is possible to find integers x∧ y such that
d=ax+ by . Upon dividing each side of this equation by d , we obtain the expression,

1= ( ad ) x+( bd ) y , Because a /d and b /d are integers. The conclusion is that a /d∧b /d are
relatively prime.
For an illustration of the last corollary, let us observe that gcd (— 12, 30)=6 and
gcd (−12/6 , 30/6)=gcd (−2 , 5)=1 as it should be.
It is not true, without adding an extra condition, that a∨c∧b∨c together give ab∨c . For
instance, 6∨24∧8∨24 , but 6 ∙ 8 ∤24. If 6 and 8 were relatively prime, of course, this
situation would not arise. This brings us to the next Corollary.
Corollary : If a∨c∧b∨c , with gcd (a , b)=1 , then ab∨c .
Proof: Inasmuch as a∨c∧b∨c , integers r ∧s can be found such that
c=ar=bs .Now the relation gcd (a , b)=1 allows us to write 1=ax+ by for some choice of
integers x∧ y . Multiplying the last equation by c, it appears that
c=c ∙ 1=c (ax+by )=acx+ bcy
If the appropriate substitutions are now made on the right-hand side, then
c=a(bs ) x +b( ar ) y=ab( sx +ry )
or, as a divisibility statement, ab∨c .
Our next result seems mild enough, but is of fundamental importance.
Theorem (Euclid's lemma) If a∨bc , with gcd (a , b)=1 , then a∨c .
Proof: writing 1=a x+by , where x∧ y are
integers. Multiplication of this equation by c produces
c=1 ∙ c=(ax +by)c=acx+ bcy
Because a∨ac∧a∨bc , it follows that a∨(acx +bcy ), which can be recast as a∨c .
Remark: If a∧bare not relatively prime, then the conclusion of Euclid's lemma may fail
to hold. Here is a specific example: 12∨9∙ 8 , but 12 ∤9∧12∤ 8.
The subsequent theorem often serves as a definition of gcd (a , b). The advantage of using
it as a definition is that order relationship is not involved. Thus, it may be used in algebraic
systems having no order relation.

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Theorem Let a , b be integers, not both zero. For a positive integer d ,

d=gcd (a , b) if ∧only if
d∨a∧d∨b .
If c∨a∧c∨b , thenc∨d .
Proof: To begin, suppose that d=gcd (a , b). Certainly, d∨a∧d∨b , so that (a)
holds. In light of Theorem 1.3.2.2, d is expressible as d=ax+ by for some integers x , y .
Thus, if c |a∧c|b, then c∨(ax +by ), or rather c∨d . In short, condition (b) holds.
Conversely, let d be any positive integer satisfying the stated conditions. Given any
common divisor c of a∧b, we have c∨d from hypothesis (b). By part (f) of Theorem
1.3.2.1 , we have c ≤|c|≤|d|=d , and consequently d is the greatest common divisor of a
and b.
Euclidean algorithm and application to GCF
The greatest common divisor of two integers can, of course, be found by listing all their
positive divisors and choosing the largest one common to each; but this is cumbersome for
large numbers. A more efficient process, involving repeated application of the Division
Algorithm, is given in the seventh Book of the Elements. Although there is historical
evidence that this method predates Euclid, today it is referred to as the Euclidean
Algorithm.
The Euclidean Algorithm may be described as follows: Let a∧b be two integers whose
greatest common divisor is desired. Because gcd ¿
there is no harm in assuming that a ≥ b> 0. The first step is to apply the Division
Algorithm to a∧b to get
a=q 1 b+ r 1 0 ≤ r 1 <b
If it happens that r 1=0 , then b∨a and gcd (a , b)=b. When r 1 ≠ 0 divide b by r 1
to produce integers q 2 and r 2 satisfying
b=q 2 r 1 +r 2 0 ≤ r 2< r 1
If r 2=0, then we stop; otherwise, proceed as before to obtain
r 1=q3 r 2 +r 3 0≤ r 3 <r 2

