Why Need of Bridges:

Classification of Resistance Measurements:

 Low Resistances 1 or less than 1 

 Medium Resistances (1-0.1M) 
 High Resistances (≥ 0.1 M)

Types of Bridges
 Wheatstone bridge:
Definition: The device uses for the measurement of minimum resistance with the help of
comparison method is known as the Wheatstone bridge. The value of unknown resistance is
determined by comparing it with the known resistance. The Wheatstone bridge works on
the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances are equal, and no current flows
through the galvanometer. The bridge is very reliable and gives an accurate result.
In normal condition, the bridge remains in the unbalanced condition, i.e. the current flow through
the galvanometer. When zero current passes through the galvanometer, then the bridge is said to
be in balanced condition. This can be done by adjusting the known resistance P, Q and the
variable resistance S.
The working of the bridge is similar to the potentiometer. The Wheatstone bridge is only used
for determining the medium resistance. For measuring the high resistance, the sensitive ammeter
is used in the circuit.
Construction of Wheatstone Bridge
The basic circuit of the Wheatstone bridge is shown in the figure below. The bridge has four
arms which consist of three known resistance, and the one unknown resistance along with the
emf source and galvanometer.

The emf supply is attached between point a and b, and the galvanometer is connected between
point c and d. The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference across it.
Working of Galvanometer:
The bridge is in balance condition when no current flows through the coil or the potential
difference across the galvanometer is zero. This condition occurs when the potential difference
across the a to b and a to d are equal, and the potential differences across the b to c and c to d
remain same.

The current enters into the galvanometer divides into I1 and I2, and their magnitude remains
same. The following condition exists when the current through the galvanometer is zero.

The bridge in a balanced condition is expressed as

Where E is the emf of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and 12 in equation (1) we get.
The equation (2) shows the balance condition of the Wheatstone bridge.
The value of unknown resistance is determined by the help of the equation (3). The R is the
unknown resistance, and the S is the standard arm of the bridge and the P and Q are the ratio arm
of the bridge.
Errors in Wheatstone Bridge:

The following are the errors in the Wheatstone bridge.

1. The difference between the true and the mark value of the three resistances can cause
the error in measurement.
2. The galvanometer is less sensitive. Thus, inaccuracy occurs in the balance point.
3. The resistance of the bridge changes because of the self-heating which generates an
error.
4. The thermal emf cause serious trouble in the measurement of low-value resistance.
5. The personal error occurs in the galvanometer by taking the reading or by finding the
null point.

The above mention error can be reduced by using the best qualities resistor and galvanometer.
The error because of self-heating of resistance can minimize by measuring the resistance within
the short time. The thermal effect can also be reduced by connecting the reversing switch
between the battery and the bridge.

Limitation of Wheat Stone Bridge:

The Wheatstone bridge gives inaccurate readings if it is unbalanced. The Wheatstone bridge
measures resistance from few ohms to megohms. The upper range of the bridge can be increased
with the help of the applied emf, and the lower range is limited by connecting the lead at the
binding post.
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone bridge:
The Wheatstone bridge is more sensitive when all their resistances are equal, or their ratio is
unity. Their sensitivity decreases when their ratio is less than unity. The reduction in sensitivity
reduces the accuracy of the bridge.

Kelvin Bridge:
Definition: The Kelvin Bridge or Thompson Bridge is used for measuring the unknown
resistances having a value less than 1Ω. It is the modified form of the Wheatstone bridge.

What is the need of Kelvin Bridge?

Wheatstone bridge use for measuring the resistance from a few ohms to several kilo-ohms. But
error occurs in the result when it is used for measuring the low resistance. This is the reason
because of which the Wheatstone bridge is modified, and the Kelvin bridge obtains. The Kelvin
bridge is suitable for measuring the low resistance.

Modification of Wheatstone Bridge:

In Wheatstone bridge, while measuring the low-value resistance, the resistance of their lead and
contacts increases the resistance of their total measured value. This can easily be understood with
the help of the circuit diagram.
The r is the resistance of the contacts that connect the unknown resistance R to the standard
resistance S. The ‘m’ and ‘n’ show the range between which the galvanometer is connected for
obtaining a null point.

When the galvanometer is connected to point ‘m’, the lead resistance r is added to the standard
resistance S. Thereby the very low indication obtains for unknown resistance R. And if the
galvanometer is connected to point n then the r adds to the R, and hence the high value of
unknown resistance is obtained. Thus, at point n and m either very high or very low value of
unknown resistance is obtained.

So, instead of connecting the galvanometer from point, m and n we chose any intermediate point
say d where the resistance of lead r is divided into two equal parts, i.e., r1 and r2

The presence of r1 causes no error in the measurement of unknown resistance.

From equation (1), we get

As
The above equation shows that if the galvanometer connects at point d then the resistance of lead
will not affect their results.
The above mention process is practically not possible to implement. For obtaining the desired
result, the actual resistance of exact ratio connects between the point m and n and the
galvanometer connects at the junction of the resistor.

Kelvin Double Bridge Circuit

The ratio of the arms p and q are used to connect the galvanometer at the right place between the
point j and k. The j and k reduce the effect of connecting lead. The P and Q is the first ratio of
the arm and p and q is the second arm ratio.

The galvanometer is connected between the arms p and q at a point d. The point d places at the
centre of the resistance r between the point m and n for removing the effect of the connecting
lead resistance which is placed between the unknown resistance R and standard resistance S.
The ratio of p/q is made equal to the P/Q. Under balance condition zero current flows through the
galvanometer. The potential difference between the point a and b is equivalent to the voltage
drop between the points Eamd.

𝑝 𝑃
=𝑄
𝑞

By using Voltage-divider Rule for Outer-loop

𝑃 (𝑝 + 𝑞 )𝑟
𝐸𝑎𝑏 = . 𝐼 [𝑅 + 𝑆 + ]
𝑃+𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟

By using Voltage-divider Rule and Ohm’s Law for Inner-loop

Now,

For zero galvanometer deflection,

𝐸𝑎𝑏 = 𝐸𝑎𝑚𝑑

𝑃 (𝑝+𝑞)𝑟 𝑝 (𝑝+𝑞)𝑟
. 𝐼 [𝑅 + 𝑆 + ] = I[𝑅 + (𝑝+𝑞) { }]
𝑃+𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟

𝑃 (𝑝+𝑞)𝑟 𝑝𝑟
[𝑅 + 𝑆 + ] = [𝑅 + { }]
𝑃+𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟
 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑆 𝑃𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞 ) 𝑝𝑟
+ + =𝑅+
𝑃 + 𝑄 𝑃 + 𝑄 (𝑃 + 𝑄 )(𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟) 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟

𝑃𝑅 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆 𝑃𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞 )
−𝑅 = − −
𝑃+𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑃+𝑄 (𝑃 + 𝑄 )(𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)

𝑃 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆 𝑃𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞 )
𝑅⌊ − 1⌋ = − −
𝑃+𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑃+𝑄 (𝑃 + 𝑄 )(𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)

𝑄 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆 𝑃𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞 )
𝑅 ⌊− ⌋= − −
𝑃+𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑃+𝑄 (𝑃 + 𝑄 )(𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)

𝑃+𝑄 𝑝𝑟 𝑃 + 𝑄 𝑃𝑆 𝑃+𝑄 𝑃𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞)

𝑅 = ⌊− ⌋ − ⌊− ⌋ − ⌊− ⌋
𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄 𝑃+𝑄 𝑄 (𝑃 + 𝑄)(𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)

𝑃+𝑄 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆 𝑃 𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞)
𝑅 = ⌊− ⌋ +⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋
𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄 𝑄 (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)

𝑃 𝑄 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆 𝑃 𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞)
𝑅 = −⌊ + ⌋ +⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋
𝑄 𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄 𝑄 (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)

𝑃 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆 𝑃 𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞)
𝑅 = − ⌊ + 1⌋ +⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋
𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄 𝑄 (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)

𝑃 𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆 𝑃 𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞)
𝑅 = −⌊ ⌋ − +⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋
𝑄 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄 𝑄 (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)

𝑃 𝑝𝑟 𝑟(𝑝 + 𝑞) 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆
𝑅 = ⌊ ⌋ [− + ]− +⌊ ⌋
𝑄 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟) 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄

As we known, P/Q = p/q then above equation becomes

𝑝 𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝑟 + 𝑞𝑟 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆
𝑅 = ⌊ ⌋ [− + ]− +⌊ ⌋
𝑞 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟) 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄

𝑝 −𝑝𝑟 + 𝑝𝑟 + 𝑞𝑟 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆
𝑅 = ⌊ ⌋[ ]− +⌊ ⌋
𝑞 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄
 𝑝 𝑞𝑟 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆
𝑅 = ⌊ ⌋[ ]− +⌊ ⌋
𝑞 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄

𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝑟 𝑃𝑆
𝑅=[ ]− +⌊ ⌋
𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑝+𝑞+𝑟 𝑄

𝑃
𝑅= 𝑆
𝑄

The above equation is the working equations of the Kelvins bridge. The equation shows that the
result obtains from the Kelvin double bridge is free from the impact of the connecting lead
resistance.

For obtaining the appropriate result, it is very essentials that the ratio of their arms is equal. The
unequal arm ratio causes the error in the result. Also, the value of resistance r should be kept
minimum for obtaining the exact result.

The thermo-electric EMF induces in the bridge during the reading. This effect can be reduced by
measuring the resistance with the reverse battery connection. The real value of the resistance
obtains by takings the means of the two.