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This division process continues until some zero remainder appears, say, at the (n+1)th
stage where r n−1is divided by r n (a zero remainder occurs sooner or later because the
decreasing sequence b> r 1> r 2 >… ≥ 0 cannot contain more than b integers).
The result is the following system of equations:
a=q 1 b+ r 1 0 ≤ r 1 <b
b=q 2 r 1 +r 2 0 ≤ r 2< r 1
r 1=q3 r 2 +r 3 0≤ r 3 <r 2
⋮
r n−2=qn r n−1 +r n 0 ≤r n< r n−1
r n−1=qn +1 r n +0
We argue thatr n , the last nonzero remainder that appears in this manner, is equal to
gcd (a , b). Our proof is based on the lemma below.
Lemma : If a=qb+ r , then gcd (a , b)=gcd (b ,r ).
Proof: If d=gcd (a , b), then the relations d∨a∧d∨b together imply that d∨(a — qb), or
d∨r . Thus, d is a common divisor of both b∧r . On the other hand, if c is an arbitrary
common divisor of b∧r , then c∨(qb+ r) , whence c∨a . This makes c a common divisor
of a∧b , so that c ≤ d . It now follows from the definition of gcd (b , r ) that d=gcd (b , r).
Using the result of this lemma, we simply work down the displayed system of equations,
obtaining gcd ( a , b )=gcd ( b , r 1 )=…=gcd (r n−1 , r n)=gcd (r n ,0)=r n
as claimed.
gcd (a , b) can be expressed in the form ax +by , but the proof of the theorem gives no hint
as to how to determine the integers x∧ y . For this, we fall back on the Euclidean
Algorithm. Starting with the next-to-last equation arising from the algorithm, we write
r n =r n−2−q n r n−1
Now solve the preceding equation in the algorithm for r n−1 and substitute to obtain
r n =r n−2−q n (r n−3−qn−1 r n−2)
¿ ( 1+q n qn−1 ) r n−2 +(−qn )r n−3
This represents r n as a linear combination of r n−2and r n−3 .continuing backward through the
system of equations, we successively eliminate the remainders r n−1 , r n−2 , … . , r 2 , r 1 until a
stage is reached where r n =gcd ( a , b) is expressed as a linear combination of a∧b .

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Example Let us see how the Euclidean Algorithm works in a concrete case by calculating,
say, gcd (12378 , 3054). The appropriate applications of the Division Algorithm produce
the equations
12378=4 ∙ 3054+162
3054=18 ∙162+138
162=1 ∙ 138+24
138=5∙ 24+ 18
24=1 ∙18+6
18=3∙ 6+ 0
Our previous discussion tells us that the last nonzero remainder appearing in these
equations, namely, the integer 6, is the greatest common divisor of 12378 and 3054:
6=gcd (12378 ,3054 )
To represent 6 as a linear combination of the integers 12378 and 3054, we start with the
next-to-last of the displayed equations and successively eliminate the remainders 18, 24,
138, and 162:
6=24−18
¿ 24 – (138−5 ∙24)
¿ 6 ∙ 24−138
¿ 6(162−138)−138
¿ 6 ∙ 162−7 ∙ 138
¿ 6 ∙ 162 – 7(3054−18 ∙ 162)
¿ 132 ∙162−7 ∙ 3054
¿ 132(12378−4 ∙ 3054)−7 ∙ 3054
¿ 132 ∙12378+ (−535 ) 3054
Thus, we have
6=gcd (12378 ,3054 )=12378 x+3054 y , where x=132∧ y=— 535.

Note that this is not the only way to express the integer 6 as a linear combination of 12378
and 3054; among other possibilities, we could add and subtract 3054 ∙ 12378 to get
6=( 132+3054 ) 12378+ (−535 – 12378 ) 3054
¿ 3186 ∙ 12378+ (−12913 ) 3054

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The French mathematician Gabriel Lame (1795-1870) proved that the number of steps
required in the Euclidean Algorithm is at most five times the number of digits in the
smaller integer. In Example 1.3.3.1 , the smaller integer (namely, 3054) has four digits, so
that the total number of divisions cannot be greater than 20; in actuality only six divisions
were needed.
Another observation of interest is that for each n> 0, it is possible to find integers a n∧b n
such that exactly n divisions are required to compute gcd ( an , bn )by the Euclidean
Algorithm.
One more remark is necessary. The number of steps in the Euclidean Algorithm usually
rk
can be reduced by selecting remainders r k +1 such that |r k+1|< , that is, by working with
2
least absolute remainders in the divisions. Thus, repeating Example 1.3.3.1, it is more
efficient to write
12378=4 ∙ 3054+162
3054=19 ∙162−24
162=7 ∙ 24−6
24=(−4)(−6)+ 0
As evidenced by this set of equations, this scheme is apt to produce the negative of the
value of the greatest common divisor of two integers (the last nonzero remainder being
−6 ), rather than the greatest common divisor itself.
An important consequence of the Euclidean Algorithm is the following theorem.
Theorem If k > 0, then gcd (ka , kb)=k gcd (a , b).
Proof: If each of the equations appearing in the Euclidean Algorithm for a∧b (see page
23) is multiplied by k , we obtain
ka=q 1 (bk )+ r 1 k 0≤ r 1 k <bk
bk =q2 (r ¿¿ 1 k)+r 2 k 0 ≤ r 2 k <r 1 k ¿
r 1 k=q3 (r ¿ ¿ 2k )+r 3 k 0 ≤ r 3 k <r 2 k ¿
⋮
r n−2 k=qn (r ¿¿ n−1 k )+r n k 0 ≤ r n k <r n−1 k ¿
r n−1 k=qn +1 (r ¿¿ n k )+0 ¿