Limitations of Kelvins Bridge:

1. The sensitive galvanometer is used for detecting the balance condition.

2. The high measurement current is required for obtaining the good
sensitivity.

Nowadays the kelvins bridge is replaced by the Kelvin Bridge Ohmmeter.

 AC Bridges:
Maxwell Bridge:

This bridge is used to find out the self inductor and the quality factor of the circuit. As it is
based on the bridge method (i.e. works on the principle of null deflection method), it gives
very accurate results. Maxwell Bridge is an AC bridge so before going in further detail let us
know more about the AC Bridge.

AC Bridges:

AC Bridges consist of a source, balance detector and four arms. In AC bridges, all the four
arms consist of impedance. The AC bridges are formed by replacing the DC battery with an
AC source and galvanometer by detector of Wheatstone bridge.
They are highly useful to find out inductance, capacitance, storage factor, dissipation factor
etc. Now let us derive general expression for an AC bridge balance. Figure given below
shows AC bridge network:

Here Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the arms of the bridge.

Now at the balance condition, the potential difference between b and d must be zero. From this,
when the voltage drop from a to d equals to drop from a to b both in magnitude and phase.
Thus, we have from figure e1 = e2

From equation 1, 2 and 3 we have Z1.Z4 = Z2.Z3 and when impedance are replaced by
admittance, we have Y1.Y4 = Y2.Y3.
Now consider the basic form of an AC bridge. Suppose we have bridge circuit as shown below,

In this circuit R3 and R4 are pure electrical resistances. Putting the value of Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 in
the equation that we have derived above for AC bridge.

Now equating the real and imaginary parts we get

Following are the important conclusions that can be drawn from the above equations:
1. We get two balanced equations that are obtained by equating real and imaginary parts this
means that for an ac bridge both the relation (i.e. magnitude and phase) must be satisfied at
the same time. Both the equations are said to be independent if and only if both equation
contain single variable element. This variable can be inductor or resistor.
2. The above equations are independent of frequency that means we do not require exact
frequency of the source voltage and also the applied source voltage waveform need not to be
perfectly sinusoidal.

Maxwell's Bridge:

Under this we going to study about the following

1. Maxwell's inductor bridge

2. Maxwell's inductor capacitance bridge

Maxwell's Inductance Bridge:

Let us now discuss Maxwell's inductor bridge. The figure shows the circuit diagram of

Maxwell's inductor bridge. In this bridge the arms bc and cd are purely resistive while the phase
balance depends on the arms ab and ad.

Here l1 = unknown inductor of r1.

l2 = variable inductor of resistance R2.

r2 = variable electrical resistance. As we have discussed in AC bridge according to balance

condition, we have at balance point
We can vary R3 and R4 from 10 ohms to 10,000 ohms with the help of resistance box.

Maxwell's Inductance Capacitance Bridge:

In this Maxwell Bridge, the unknown inductor is measured by the standard variable capacitor.
Circuit of this bridge is given below,

Here, l1 is unknown inductance, C4 is standard capacitor.

Now under balance conditions we have from ac bridge that Z1.Z4 = Z2.Z3

Let us separate the real and imaginary parts; the we have;

Now the quality factor is given by,

Advantages of Maxwell's Bridge:
Advantages of Maxwell's bridge are showing below

1. The frequency does not appear in the final expression of both equations; hence it
is independent of frequency.
2. Maxwell's inductor capacitance bridge is very useful for the wide range of
measurement of inductor at audio frequencies.

Disadvantages of Maxwell's Bridge

1. The variable standard capacitor is very expensive.
2. The bridge is limited to measurement of low quality coils (1 < Q < 10) and it is
also unsuitable for low value of Q (i.e. Q < 1) from this we conclude that a Maxwell
bridge is used suitable only for medium Q coils.
The above all limitations are overcome by the modified bridge which is known as Hey's bridge
which does not use an electrical resistance in parallel with the capacitor.

Hay’s Bridge:
Before we introduce Hay's bridge let us recall the limitations of Maxwell bridge, in order to
understand what the necessity of Hay’s Bridge Applications is. Maxwell bridge is only suitable
for measuring medium quality factor coils however it is not suitable for measuring high quality
factor (Q > 10). In order to overcome from this limitation we need to do modification in Maxwell
bridge so that it will become suitable for measuring Q factor over a wide range. This modified
Maxwell bridge is known as Hay's bridge.

Definition: The Hay’s bridge is used for determining the self-inductance of the circuit. The
bridge is the advanced form of Maxwell’s bridge. The Maxwell’s bridge is only appropriate for
measuring the medium quality factor. Hence, for measuring the high-quality factor the Hays
bridge is used in the circuit.
In Hay’s bridge, the capacitor is connected in series with the resistance, the voltage drop
across the capacitance and resistance are varied. And in Maxwell
bridge, the capacitance is connected in parallel with the resistance. Thus, the magnitude of a
voltage pass through the resistance and capacitor is equal.