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But this is clearly the Euclidean Algorithm applied to the integers ak ∧bk , so that their
greatest common divisor is the last nonzero remainder r n k that is,
gcd ( ka , kb ) =r n k=k gcd ( a , b )
as stated in the theorem.
Corollary : For any integer k ≠ 0 , gcd ( ka , kb)=|k| gcd (a , b).
Proof : It suffices to consider the case in which k < 0. Then — k=|k|> 0and, by
Theorem 1.3.3.1
gcd (ak , bk )=gcd (— ak , — bk )
¿ gcd (a|k|, b|k|)
¿∨k ∨gcd (a , b)
An alternate proof of Theorem 1.3.3.1 runs very quickly as follows: gcd (ak , bk ) is the
smallest positive integer of the form (ak ) x+(bk ) y , which, in turn, is equal to k times the
smallest positive integer of the form ax +by ; the latter value is equal to k gcd (a , b).
By way of illustrating Theorem 1.3.3.1, we see that
gcd ⁡(12 , 30)=3 gcd ⁡(4 ,10)=3 ∙ 2 gcd ⁡(2, 5)=6 ∙ 1=6
Before moving on to other matters, let us observe that the notion of greatest common
divisor can be extended to more than two integers in an obvious way. In the case of three
integers, a , b , c , not all zero, gcd (a , b , c ) is defined to be the positive integer d having the
following properties:
d is a divisor of each of a , b , c .
If e divides the integers a , b , c , then e ≤ d .
We cite two examples:
gcd ⁡(39 , 42 , 54)=3∧gcd ⁡(49 , 210 , 350)=7
Remark : It is possible for three integers to be relatively prime as a triple (in other words,
gcd (a , b , c )=1), yet not relatively prime in pairs; this is brought out by the integers
6 , 10 ,∧15. that is
gcd ( 6 ,10 , 15 )=1 but gcd ( 6 , 10 )=2 , gcd ( 6 , 15 ) =3∧gcd ( 10 ,15 )=5
The Least Common Multiple
There is a concept parallel to that of the greatest common divisor of two integers, known as
their least common multiple; but we shall not have much occasion to make use of it. An

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integer c is said to be a common multiple of two nonzero integers a∧b whenever a∨c and
b∨c . Evidently, zero is a common multiple of a∧b . To see there exist common multiples
that are not trivial, just note that the products ab∧— (ab) are both common multiples of
a∧b, and one of these is positive. By the Well-Ordering Axiom, the set of positive
common multiples of a∧b must contain a smallest integer; we call it the least common
multiple of a∧b. For the record, here is the official definition.
Definition The least common multiple of two nonzero integers a∧b, denoted
by lcm(a , b), is the positive integer m satisfying the following:
a∨m∧b∨m .
If a|c∧b|c , with c>0 ,then m≤ c .
As an example, the positive common multiples of the integers —12 and 30 are 60, 120,
180,...; hence, lcm(−12 , 30)=60.
The following remark is clear from our discussion: Given nonzero integers a∧b, lcm(a , b)
always exists and lcm(a , b)≤∨ab∨.
We lack a relationship between the ideas of greatest common divisor and least common
multiple. This gap is filled by Theorem 1.3.4.1
Theorem For positive integers ¿ b , gcd ( a , b ) lcm ( a , b )=ab
Proof : To begin, put d=gcd (a , b) and write a=dr , b=ds for integers r ∧s . If
m=ab/d , then m=as=rb, the effect of which is to make m a (positive) common multiple
of a∧b .
Now let c be any positive integer that is a common multiple of a∧b ; say,
for definiteness, c=au=bv. As we know, there exist integers x∧ y satisfying d=ax+ by . In
consequence,
c cd c(ax+ by) c
= =
m ab ab
=
b
x+
c
a () ()
y =vx +uy

This equation states that m∨c, allowing us to conclude that m ≤c . Thus, in accordance
with Definition 1.3.4.1, m=lcm (a , b); that is,
ab ab
lcm ( a , b )= =
d gcd ⁡(a , b)
which is what we started out to prove.
Theorem 1.3.4.1 has a corollary that is worth a separate statement.

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Corollary : For any choice of positive integers a∧b , lcm(a , b)=ab if and only if
gcd (a , b)=1.
Perhaps the chief virtue of Theorem 1.3.4.1 is that it makes the calculation of the least
common multiple of two integers dependent on the value of their greatest common divisor
—which, in turn, can be calculated from the Euclidean Algorithm. When considering the
positive integers 3054 and 12378, for instance, we found that
gcd (3054 , 12378)=6 ; whence,
3054 ∙ 12378
lcm ( 3054 , 12378 )= =6300402
6
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Essential to everything discussed herein—in fact, essential to every aspect of number
theory—is the notion of a prime number. We have previously observed that any integer
a> 1 is divisible by ± 1∧± a; if these exhaust the divisors of a , then it is said to be a prime
number. In Definition 1.3.5.1 we state this somewhat differently.
Definition 1.3.5.1 An integer p>1 is called a prime number, or simply a prime, if its only
positive divisors are 1∧ p . An integer greater than 1 that is not a prime is termed
composite.
Among the first ten positive integers, 2, 3, 5, 7 are primes and 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 are composite
numbers. Note that the integer 2 is the only even prime, and according to our definition the
integer 1 plays a special role, being neither prime nor composite.
In the rest of this book, the letters p∧q will be reserved, so far as is possible, for primes.
Proposition 14 of Book IX of Euclid's Elements embodies the result that later became
known as the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, namely, that every integer greater than
1 can, except for the order of the factors, be represented as a product of primes in one and
only one way. To quote the proposition itself: "If a number be the least that is measured by
prime numbers, it will not be measured by any other prime except those originally
measuring it." Because every number a> 1 is either a prime or, by the Fundamental
Theorem, can be broken down into unique prime factors and no further, the primes serve as
the building blocks from which all other integers can be made. Accordingly, the prime
numbers have intrigued mathematicians through the ages, and although a number of
remarkable theorems relating to their distribution in the sequence of positive integers have

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been proved, even more remarkable is what remains unproved. The open questions can be
counted among the outstanding unsolved problems in all of mathematics.
To begin on a simpler note, we observe that the prime 3 divides the integer 36, where 36
may be written as any one of the products
6 ∙ 6=9∙ 4=12 ∙ 3=18 ∙ 2
In each instance, 3 divides at least one of the factors involved in the product. This is
typical of the general situation, the precise result being Theorem 1.3.5.1 .
Theorem If pis a prime and p∨ab, then p∨a∨ p∨b .
Proof : If p∨a , then we need go no further, so let us assume that p ∤a . Because the only
positive divisors of p are 1∧ p itself, this implies that gcd ( p , a)=1.
(¿ general , gcd ( p , a)=p∨gcd ( p , a)=1 according as p∨a∨ p ∤a .)
Hence, citing Euclid's lemma, we get p∨b.
This theorem easily extends to products of more than two terms.
Corollary : If pis a prime and p∨a1 a2 … an, then p∨ak for some k , where 1 ≤ k ≤ n .
Proof: We proceed by induction on n , the number of factors. When n=1, the stated
conclusion obviously holds; whereas when n=2, the result is the content of Theorem
1.3.5.1 Suppose, as the induction hypothesis, that n> 2 and that whenever pdivides a
product of less than n factors, it divides at least one of the factors. Now let p∨a1 a2 … an.
From Theorem 1.3.5.1, either p∨an or p∨a1 a2 … an−1 . If p∨an, then we are through. As
regards the case where p∨a1 a2 … an−1, the induction hypothesis ensures that p∨ak for
some choice k , where 1 ≤ k ≤ n−1.. In any event, pdivides one of the integers a 1 , a2 , … , an
Corollary : If p , q1 , q2 , ..., q n are all primes and p∨q1 q2 … q n, then p=qk for some k ,
where 1 ≤ k ≤ n .
Proof: By virtue of Corollary 1, we know that p∨ak for some k , with 1 ≤ k ≤ n .. Being
a prime, q k is not divisible by any positive integer other than 1 or q k itself. Because p>1,
we are forced to conclude that p=qk .
With this preparation out of the way, we arrive at one of the cornerstones of our
development, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. As indicated earlier, this theorem
asserts that every integer greater than 1 can be factored into primes in essentially one way;