Construction of Hay’s Bridge

The unknown inductor L1 is placed in the arm ab along with the resistance R1. This unknown
inductor is compared with the standard capacitor C4 connected across the arm cd. The
resistance R4 is connected in series with the capacitor C4. The other two non-inductive
resistor R2 and R3 are connected in the arm ad and bc respectively.

The C4 and R4 are adjusted for making the bridge in the balanced condition. When the bridge is
in a balanced condition, no current flows through the detector which is connected to
point b and c respectively. The potential drops across the arm ad and cd are equal and similarly,
the potential across the arm ab and bc are equal.

Hay’s Bridge Theory:

Let,
L1 – unknown inductance having a resistance R1
R2, R3, R4 – known non-inductive resistance.
C4 – standard capacitor
At balance condition,

Separating the real and imaginary term, we obtain

Solving the above equation, we have

The quality factor of the coil is

The equation of the unknown inductance and capacitance consists frequency term. Thus for
finding the value of unknown inductance the frequency of the supply must be known.

For the high-quality factor, the frequency does not play an important role.
Substituting the value of Q in the equation of unknown inductance, we get

For greater value of Q the 1/Q is neglected and hence the equation become

Advantages of Hay’s Bridge:

The following are the advantages of Hay’s Bridge.

1. The Hays bridges give a simple expression for the unknown inductances and are
suitable for the coil having the quality factor greater than the 10 ohms.
2. It gives a simple equation for quality factor.
3. The Hay’s bridge uses small value resistance for determining the Q factor.

Disadvantages of Hay’s Bridge:

The only disadvantage of this type of bridge is that it is not suitable for the measurement of the
coil having the quality factor less than 10 ohms.

Note: The quality factor is a parameter which determines the relation between the stored energy
and the energy dissipated in the circuit.

Schering Bridge:
The Schering bridge use for measuring the capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation factor,
properties of an insulator, capacitor bushing, insulating oil and other insulating materials. It is
one of the most commonly used AC bridge. The Schering bridge works on the principle of
balancing the load on its arm.
Let, C1 – capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,
r1 – a series resistance, representing the loss of the capacitor C1.
C2 – a standard capacitor (The term standard capacitor means the capacitor is free from loss)
R3 – a non-inductive resistance
C4 – a variable capacitor.
R4 – a variable non-inductive resistance parallel with variable capacitor C4.

When the bridge is in the balanced condition, zero current passes through the detector, which
shows that the potential across the detector is zero. At balance condition
Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3

So,
Equating the real and imaginary equations, we get

The equation (1) and (2) are the balanced equation, and it is free from the
frequency.

Advantages of Schering Bridge:

The following are the advantages of the Schering Bridge.

1. Balance equations are free from frequency.

2. The arrangement of the bridge is less costly as compared to the other bridges.
AC Bridges
 Wien’s Bridge
The Wien’s bridge use in AC circuits for determining the value of unknown frequency.

The bridge measures the frequencies from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. The accuracy of the bridges lies
between 0.1 to 0.5 percent. The bridge is used for various other applications
like capacitance measurement, harmonic distortion analyzer and in the HF frequency oscillator.

The Wien’s bridge is frequency sensitive. Thereby, it is difficult to obtain the balance point in it.
The input supply voltage is not purely sinusoidal, and they have some harmonics. The harmonics
of the supply voltage disturbs the balance condition of the bridge. To overcome this problem the
filter is used in the bridge. The filter connects in series with the null detector.

When the bridge is in the balanced condition, the potential of the node B and D are equal, i.e.,
the V1 = V2 and V3 = V4 . The phase and the magnitude of V3 = I1R3 and V4 = I2R4 are equal, and
they are overlapping each other. The current I1 flowing through the arm BD and the current
I2 flowing through R4 is also in phase along with the I1R3 and I2R4.
The total voltage drop across the arm AC is equal to the sum of the voltage drop I2R2 across the
resistance R2 and the capacitive drop I2/wC2 across the capacitance C2. When the bridge is in a
balanced condition, the voltage V1 and V2 both are equals in magnitude and phase.

The phase of the voltage V1 and the voltage drop IRR1 across the arms R1 is also same. The
resistance R1 is in the same phase as that of the voltage V1. The phasor sum of V1 and
V3 or V2 and V4 will give the resultant supply voltage.

At balance condition,

On equating the real part,

On comparing the imaginary part,

By substituting the value of ω = 2πf,

The slider of the resistance R1 and R2 mechanically connect to each other. So that, the R1 =
R2 obtains.