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the linguistic ambiguity essentially means that 2 ∙3 ∙ 2is not considered as being a different
factorization of 12 from 2 ∙2 ∙ 3. We state this precisely in Theorem 1.3.5.2
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) Every positive integer n>1 can be
expressed as a product of primes; this representation is unique, apart from the order in
which the factors occur.
Proof: Either nis a prime or it is composite; in the former case, there is nothing more to
prove. If nis composite, then there exists an integer d satisfying d∨n and 1<d <n . Among
all such integers d , choose p1 to be the smallest (this is possible by the Well-Ordering
Axiom). Then p1must be a prime number. Otherwise it too would have a divisor q with
1<q < p, but then q∨ p1 and p1∨n imply that q∨n , which contradicts the choice of p1 as
the smallest positive divisor, not equal to 1, of n.
We therefore may write n=p 1 n 1, where p1is prime and 1<n1 < n. If n1 happens to be a
prime, then we have our representation. In the contrary case, the argument is repeated to
produce a second prime number p2such that n1= p 2 n2 , that is,
n=p 1 p2 n2 1< n2 <n1
If n2 is a prime, then it is not necessary to go further. Otherwise, write
n2 =p 3 n 3, with p3a prime:
n=p 1 p2 p 3 n3 1<n 3< n2
The decreasing sequence
n> n1> n2 >…>1
cannot continue indefinitely, so that after a finite number of steps n k−1 is a prime, call it, pk .
This leads to the prime factorization
n=p 1 p2 … pk
To establish the second part of the proof—the uniqueness of the prime factorization—let
us suppose that the integer n can be represented as a product of primes in two ways; say,
n=p 1 p2 … pr=q1 q2 … q s r ≤ s
where the pi and q j are all primes, written in increasing magnitude so that
p1 ≤ p2 ≤ …≤ pr q 1 ≤ q 2 ≤ … ≤ qs

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Because p1∨q 1 q2 … q s , Corollary 2 of Theorem 1.3.5.1 p1=q k for some k but then
p1 ≥q 1. Similar reasoning gives q 1 ≥ p1, whence p1=q 1 We may cancel this common factor
and obtain
p2 p 3 … pr =q 2 q 3 … qs
Now repeat the process to get p2=q2 and, in turn,
p3 p 4 … p r=q3 q 4 … q s
Continue in this fashion. If the inequality r < s were to hold, we would eventually arrive at
1=qr +1 qr +2 … qs
which is absurd, because each q j >1. Hence, r =s and
p1=q 1 p2 =q2 , … , p r=qs
making the two factorizations of n identical. The proof is now complete.
Of course, several of the primes that appear in the factorization of a given positive integer
may be repeated, as is the case with 360=2∙ 2 ∙2 ∙3 ∙ 3 ∙5 . By collecting like primes and
replacing them by a single factor, we can rephrase Theorem 1.3.5.2 as a corollary.
Corollary : Any positive integer n>1 can be written uniquely in a canonical form
k1 k2 kr
n=p 1 p2 … p r
where, for i=1 , 2 ,... , r , each k iis a positive integer and each pi is a prime, with
p1 ¿ p 2< …< pr .
To illustrate, the canonical form of the integer 360 is 360=23 ∙ 32 ∙ 5. As further
examples we cite
3 2 3 2 2
4725=3 ∙5 ∙ 7∧17460=2 ∙ 3 ∙5 ∙ 7
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic could be used to find the greatest common
divisor and the least common multiple of two or more integers.
Let a 1 , a2 , … an be natural numbers. Using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic,
α 11 α 12 α1k
a 1=p 1 p 2 … pk
α 21 α 22 α2 k
a 2=p 1 p2 … p k
⋮
α n1 α n2 α nk
a n= p1 p2 … pk
with positive primes p1 ¿ p 2< …< pk and non-negative integers α ij, 1 ≤i ≤ n and
1 ≤i ≤ k .For each j=1 ,2 , … , k , put

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

α j =min ⁡{α ij :i=1 , 2 , … ,n } ¿

β j =max ⁡{α ij :i=1, 2 , … , n} then
α1 α2 αk β1 β2 βk
GCF ( a1 , a2 , … an ) =p 1 p2 … pk ¿ LCM ( a 1 , a 2 , … a n )= p1 p2 … p k
For instance,
GCF ( 1029,1911,9177 ) =3 ∙7=21
3
LCM ( 1029,1911,9177 )=3 ∙ 7 ∙ 13 ∙19 ∙ 23=5,845,749

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Activity
1. For each pair of numbers, express m in the form m=bq +r , with integers q∧r , 0 ≤ r <|b| .
a) m=37 ,b=8 c) m=342 , b=−33
b) m=¿ 495 , b=65 d) m=−936 , b=−107
2. Show that the square of every odd integer is of the form 8 k +1.
3. Show that the product of any three consecutive integers is divisible by 6.
4. Show that if a∧b are integers and a b , then a k b k for every positive integer k .
5. Show that if a and b are positive integers and a b , a ≤ b .
6. Prove each of the followings.
a) The sum of two odd integers is even.
b) The product of two integers is odd.
7. If ( a , 12 )=1 , thena=12 q+r withq , r ∈ Z and r =1, 5 , 7∨11.
8. Any two consecutive integers are relatively prime.

9. For any integer x , show that ( x , x +2 )= {21ifif xxisiseven

odd

10. Show that 2 n2+11 is prime for all integers n with 0 ≤ n ≤10 , but it is composite for n =11.
11. Show that 2 n2+29 is prime for all integers n with 0 ≤ n ≤29 ,but it is composite for n =29.
12. Show that x 2−x +41 is prime for all integers x with 0 ≤ x ≤ 40 ,but it is composite for x =41.
13. Show that if k is an integer, then 3 k +2∧5 k +3 are relatively prime.
14. Show that 8 a+ 3∧5 a+ 2 are relatively prime for all integers a .
15. Show that that every positive integer greater than 6 is the sum of two relatively prime integers
greater than 1.
16. If a natural number n is composite, then show that it has a factor d such that 1<d ≤ √ n .
17. Prove that every natural number greater than 1 has at least one prime factor.
18. Using the prime factorization of the integers, find the GCD and LCM of the given numbers.
m=420 , n=1540 , q=6600
m=840 ,n=1890 , q=5250 ,t=14170
19. Use Euclidean algorithm to find GCD of the following pair of numbers and express the GCD
as a linear combination of the pairs with integer coefficients.
a) 1350 and 4500 c) 2450 and 11844
b) 7700 and 136125 d) 4851 and 33800

20. Use Euclidean algorithm to find integers x∧ y such that

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1350 x+ 4500 y=900

72 x−40 y=32
115 x +203 y=1
21. Suppose m and n are natural numbers, show that n m iff for every prime p and non-negative
integer θ , if pθ is a factor of n, then pθ m .
22. For non-zero integers a 1 , a2 , … , an and positive integers m , show that
(ma ¿ ¿ 1 , ma2 , … , man)=m(a1 , a2 , … , an) ¿
[ma¿ ¿1 , ma2 ,… ,man ]=m[a1 ,a 2 , … , a n ]¿

23. If d=(a 1 , a 2 , … , an ) , then conclude that ( ad , ad , … , ad )=1.

1 2 n

24. If ( a , 4 )=2∧( b , 4 )=2 , show that ( a± b , 4 )=4.

25. Using division algorithm, show that
a) For any odd integer n , n2−1 is a multiple of 8.
b) For any odd integer n , n2 ±2 is not a multiple of 4.
c) If (n , 3)=1 , then n2 −1is a multiple of 3.
26. For positive integers m∧n, show that [m, n](m, n)=mn.
27. If a 1 , a2 , … , an are non-zero integers, show that [a1 , a2 , … , an ] exists.
28. If m is common multiple of a 1 , a2 , … , an , show that [a1 , a2 , … , an ] is a factor of m .
29. Let a 1 , a2 , … , an be non-zero integers. Prove that

( ( a1 , a2 , … , an−1 ) , an )= ( a1 , a2 , … , an )
[ [ a1 , a 2 , … , an −1 ] , an ] =[a1 , a2 , … , an ]
Numbers with different bases
Division Algorithm is one of the most important theorems in elementary number theory. In the
previous section, it was essential in both showing the existence of GCD for integers ¿ b , not all
zero, and to find the GCD. Here we indicate how every integer can be expressed in any base b,
where b is a positive integer greater than 1.
Theorem (Bases Theorem) Given an integer b > 1, any positive integer N can be written uniquely
in terms of powers of b as
m−1 2
N=am bm + am−1 b +…+ a2 b + a1 b+a 0
Where the coefficients a kcan take on the b different values 0 , 1 ,2 , ... ,b−1.
Proof: For the Division Algorithm yields integers q 1and a 0 satisfying

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

N=q1 b+a 0 0 ≤ a 0< b

If q 1> b, we can divide once more, obtaining
q 1=q 2 b+ a1 0 ≤a 1< b
Now substitute for q 1 in the earlier equation to get
2
N= ( q2 b+ a1 ) b+a 0=q 2 b + a1 b+a 0
As long as q 2 ≥ b , we can continue in the same fashion. Going one more step:
q 2=q 3 b+ a2 0 ≤ a2 <b; hence
3 2
N=q3 b +a 2 b + a1 b+a 0
Because N >q 1 >q 2>• ••≥ 0 is a strictly decreasing sequence of integers, this process must
eventually terminate, say, at the (m — l)th stage, where
q m−1=q m b+a m−1 0 ≤ am −1 <b
and 0 ≤ qm < b. Setting a m=q m, we reach the representation
m−1 2
N=am bm + am−1 b +…+ a2 b + a1 b+a 0
This is our aim.
To show uniqueness, let us suppose that N has two distinct representations, say,
m−1 m−1
N=am bm + am−1 b +…+ a1 b +a0 =c m bm +c m−1 b +…+ c 1 b+ c 0
with 0 ≤ ai <b for eachi and 0 ≤ c j <b for each j (we can use the same m by simply adding terms
with coefficients at ai=0∨b j=0, if necessary). Subtracting the second representation from the
first gives the equation.
m
0=d m b +…+ d 1 b +d 0
where d i=ai−c i for i=1 ,2 , … , m. Because the two representations for N are assumed to be
different, we must have d i ≠ 0 for some value of i . Take k to be the smallest subscript for which
d k ≠ 0. Then
m k+1 k
0=d m b +…+ d k+1 b +d k b
and so, after dividing by b k ,
m−k−1
d k =−b( d m b +… d k +1)
This tells us that b∨d k . Now the inequalities 0 ≤ ak < b and 0 ≤ c k <b lead us to. −b< ak −c k <b ,

or |d k|<b . The only way of reconciling the conditions b∨d k and |d k|<bis to have d k =0, which is
impossible. From this contradiction, we conclude that the representation of N is unique.

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

The essential feature in all of this is that the integer N is completely determined by the ordered
array a m ,a m−1 , … a 1 , a 0of coefficients, with the plus signs and the powers of b being superfluous.
Thus, the number
m−1 2
N=am bm + am−1 b +…+ a2 b + a1 b+a 0
may be replaced by the simpler symbol
N=(a m am−1 … a2 a1 a0 )b
(the right-hand side is not to be interpreted as a product, but only as an abbreviation for N ). We
call this the base b place−value notation for N .
If b is ten, then the representation (a m am−1 … a2 a1 a0 )10 is called the decimal representation
of N and is simply written as
N=am am −1 … a 2 a1 a 0
Small values of b give rise to lengthy representation of numbers, but have the advantage of
requiring fewer choices for coefficients. The simplest case occurs when the base b=2, and the
resulting system of enumeration is called the binary number system (from the Latin binarius, two).
The fact that when a number is written in the binary system only the integers 0 and 1 can appear as
coefficients means that every positive integer is expressible in exactly one way as a sum of distinct
powers of 2. For example, the integer 105 can be written as
6 5 4 3 2
105=1∙ 2 +1∙ 2 +0 ∙ 2 +1 ∙2 +0 ∙ 2 + 0 ∙2+1
6 5 3
¿ 2 +2 +2 +1
or, in abbreviated form,
105=(101001)2
In the other direction, (1001111)2translates into
6 5 4 3 2
1 ∙2 +0 ∙ 2 +0 ∙2 +1∙ 2 +1 ∙2 +1 ∙2+1=79
The binary system is most convenient for use in modern electronic computing machines, because
binary numbers are represented by strings of zeros and ones; 0 and 1 can be expressed in the
machine by a switch (or a similar electronic device) being either on or off.
If b is ten, then the representation (a m am−1 … a2 a1 a0 )10 is called the decimal representation
of m and is simply written as
N=am am −1 … a 2 a1 a 0

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Activity
1. Obtain the representation of each of the following numbers in the scale of b given
a) m=24567 ,b=eight d) m=68392 , b=five
b) m=3896 ,b=two e) m=698392 , b=eleven
c) m=−884325 ,b=six
2. Find the decimal representation of the following numbers.
a) (342532)six c) (103405)eleven
b) (23410)eight d) (103405)seven

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Review Exercise
1. Show that for each x , y , z , w ∈ Z the following holds.
x> y ⟺x+z> y+z
x > y y> z ⟹ x> z
x > y z> 0⟹ xz > yz
x > y z< 0⟹ xz < yz
x > y z> w ⟹ x + z > y + w
2. Construct an ordered integral domain where 1is the least positive element.
3. If R is an ordered integral domain and a ∈ R , is it true that there is no element of R
between a and a+1?Why?
4. Show that every non-empty subset of Z that is bounded below has a least element.
5. Prove that non-empty subset of Z that is bounded above has largest element.
6. Prove that the cube of any integer can be written as the difference of two squares.
¿
7. Prove that n !> n2 for every integer n ≥ 4 , whereas n !> n3 for every integer n ≥ 6.
8. Establish Bernoulli inequality: If 1+a> 0 ,then(1+ a)n ≥ 1+ na for all n ≥1 .
1
9. Show that the number of diagonals in a convex polygon of n sides is n(n−3).
2
[ Hint : Biginby showing the result is true when n=4 ]
10. Show that the sum of the interior angles of a convex polygon of n sides equals
(n−2)∙ 180°
11. Show that the formula 2+ 4+6+ …+2 n=n2+ n+2 obeys Condition (b) of the Principle of
Mathematical Induction but is false for any choice of n ∈ N .What do you Conclude ?
12. If the numbers a n are defined by a 1=¿ 11, a =21 ,∧a =3 a
2 n n−1 −2 an−2 for n ≥3 ,¿

n
a n=5 ∙2 +1 n ≥ 1.
θ1 θ2 θk α1 α2 αk
13. Let m= p1 , p 2 , … , p k and n=p 1 , p2 ,… , pk be the prime factorization of m∧n

. Show that m n iff θi ≤ α i for every i=1 , 2 ,… , k .

14. Determine the truth value of each of the following assertions for integersm , n∧q .
If (m, n)=(m, q), then[m, n]=[m ,q ]
If ( m , n )=( m , q ) , then ( m2 , n2 )=( m2 , q2 ) .
If p is prime p m∧ p ( m2 +n2 ) , then p n .

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

15. Find integers x , y , z satisfying ( 198,288,512 )=198 x +288 y +512 z

16. Assuming that (a ,b)=1, Prove the following
(a+ b , a−b)=1∨2
( a +b , a2 +b 2 )=1∨2
17. Calculate the following in the given bases.
a) (3425)seven +(353356)seven +(12456)seven
b) (3542)six - (2345)six
c) (3842)nine - (3648)nine
d) (16225)seven  (1012)seven

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 Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Summary
The integers are a system ( Z ,+ ,. ) which consists of a set Z equipped with two operations ¿
and (.) that map Z × Z .
Let (R ,+, .) be a commutative ring with identity 1=1 R . This system is said to be an
ordered ring if there exists a subset P=P R ⊆ R with the following properties.
R is a disjoint union R=−P∪ { 0 } ∪ P of the sets P ,−P={−x : x ∈ P } .
P+ P={x+ y : x , y ∈ P}⊆ P (“positive +¿ positive¿positive”)
P . P {x . y : x , y ∈ P}⊆ P (“positive . positive¿ positive”)
(Well Ordering Axiom) Every non-empty subset of P has a least element.
(First Principle of mathematical Induction) Let S be a set of positive integers with the
following properties:
The integer 1 belongs to S.
Whenever the integer k is in S, the next integer k +1 must also be in S.
Then S is the set of all positive integers. That is S=N .
(Second Principle of mathematical Induction) Let S be a set of positive integers with the
following properties:
The integer 1 belongs to S.
If k is a positive integer such that 1 , 2, ... , k belong to S, then k +1 must also be in S. Then
S is the set of all positive integers. That is S=N .

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References
 Andrew Adler, John E. Coury (1995), The Theory of Numbers: a text and source book of
problems. Jenes and Bertlett publishers, Singapore.
 George E. Andrews (1971) NUMBER THEORY. W. B. Saunders Company, London, WC1A
1DB.
 Tom M. Apostol(1976), Introduction to Analytic Number Theory. New York ,Heidelberg
Berlin.
 ALAN BAKER (1984), A concise introduction to the theory of numbers. Cambridge
University Press, London.
 ALAN BAKER (1975), TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBER THEORY. Cambridge University
Press, London.
 Yismaw Alemu (1995), Introduction to elementary Theory of Numbers. Department of
mathematics, AAU.

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